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4<meta name="page_topic" content="King Henry VIII (1491-1547): Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources The Six Wives of Henry VIII The Reformation">
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18<table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="100%" height="667">
19 <tr>
20 <td width="25%" height="29"></td>
21 <td valign="top" width="50%" height="29">&nbsp;</td>
22 <td width="25%" height="29"></td>
23 </tr>
24 <tr>
25 <td width="25%" height="3"></td>
26 <td width="50%" height="3">
27 <p align="center">
28 <img SRC="henry8.gif" ALT="King Henry VIII" height=52 width=315></td>
29 <td width="25%" height="3"></td>
30 </tr>
31 <tr>
32 <td width="25%" height="610"></td>
33 <td valign="top" width="50%" height="610">
34 <p align="center">
35 <img SRC="henry8main.jpg" ALT="portrait of King Henry VIII by an unknown artist" BORDER=2 height=348 width=250></p>
36 <p> <a href="henry8.html#One"><br></a>
37 View portraits of King Henry VIII at
38 <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor England: Images</a>.</p>
39 <p> <a href="henry8.html#One">A
40
41brief discussion of his personality and historical importance</a><br>
42 <a href="henry8.html#Two">Henry Tudor, duke of York: 1491-1502</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Three">Heir
43
44apparent: 1502-1509</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Four">1509-1526:
45
46Katharine of Aragon, Cardinal Wolsey &amp; Princess Mary</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Five">1526-1536:
47
48Anne Boleyn and the Henrician Reformation</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Six">1536-1546:
49
50Four wives, Thomas Cromwell &amp; foreign policy</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Seven">Death
51
52and disorder: Henry's last months and a discussion of his illness</a></p>
53 <p>
54
55<a href="henry8.html#Eight">The
56
57English nobility during Henry's reign</a><br>
58
59<a href="henry8.html#Nine">Henry:
60 lapsed Catholic or Protestant reformer?</a></p>
61 <blockquote>
62 <p> <a href="../primary.html">Primary
63
64Sources</a></p>
65
66<p> <a href="henry8.html#Ten">Notable
67
68Dates and Events</a><br> <a href="henry8.html#Eleven">Bibliography
69
70and Further Reading</a><p> <b>Henry's wives:</b>&nbsp;
71 <a href="wives.html">The Six Wives of Henry VIII</a><br>
72<br> <b>Henry's children:<br></b><a href="edward6.html">
73 King Edward VI</a><br>
74 <a href="mary1.html">Queen Mary I</a><a href="eliz1.html"><br>
75 Queen Elizabeth I</a></blockquote>
76 </td>
77 <td width="25%" height="610"></td>
78 </tr>
79</table>
80
81<blockquote>
82 <blockquote>
83
84<p><b>'My, you ought to seen old Henry the Eight when he was in bloom.&nbsp;
85
86He <i>was</i> a blossom.&nbsp; He used to marry a new wife every day, and
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88chop off her head next morning.&nbsp; And he would do it just as indifferent
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90as if he was ordering up eggs.&nbsp; 'Fetch up Nell Gwynn,' he says.&nbsp;
91
92They fetch her up.&nbsp; Next morning, 'Chop off her head!'&nbsp; And they
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94chop it off.&nbsp; 'Fetch up Jane Shore,' he says; and up she comes.&nbsp;
95
96Next morning, 'Chop off her head' - and they chop it off.&nbsp; 'Ring up
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98Fair Rosamun.'&nbsp; Fair Rosamun answers the bell.&nbsp; Next morning,
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100'Chop off her head.'&nbsp; And he made every one of them tell him a tale
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102every night; and he kept that up till he had hogged a thousand and one
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104tales that way, and then he put them all in a book, and called it Domesday
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106Book - which was a good name and stated the case.&nbsp; You don't know
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108kings, Jim, but I know them; and this old rip of ourn is one of the cleanest
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110I've struck in history.&nbsp; Well, Henry he takes a notion he wants to
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112get up some trouble with this country.&nbsp; How does he go at it - give
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114notice? - give the country a show?&nbsp; No.&nbsp; All of a sudden he heaves
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116all the tea in Boston Harbor overboard, and whacks out a declaration of
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118independence, and dares them to come on.&nbsp; That was <i>his</i> style
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120- he never give anybody a chance.&nbsp; He had suspicions of his father,
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122the Duke of Wellington.&nbsp; Well, what did he do? - ask him to show up?&nbsp;
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124No - drownded him in a butt of mamsey, like a cat.&nbsp; Spose people left
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126money laying around where he was - what did he do?&nbsp; He collared it.&nbsp;
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128Spose he contracted to do a thing; and you paid him, and didn't set down
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130there and see that he done it - what did he do?&nbsp; He always done the
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132other thing.&nbsp; Spose he opened his mouth - what then?&nbsp; If he didn't
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134shut it up powerful quick, he'd lose a lie, every time.&nbsp; That's the
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136kind of a bug Henry was....</b>
137
138<br><b>All I say is, kings is kings, and you got to make allowances.&nbsp;
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140Take them all around, they're a mighty ornery lot.&nbsp; It's the way they're
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142raised.'</b>
143
144<center>
145<p><font size=-1>from Mark Twain's <i>Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</i></font></p>
146<hr></center>
147
148 </blockquote>
149 <p align="left"><a NAME="One"></a><font size=4>I have no fear but when you
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151heard that our Prince, now Henry the Eighth, whom we may call our Octavius,
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153had succeeded to his father's throne, all your melancholy left you at once.&nbsp;
154
155What may you not promise yourself from a Prince with whose extraordinary
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157and almost Divine character you are acquainted?&nbsp; When you know what
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159a hero he now shows himself, how wisely he behaves, what a lover he is
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161of justice and goodness, what affection he bears to the learned I will
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163venture to swear that you will need no wings to make you fly to behold
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165this new and auspicious star.&nbsp; If you could see how all the world
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167here is rejoicing in the possession of so great a Prince, how his life
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169is all their desire, you could not contain your tears for joy.&nbsp; The
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171heavens laugh, the earth exults, all things are full of milk, of honey,
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173of nectar!&nbsp; Avarice is expelled the country.&nbsp; Liberality scatters
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175wealth with bounteous hand.&nbsp; Our King does not desire gold or gems
176
177or precious metals, but virtue, glory, immortality.&nbsp;&nbsp; </font>
178 <font size=2><i>Lord Mountjoy to Erasmus</i>, 1509</font></p>
179 <blockquote>
180
181<center><hr></center>
182
183 <p><b>A brief discussion of his personality and historical
184
185importance</b> </p>
186 <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; How can one adequately describe Henry's personality?&nbsp;
187
188Imagine yourself as Henry VIII, the second son suddenly yanked into the
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190spotlight by your older brother's death. Sheltered and smothered by a father
191
192suddenly aware that he has just one heir left; handsome and intelligent
193
194and, by turns, both recklessly indulged and then denied.&nbsp; Any of us
195
196would have emerged as a mass of contradictions and frustrations.&nbsp;
197
198So Henry VIII, crowned king at the prime of his life, just eighteen years
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200old and physically magnificent with more enthusiasm and energy than most
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202of his contemporaries, became a conflicted and confused man.&nbsp; But
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204it is a shame to let the last twenty years of his life color the interpretation
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206of his entire life.&nbsp; One should not see him as simply an ogre king
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208who beheaded two wives, divorced two others, and rejected another in one
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210of the most humiliating ways possible.
211
212<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; His personality was quite amazing; his intelligence,
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214learning, and curiosity impressed even the world-weary ambassadors who
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216littered his court.&nbsp; His thirst for knowledge was insatiable, though
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218it never became the near-mania that haunted Philip II.&nbsp; Henry VIII
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220didn't spend his declining years surrounded by slips of paper detailing
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222the most minute occurrences in his realm.&nbsp; But he did spend his entire
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224reign reading dispatches, scribbling notations, meeting with diplomats
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226and politicians.&nbsp; Very little occurred in England that escaped his
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228attention; indeed, very little occurred in Europe that escaped Henry VIII.&nbsp;
229
230He prided himself on this and well he should; the Spanish ambassador reported
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232that Henry knew of the fall of Cadiz before the Holy Roman Emperor.
233
234<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; He was usually genial company.&nbsp; He loved music
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236and wrote his own.&nbsp; He enjoyed dancing and entertainment.&nbsp; He
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238held countless banquets and tournaments.&nbsp; He enjoyed all physical
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240activities and excelled at most of them.&nbsp; Hunting, archery, tennis,
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242jousting - the king made his court into an endless round of competition
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244and celebration.&nbsp; When he grew older, these former pleasures became
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246torments; like most former athletes, Henry became fat as he aged and the
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248once-loved pastimes became bitter reminders of the ravages of time.&nbsp;
249
250And he ruled over a country where almost half the population was 18 years
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252old or younger!&nbsp; Youth was everywhere, staring the old king in his
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254face.&nbsp; We can imagine the effects.&nbsp; Quite naturally, he sought
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256reassurances - from women, his courtiers, his council.&nbsp; Affairs could
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258distract him, but love affairs were never his grand passion.&nbsp; Despite
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260his licentious reputation, Henry VIII was really a 16th century sexual
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262prude; among his European contemporaries, he philandered the least.&nbsp;
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264State affairs indulged his taste for war and glory; family affairs gnawed
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266at his conscience and pride.&nbsp; But Henry VIII did not want distractions.&nbsp;
267
268He wanted a grand mission, a defining statement.&nbsp; In the end, he got
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270his wish, though in the most improbable way possible.
271
272<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; He began life as a second son, destined for the
273
274church.&nbsp; It was the dream of Henry VII for his eldest son, Arthur,
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276to be king and for his second son, Henry, to be the highest churchman in
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278England.&nbsp; And so, for the first ten years of his life, Henry was a
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280student of theology.&nbsp; And for the next thirty years of his life, he
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282remained a dutiful son of the church.&nbsp; It is ironic, then, that his
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284most significant historical achievement was the destruction of the Roman
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286Catholic faith in England.&nbsp; The impact of the Henrician reformation
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288forever altered the course of English history.&nbsp; Henry VIII, who had
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290indulged in endless diplomatic squabbles and foreign wars, left no grand
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292achievement beyond his own borders.&nbsp; Vast amounts of money were spent
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294on these foreign entanglements - and many lives lost - but, in the end,
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296nothing changed in the European balance of power.&nbsp; England, constantly
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298pulled between the two great continental powers of France and the Holy
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300Roman Empire, nearly bankrupted itself in an attempt to become respected
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302and feared.
303
304<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Why did Henry ultimately fail in those tasks normally
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306reserved for monarchs?&nbsp; Ultimately, he was a victim of his times.&nbsp;
307
308The 16th century was a confusing mess of changing loyalties, betrayals,
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310near-constant fighting, and most importantly, a rising skepticism of that
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312great institution of the fading medieval world, the Roman Catholic church.&nbsp;
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314With the advent of the printing press a century before, literacy and intellectual
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316debate grew rapidly.&nbsp; The High Renaissance in Italy occurred during
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318the first 20 years of Henry VIII's reign.&nbsp; It was a time of unparalleled
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320scientific experiment, intellectual fervor, and spirited debate.&nbsp;
321
322In such a time, traditional views of kingship were bound to change for
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324both the ruler and those he ruled.
325
326<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (As evidence of this confusion, one need only remember
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328that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor crowned by the Pope, led the brutal
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330sack of Rome in 1527.&nbsp; Charles, supposedly the anointed defender of
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332the papacy, actually ordered his imperial army to loot, pillage, and kill
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334their way through Rome and the Vatican.&nbsp; The pope ended up fleeing
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336to relative safety in his nightshirt.)
337
338<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; While reading any biography of Henry VIII, one must
339
340remember the flavor of his times and judge him, if at all, by sixteenth-century
341
342standards.&nbsp; It's always amusing to read descriptions of Henry as the
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344lustful tyrant torn between bedding and beheading innocent women; in truth,
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346he blushed at dirty jokes and was more faithful than many 20th century
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348husbands.&nbsp; He was married to Katharine of Aragon for over twenty years
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350and had just a handful of mistresses.&nbsp; He waited years to physically
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352consummate his relationship with Anne Boleyn, and despite being in the
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354prime of his life, remained faithful to her until marriage.&nbsp; Was this
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356sexual prudery a result of his early church training?&nbsp; Perhaps.&nbsp;
357
358Whatever the case, it was a hallmark of his life.&nbsp; Henry VIII was
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360always an incurable romantic.
361
362<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; His personal and political decisions were always
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364grandiose, melodramatic, and played for great effect.&nbsp; He loved pomp
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366and pageantry, even as he loathed to deal with the consequences of his
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368actions.&nbsp; Like his father, he was caught in the transition from medieval
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370England to renaissance England.&nbsp; And like his father, he was well-versed
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372in English history and desperate to continue the Tudor dynasty, to secure
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374his claims to Ireland, Scotland, and France, to raise England to the status
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376of its continental neighbors, and to expand his God-given right to rule
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378all Englishmen.&nbsp; When reading about Henry's political and dynastic
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380ambitions, one is always struck by the wide scope of his desires.&nbsp;
381
382Though most came to naught in the end, he actually planned invasions of
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384France, plotted to join Charles V's invasion of Italy, and intended to
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386seize the Scottish throne.&nbsp; The word 'ambitious' hardly does Great
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388Harry justice.
389
390<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; His political ambitions failed and he bequeathed
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392a woeful mess to his nine-year-old heir, Edward VI.&nbsp; His greatest
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394achievement was a dubious one, and one for which he was often eager to
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396distance himself - the Henrician reformation, the end of Roman Catholicism
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398in England and the birth of the Anglican church.&nbsp; The king, for all
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400his contradictions and failures, helped destroy the greatest institution
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402in medieval Europe.&nbsp; Once Germany and England fell to the new heresy,
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404its spread across Europe was inevitable and invincible.
405
406<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In the biography of Henry at this site, I hope to
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408capture both the king's personality and assess his importance to history.&nbsp;
409
410Henry VIII's reign was as tumultuous as the king himself.&nbsp; If nothing
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412else, it makes for entertaining reading.</p>
413 <p>
414
415<font size=-2><a href="henry8.html#Top">TOP</a></font>
416
417<br>
418
419 </p>
420
421<hr WIDTH="100%">
422
423 <p>
424
425<br><a NAME="Two"></a><b>Henry Tudor, duke of York: 1491-1502</b> </p>
426 <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The second Henry Tudor was born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich
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428Palace in London.&nbsp; He was the third child of the first Tudor monarch,
429
430Henry VII, and his wife, Elizabeth Plantagenet, daughter of the Yorkist
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432king, Edward IV.&nbsp; At the time of her second son's birth, Queen Elizabeth
433
434was just 25 years old; her husband was 34, and had been king for almost
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436six years.&nbsp; Those six years had been difficult ones.&nbsp; Henry's
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438marriage to Elizabeth had helped amass Yorkist support for his rule, but
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440the English people were hardly enthusiastic about Henry, even as they had
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442been noticeably ambivalent about his predecessor, Elizabeth's uncle, Richard
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444III.&nbsp; Elizabeth was popular with the common people; her young life
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446had all the romance and tragedy necessary for sympathetic gossip and she
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448was a classical fair beauty, possessing all the female virtues necessary
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450for a queen.&nbsp; She was quiet, demure, and charming; she was also content
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452to allow her formidable mother-in-law, Margaret Beaufort, assume a position
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454of unprecedented influence over the king.
455
456<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
457
458Elizabeth's emotional attachment to her husband has been much-debated.&nbsp;
459
460In truth, she had known all her<img SRC="h8two.jpg" ALT="sketch of Henry VIII as a toddler" BORDER=1 height=214 width=150 align=right> life that she would never marry a man of
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462her own choice.&nbsp; In the end, her mother, Elizabeth Woodville, conspired
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464with Margaret Beaufort for Elizabeth to marry Henry Tudor, exiled son of
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466Henry VI's half-brother.&nbsp; Henry was, by all accounts, grateful for
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468the match.&nbsp; He appreciated its political implications.&nbsp; He also
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470respected his new queen and was faithful to his marriage vows, an unusual
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472trait in a king.&nbsp; Upon her marriage, Elizabeth entered a semi-retirement
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474- she was queen and her duty was to produce as many heirs as possible.&nbsp;
475
476Nine months after her marriage, she gave birth to her first child at St Swithin's Priory in Winchester, a prince named Arthur.&nbsp; Henry and
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478Elizabeth had wed on 18 January 1486 at Westminster Abbey in London; Prince
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480Arthur was born 20 September 1486.&nbsp; Three years later, Elizabeth gave
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482birth to their second child, a princess called Margaret after Henry VII's
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484mother.&nbsp; She was born on 28 November 1489 at Westminster Palace in
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486London.&nbsp; For the new king, the birth of a healthy second child, and
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488his wife's rapid recovery, were good omens.&nbsp; Even as he attempted
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490to enforce his rule in the always troublesome northern England which had
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492been Richard III's base of support, Henry VII could rest assured that his
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494dynasty was becoming secure.&nbsp; But it was only on 28 June 1491, when
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496another healthy prince was born, this time at Greenwich Palace, that Henry
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498VII could breathe a sigh of relief.&nbsp; This second son was a necessary
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500insurance policy for the new Tudor dynasty.&nbsp; Childhood mortality was
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502high and diseases such as small pox, the sweating sickness, and the plague
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504were rife throughout England.&nbsp; A king needed as many healthy heirs
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506as possible, and the birth of a second son was an occasion for celebration.
507
508<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; On 27 February 1490, Prince Arthur was titled prince
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510of Wales at Westminster Palace in London; this was the real beginning of
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512a tradition that continues to this day.&nbsp; And in 1494, Arthur's baby
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514brother was titled duke of York, the traditional title of the king's brother.&nbsp;
515
516At this early age, all we know of Prince Henry was that he was considered
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518a handsome and precocious toddler, but one would expect such descriptions
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520of the king's son.&nbsp; He did not share his brother's fair coloring or
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522slight build.&nbsp; Prince Henry was a sturdy, strawberry-blond boy noted
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524for his energy and temper.&nbsp; Just a year after his birth, his mother
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526bore another daughter; this child was called Elizabeth and she died three
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528years later.&nbsp; It was the first in a series of tragedies for the young
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530queen.&nbsp; She and Henry VII were considered good and affectionate parents,
531
532but they never lost sight of the political importance of their children.&nbsp;
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534Together they decided that Prince Henry, like most second sons, was destined
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536for the church, and his early schooling was planned accordingly.&nbsp;
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538This strong emphasis upon theology and its esoteric debates remained with
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540Henry for the rest of his life and made him feel uniquely qualified to
541
542interpret religious law during the 1520s.</p>
543 <p>
544
545<font size=-2><a href="henry8.html#Top">TOP</a></font>
546
547<br>
548
549 </p>
550
551<hr WIDTH="100%">
552
553 <p>
554
555<br><a NAME="Three"></a><b>Heir apparent: 1502-1509</b> </p>
556 <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry's position as the second son lasted only until 2 April
557
5581502, just a few months before his eleventh birthday.&nbsp; It was on that
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560day that his brother Arthur died at Ludlow Castle, the government seat
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562of the prince of Wales.&nbsp; The insecurity of the Tudor succession was
563
564suddenly unavoidable.&nbsp; Elizabeth of York, despite repeated pregnancies,
565
566had not borne another healthy son; after Henry's birth, there was just
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568one more male child - a son called Edmund, born in 1499 and dead just a
569
570year later.&nbsp; The queen did become pregnant shortly after Arthur's
571
572death but this eighth pregnancy proved to be her last.&nbsp; The child,
573
574called Katherine, was born and died on 2 February 1503.&nbsp; Elizabeth
575
576contracted an infection and died a few days later, on 11 February, her
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578thirty-seventh birthday.&nbsp; So in the short space of a year, Henry lost
579
580both his older brother and mother.&nbsp; But the effects of these losses
581
582was felt even more keenly by Henry VII.&nbsp; His reign had proved to be
583
584neither peaceful or happy.&nbsp; He was beset by worries - constant diplomatic
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586maneuvering, subjects who mocked him as a cold-hearted, tax-hungry miser,
587
588and now he had lost his son and wife.
589
590<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Arthur's death was more than a personal tragedy;
591
592it was a political tragedy as well.&nbsp; The young prince had been married
593
594to <a href="aragon.html">Princess
595
596Katharine of Aragon</a> on 14 November 1501 at St.Paul's Cathedral, London.&nbsp;
597
598The daughter of the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Ferdinand of Aragon and
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600Isabella of Castile, Katharine's marriage to the Tudor heir had marked
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602the high point of Henry VII's foreign diplomacy.&nbsp; His grip on the
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604English throne had long been considered both illegitimate and untenable
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606by most European powers, except in cases where it suited their interests
607
608to pretend otherwise.&nbsp; But a bond of marriage between the house of
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610Tudor and the ruling dynasty of Spain gave Henry's rule a stamp of approval.&nbsp;
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612He was now allied with one of the most powerful ruling families in Europe.&nbsp;
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614Prince Henry met his sister-in-law and future wife on this momentous occasion,
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616heading the procession that led her to the cathedral.&nbsp; Later, he officially
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618introduced her to the citizens of London.
619
620<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; With Arthur's death, his teenage wife was trapped
621
622in England while Henry VII squabbled with her father over the remaining
623
624payments on her dowry.&nbsp; Henry VII was perhaps even then mulling over
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626the idea of not letting the all-important Spanish alliance go to waste.&nbsp;
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628Soon enough he was openly proposing that Katharine marry young Prince Henry,
629
630now the heir apparent and five years her junior.&nbsp; What did young Prince
631
632Henry know of these plans?&nbsp; Probably very little.&nbsp; After Arthur's
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634death, Henry VII became somewhat paranoid and tried desperately to protect
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636his only son from any injury or illness.&nbsp; People who wished to visit
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638the young prince had to receive permission from Henry VII, and this remained
639
640the case well into the boy's adolescence.&nbsp; Such strict rules may have
641
642irked the heir but they did not interfere with his continuing education.&nbsp;
643
644While his older brother was in Wales learning the intricacies of government,
645
646Henry received a primarily classical education, mastering Latin and French
647
648and becoming an excellent and exuberant athlete.&nbsp; Contemporary sources
649
650make it clear that he was a happy child, fond of sports and spectacle,
651
652and equally proud of his intellectual accomplishments.&nbsp; In short,
653
654he possessed all the personality and charm his father noticeably lacked.&nbsp;
655
656Both his physical appearance and character were similar to those of his
657
658Plantagenet grandfather Edward IV.&nbsp; This fact was much remarked upon
659
660by those Englishmen who had lived through the last years of the Wars of
661
662the Roses.
663
664<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Luckily for Prince Henry, his father spent the last
665
666years of his reign establishing good relationships with other monarchs
667
668and avoiding expensive war; also, his fondness for extorting money from
669
670an unwilling populace never wavered.&nbsp; He left his son a king's greatest
671
672gift - a healthy treasury.&nbsp; Ironically, one of Henry VIII's first
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674acts as king was to execute his father's most productive, and hence most
675
676notorious, tax collectors.&nbsp; But Henry VII never really decided whether
677
678he wanted to marry Prince Henry to Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; He kept the
679
680young princess in England for seven years while he toyed with the idea.&nbsp;
681
682Her living conditions steadily deteriorated; she was miserably unhappy,
683
684many of her Spanish attendants were sent home, she lacked money for even
685
686basic necessities.&nbsp; Food and adequate clothing were constant concerns.&nbsp;
687
688She struggled to bear her hardships with the serene and regal dignity that
689
690was ingrained in her character as a princess of Spain, and such calm in
691
692the face of deprivation impressed young Prince Henry.&nbsp; It is certainly
693
694true that even years later, in the midst of an acrimonious separation,
695
696he never lost his respect for Katharine.&nbsp; This respect was always
697
698tinged with a bit of fear.&nbsp; He was keenly aware of her great ancestry
699
700and extensive education, her self-deprecating wit and complete mastery
701
702of all feminine tasks.&nbsp; Even as queen of England, she took particular
703
704pride in sewing and mending Henry's shirts.
705
706<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
707
708They had little contact during the later years of Henry VII's reign, only
709
710meeting occasionally at formal<img SRC="henry8-cr.jpg" ALT="portrait of Henry VIII, c1509" BORDER=1 height=194 width=125 align=right> events.&nbsp; Henry was formally promised
711
712in marriage to Katharine on 23 June 1503; the treaty stated that he would
713
714marry Katharine on his fifteenth birthday, 28 June 1505, and that her parents
715
716send over 100,000 crowns worth of plate and jewels in addition to the dowry
717
718she had given when married to Prince Arthur.&nbsp; Henry VII was a stickler
719
720on the dowry issue, refusing to allow the marriage to be solemnized, much
721
722less celebrated and consummated, until the money arrived.&nbsp; But the
723
724Spaniards were as loathe to part with money as Henry.&nbsp; So 1505 came
725
726and went with no marriage though Prince Henry referred in letters to Katharine
727
728as his 'most dear and well-beloved consort, the princess my wife'.&nbsp;
729
730But his father was still king, and his father refused to allow the marriage.&nbsp;
731
732To strengthen his bargaining power with the Spaniards, he had Prince Henry
733
734make a formal protest to Richard Fox, the bishop of Winchester, disowning
735
736the marriage contract.&nbsp; Both parties prevaricated - until 1509, when
737
738Henry VII suddenly died at the age of 52, and his headstrong son, chafing
739
740at his father's authority, was free to make his own decisions.&nbsp; To
741
742the surprise of all, including the Spaniards, he promptly announced he
743
744would marry Katharine and crown her queen of England.
745
746<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; After years of being shut away from the world, he
747
748was now king.&nbsp; All of the boundless energy and enthusiasm of his character
749
750was unleashed.&nbsp; Perhaps out of chivalry, or adolescent affection,
751
752or, as he later claimed, out of respect for his father's wishes, he wed
753
754his late brother's wife.&nbsp; In light of future events, it is worth noting
755
756that the dowry had not been the only sticking-point in the marriage plans
757
758- there was the not insignificant fact that Katharine had been married
759
760to Henry's brother, and her marriage to Henry would be regarded as incestuous
761
762and unacceptable to the church.&nbsp; As Henry VIII would later argue,
763
764<i>Leviticus</i>
765
766clearly stated that a man was forbidden to marry his brother's widow.&nbsp;
767
768For her part, Katharine claimed, and her duenna, Dona Elvira, agreed, that
769
770her marriage to Arthur had never been consummated.&nbsp; The young prince
771
772of Wales had been suffering from consumption for months, even before the
773
774wedding, and their wedding night had passed uneventfully.&nbsp; If this
775
776was true, and it seems to have been (until it was in Henry VIII's interests
777
778for it not to be), there was no barrier to her union with Henry.&nbsp;
779
780Both the English and Spanish courts sought the requisite papal dispensation.&nbsp;
781
782It was granted and the path to marriage was clear.</p>
783 <p>
784
785<font size=-2><a href="henry8.html#Top">TOP</a></font>
786
787<br>
788
789 </p>
790
791<hr WIDTH="100%">
792
793 </blockquote>
794 <p><font size=4>His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever
795
796set eyes on; above the usual height, with an extremely fine calf to his
797
798leg, his complexion very fair and bright, auburn hair combed straight and
799
800short, in the French fashion, and a round face so very beautiful that it
801
802would become a pretty woman, his throat being rather long and thick....&nbsp;
803
804He will enter his twenty-fifth year the month after next.&nbsp; He speaks
805
806French, English and Latin, and a little Italian, plays well on the lute
807
808and harpsichord, sings from book at sight, draws the bow with greater strength
809
810than any man in England and jousts marvelously....&nbsp; a most accomplished
811
812Prince.</font><i><font size=4>&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><font size=-1>the Venetian diplomat Pasqualigo in a dispatch</font></i><font size=-1>, 1515</font></p>
813 <blockquote>
814 <hr>
815 <p><a NAME="Four"></a><b>1509-1526: Katharine of Aragon, Cardinal Wolsey
816
817and Princess Mary</b> </p>
818
819<p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 23 June 1509.&nbsp;
820
821He had married Katharine on 11 June at Grey Friars Church in Greenwich
822
823and she shared his coronation.&nbsp; It was a splendid event and continued
824
825throughout midsummer with much celebration and spectacle.&nbsp; There is
826
827an account of the coronation at the <a href="../primary.html">Primary
828
829Sources</a> section.&nbsp; It was soon clear that the young king, who turned
830
83118 just a few days after his coronation, had little interest in the day-to-day
832
833business of government.&nbsp; While it is true that Henry was a vocal participant
834
835at council meetings, the early years of his reign were devoted more to
836
837enjoyment than the drudgery of administration.&nbsp; He was content to
838
839allow trusted nobles and ecclesiastics to rule in his name - William Warham,
840
841archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey and later 2d duke
842
843of Norfolk, Bishop Richard Foxe, and, beginning around 1514, <a href="../citizens/wolsey.html">Thomas
844
845Wolsey</a>.<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; As mentioned earlier, one of the first acts of Henry's
846
847reign was a particularly brutal one, especially designed to benefit his
848
849popularity.&nbsp; He ordered the executions of his father's most productive
850
851and hated tax collectors, Edmund Dudley and Sir Richard Empson.&nbsp; It
852
853was a bloody beginning for his reign and a taste of things to come.&nbsp;
854
855Certainly it pleased the English people for most tax collectors were hated,
856
857and Dudley and Empson had been particularly ruthless.&nbsp; But their efficiency
858
859had the complete support of King Henry VII, whose orders they followed.&nbsp;
860
861A problem had emerged for the new king - how could he execute the tax collectors
862
863when their only crime was to obey their king?&nbsp; He resorted, for the
864
865first but not the last time, to judicial murder, charging the men with
866
867'constructive treason'.&nbsp; It was a wholly fictitious charge which no
868
869one fully understood, even those at the trial.&nbsp; This cold-blooded
870
871act pleased the people and demonstrated Henry's desire for popular approval.&nbsp;
872
873But it also revealed a ruthlessness to his character that grew more pronounced
874
875as the years passed.&nbsp; Many historians argue that Henry grew tyrannical
876
877only after Katharine of Aragon failed to provide an heir but the evidence
878
879proves otherwise.&nbsp; If someone could not be legally executed, the king
880
881simply invented a new charge.&nbsp; For example, in 1513, before leaving
882
883for war in France, he executed Edmund de la Pole, his Plantagenet cousin
884
885held prisoner in the Tower since Henry VII's reign.&nbsp; A benign spirit,
886
887locked away for most of his life, Edmund was no threat to anyone.&nbsp;
888
889But Henry executed him to remind his subjects that, though he would be
890
891in France, any challenge to his authority would be met with grave displeasure.
892
893<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; His marriage to Katharine was very happy, at least
894
895during these early years.&nbsp; She had a more reserved character than
896
897her husband and blushed at his ribald jests, but she entered into the spirit
898
899of frivolity which pervaded their court.&nbsp; There was dancing and music,
900
901for Henry was a splendid dancer and musician; he composed songs and wrote
902
903poetry, most of which has survived and is quite lovely.&nbsp; He also enjoyed
904
905hunting, sometimes tiring ten horses during a single hunt, and jousting;
906
907by all accounts, he was the greatest athlete at the court.&nbsp; And he
908
909was a dedicated and affectionate husband.&nbsp; Everything he built was
910
911decorated with an intertwined H and K, and Katharine's pomegranates were
912
913carved next to Tudor roses.&nbsp; He called himself the 'Knight of the
914
915Loyal Heart' and bowed before his queen after each grueling tournament.&nbsp;
916
917He also involved Katharine in the seemingly endless visits of foreign dignitaries,
918
919inviting the ambassadors to her apartments and openly seeking her advice
920
921and opinion.&nbsp; It was clear that they loved and respected one another,
922
923and those early years made his eventual disinterest all the more painful
924
925for the queen to bear.
926
927<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
928
929Katharine bore their first child on 31 January 1510, just six months after
930
931their coronation.&nbsp; It was a girl, born too early to survive.&nbsp;
932
933The next birth, on 1 January 1511, was a far happier occasion.&nbsp; It
934
935was a boy, called Henry after his father and titled duke of Cornwall.&nbsp;
936
937The delighted father planned celebrations to rival his<img SRC="aragon-min.jpg" ALT="portrait of Katharine of Aragon, c1525 by Horenbout" height=168 width=166 align=right> coronation.&nbsp;
938
939The boy was apparently healthy yet died about two months later.&nbsp; The
940
941cause was unknown, but it was an age of high infant mortality.&nbsp; The
942
943young parents were devastated.&nbsp; Henry consoled himself by waging war
944
945against France, courtesy of his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon, and
946
947Katharine's fierce piety led her to kneel for hours on cold stone floors
948
949in prayer.&nbsp; But Henry's attempts to gain glory on the battlefield
950
951were misplaced.&nbsp; In June 1512, the marquess of Dorset sailed out of
952
953Southampton, bound for Gascony with 12,000 troops.&nbsp; They reached the
954
955port of Fuentarrabia, where they were to join the Spanish and attack Bayonne.&nbsp;
956
957But the Spanish troops never arrived.&nbsp; Ferdinand, without consulting
958
959his son-in-law, attacked and seized Navarre instead and then declared the
960
961'Holy War' over.&nbsp; He had essentially used Henry's troops as bait;
962
963when the French went off to fight the English, Ferdinand seized his chance
964
965and attacked Navarre.&nbsp; To top off his treachery, he also openly criticized
966
967the English soldiers who, without receiving his permission, had sailed
968
969home after waiting four months at Fuentarrabia.&nbsp; Henry was too embarrassed
970
971by his soldiers' mutiny to call his father-in-law's bluff.
972
973<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Desperate to erase the memory of that military blunder,
974
975he planned a grand campaign for the spring of 1513.&nbsp; His ambassadors
976
977even secured the support of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian.&nbsp; He
978
979joined the 'Holy Alliance' of England and Spain to attack France.&nbsp;
980
981But once again Ferdinand's self-interest ruled the day.&nbsp; He went behind
982
983his allies' backs to make a secret truce with Louis XII of France, and
984
985so he kept Navarre peacefully.&nbsp; This happened in March 1513 and suitably
986
987angered Henry.&nbsp; But the English king had learned a lesson from his
988
989previous blunder.&nbsp; His forces were launched from England's only possession
990
991on the continent, Calais in northern France.&nbsp; The Spanish would not
992
993be involved.&nbsp; On 1 August 1513, about a month after he left England,
994
995Henry besieged the town of Therouanne.&nbsp; Two centuries before, Edward
996
997III had seized that city after the great battle of Crecy.&nbsp; With Maximilian
998
999by his side (actually as his subordinate; he allowed Henry command of his
1000
1001troops in exchange for paying their salaries), Henry won a victory within
1002
1003a fortnight.&nbsp; The capture of a duke, marquis, and vice-admiral fleeing
1004
1005the scene helped raise substantial ransoms.&nbsp; He gave the town to Maximilian
1006
1007as a gift and the emperor ordered it razed to the ground.&nbsp; Their next
1008
1009battle was one month later at Tournai.&nbsp; It surrendered after eight
1010
1011days and Henry decided it would become another English stronghold within
1012
1013France.
1014
1015<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; He had left Katharine in charge at home, officially
1016
1017titled Governor of the Realm and Captain-General of the Armed Forces, an
1018
1019honor never allowed his other wives.&nbsp; She had been resoundingly successful.&nbsp;
1020
1021France and Scotland had an 'Auld Alliance' against England, and&nbsp; James
1022
1023IV of Scotland, married to Henry's sister Margaret Tudor, had responded
1024
1025to English aggression against his ally.&nbsp; He led his armies into northern
1026
1027England.&nbsp; Thomas Howard, the earl of Surrey, took the few English
1028
1029troops left in the nation to meet him.&nbsp; The armies clashed at Flodden
1030
1031Edge, between Berwick and the Cheviots.&nbsp; Three hours of fighting ended
1032
1033the Scottish threat.&nbsp; The evening of 9 September 1513 saw over 10,000
1034
1035Scots dead, including most of their aristocracy.&nbsp; James IV himself
1036
1037was killed.&nbsp; Had Henry's attention been focused on his own country,
1038
1039he could have seized a golden opportunity - with James dead and the high
1040
1041nobility of Scotland destroyed, he could have marched into Edinburgh and
1042
1043seized his sister Margaret and her infant son, now King James V.&nbsp;
1044
1045But instead he remained enthralled with dreams of European conquest, perhaps
1046
1047comparing himself to his hero, Henry V.&nbsp; And these dreams were encouraged
1048
1049by news that the Pope had, in secret, promised to recognize Henry as king
1050
1051of France if he could physically seize possession of the country.&nbsp;
1052
1053This generous offer had been inspired by French meddling in papal affairs.
1054
1055<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; During this triumphant time, Katharine lost another
1056
1057child.&nbsp; In November 1513, another prince, also called Henry, duke
1058
1059of Cornwall, was born and soon died.&nbsp; It was the third miscarriage
1060
1061in as many years.&nbsp; Was Henry worried?&nbsp; He was still young, as
1062
1063was Katharine, and had been king for just five years.&nbsp; He was naturally
1064
1065optimistic, though undoubtedly disappointed.&nbsp; Once again, the queen
1066
1067was on her knees in prayer.&nbsp; Perhaps she felt the losses more keenly.&nbsp;
1068
1069In letters to her father, she blamed herself.&nbsp; She clearly saw the
1070
1071dead children as a reproof of some sort, a failure to fulfill the most
1072
1073basic feminine role.&nbsp; But she was able to send Henry the bloody coat
1074
1075of the Scottish king; it may have been some consolation.
1076
1077<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Still, in 1514, as <a href="../citizens/wolsey.html">Cardinal
1078
1079Thomas Wolsey</a> extended his control of government, Katharine had reason
1080
1081to become wary.&nbsp; The golden happiness of the first years with Henry
1082
1083was wearing thin.&nbsp; Her father had betrayed her husband openly and
1084
1085scornfully, treating them both as little more than foolish children.&nbsp;
1086
1087She had been her father's best ambassador, heedlessly pressing his claims
1088
1089upon Henry, using the natural affection between husband and wife to urge
1090
1091alliances with Spain.&nbsp; She felt the sting of her father's betrayals.&nbsp;
1092
1093He had lied to her, misled her, and tricked her into betraying her husband.&nbsp;
1094
1095It was clear that her primary loyalty must be to Henry and the English
1096
1097people; she would never trust Ferdinand again.&nbsp; In 1514, the king
1098
1099returned home and his councilors told him that Henry VII's great treasury
1100
1101was fast running low.&nbsp; War with France was too costly to continue.&nbsp;
1102
1103Henry had seized Tournai and made the competent Thomas Wolsey its bishop,
1104
1105but more extensive campaigning was out of the question.&nbsp; In this,
1106
1107the king surprisingly agreed.&nbsp; He had won his share of glory - at
1108
1109least for now - and it would be enough.&nbsp; And Ferdinand's betrayal
1110
1111had been met with a suitable reply.&nbsp; Henry's younger sister
1112
1113<a href="../relative/brandon.html">Mary</a>,
1114
1115the most beautiful of the Tudor children, had been betrothed to Ferdinand's
1116
1117nephew, the duke of Burgundy, but now Henry made peace with France and
1118
1119promised Mary to Louis XII, three times her age and suffering from gout.
1120
1121<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry's
1122
1123new desire for peace with France, England's traditional enemy, was encouraged
1124
1125by Spanish duplicity.&nbsp; But it<img SRC="wolsey-cr.jpg" ALT="portrait of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey" height=234 width=150 align=right> was also due to the growing influence
1126
1127of Wolsey.&nbsp; Derisively called 'Master Almoner' by those jealous of
1128
1129his influence, Wolsey came from a humble background and, like most talented
1130
1131and ambitious men from poor families, he used the church to advance in
1132
1133society.&nbsp; He attended Oxford and showed such promise that he was made
1134
1135bursar of Magdalen College and then chaplain to Archbishop Deane.&nbsp;
1136
1137In 1507, in his thirties and now well-connected, he became chaplain to
1138
1139Henry VII.&nbsp; Upon Henry VIII's accession, Wolsey received a seat on
1140
1141the council and was made king's almoner.&nbsp; This position allowed him
1142
1143personal contact with the young, impressionable monarch.&nbsp; He accompanied
1144
1145Henry to France during the successful campaigns of 1513, where he was made
1146
1147bishop of Tournai, and their close relationship grew stronger.&nbsp; Henry
1148
1149appreciated Wolsey's dedication to administrative detail and hard work.&nbsp;
1150
1151And both Warham and Fox, the two senior councilors Henry inherited from
1152
1153his father, regarded Wolsey as their prot&eacute;g&eacute;.&nbsp; They
1154
1155were quite happy to retire to their dioceses, leaving the younger man to
1156
1157deal with the headstrong and rash young king.&nbsp; One can easily sympathize
1158
1159with Warham and Fox since Henry VIII's personality was quite different
1160
1161from his father's.&nbsp; The most obvious difference was that he spent
1162
1163money with the same passion his father had collected it.
1164
1165<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; But it is important to remember that Henry VIII
1166
1167never completely abandoned his power to Wolsey, though court gossip believed
1168
1169otherwise.&nbsp; He carefully read the Cardinal's dispatches and proved
1170
1171himself well-informed about domestic and foreign affairs when dealing with
1172
1173ambassadors.&nbsp; Also, Henry possessed a lifelong love of keeping his
1174
1175subjects, noble or common, on their toes; he enjoyed indulging his taste
1176
1177for surprises.&nbsp; In banquets, this showed itself in his passion for
1178
1179elaborate costumes in which his identity was hidden.&nbsp; His subjects
1180
1181would guess which costume hid their king, to the delight of all.&nbsp;
1182
1183Once, he and several courtiers dressed as Robin Hood and his band of outlaws
1184
1185and then broke into Katharine of Aragon's apartments.&nbsp; The queen,
1186
1187used to such antics, wisely played along but several of her ladies were
1188
1189terrified.&nbsp; At the
1190
1191<a href="../primary.html">Primary
1192
1193Sources</a> section, you can read about Henry's first meeting with his
1194
1195fourth wife, Anne of Cleves; he disguised himself at their first meeting,
1196
1197to the amusement of his nobles and the confusion of the lady.&nbsp; At
1198
1199times, this love of surprise - of keeping those close to him on an uneven
1200
1201keel - was downright cruel.&nbsp; He would later allow his councilors to
1202
1203plan Thomas Cranmer's arrest, only to tell the archbishop their plan in
1204
1205secret.&nbsp; When the soldiers arrived, they were openly embarrassed and
1206
1207thwarted when Cranmer revealed his knowledge of the plan and the king's
1208
1209pardon.&nbsp; And his sixth and final wife, Katharine Parr, was likewise
1210
1211surprised.&nbsp; Walking in her garden with Henry, she was accosted by
1212
1213soldiers intending to arrest her.&nbsp; Their warrant had been signed by
1214
1215Henry himself.&nbsp; But when they attempted to seize the queen, Henry
1216
1217cursed them, beat several of them about the head and shoulders, and demanded
1218
1219they beg Katharine's forgiveness.&nbsp; One can imagine the guards' confusion.
1220
1221<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; All of these instances serve to illustrate Henry's
1222
1223desire to remain in control, to hold absolute power in his hands always.&nbsp;
1224
1225As king, he could give orders but it was also his privilege to immediately
1226
1227change his mind without bothering to consult anyone.&nbsp; His will was
1228
1229law.&nbsp; And so he demonstrated his power by doing exactly as he liked,
1230
1231oftimes choosing the perfect moment to throw everyone off guard and demonstrate
1232
1233his complete authority.&nbsp; It may have seemed irrational to his contemporaries,
1234
1235and also to us, but it was quite an effective policy.&nbsp; It meant that
1236
1237no one ever really knew where they stood with the king.&nbsp; And so, not
1238
1239knowing his true feelings, they were all the more eager to sycophantically
1240
1241fawn over him and seek his approval.
1242
1243<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This strain of the king's character was perhaps
1244
1245a bit more light-hearted in the early years of his reign but, like most
1246
1247of Henry's good qualities, it soon developed an ugly cast.&nbsp; His mutability
1248
1249was certainly recognized by Wolsey, and famously by Sir Thomas More, and
1250
1251later led to the Cardinal's downfall.&nbsp; But in the early years of their
1252
1253relationship, as Wolsey's genius for administration and diplomacy led him
1254
1255to amass great titles and wealth, the men got along amazingly well.&nbsp;
1256
1257This continued for over a dozen years.&nbsp; In 1514, Wolsey was titled
1258
1259archbishop of York, and in 1515 he became a cardinal and lord chancellor,
1260
1261and in 1518 he was made papal legate.&nbsp; As archbishop of York, he lived
1262
1263at York Palace and to most outside observers this was the real seat of
1264
1265government power.&nbsp; Messengers rode constantly between York and Henry's
1266
1267palaces.
1268
1269<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; For a long while, both Wolsey and Henry were focused
1270
1271on foreign affairs.&nbsp; Wolsey was a Francophile and desired peace between
1272
1273the traditional enemies.&nbsp; He used Ferdinand's treacherous behavior
1274
1275to encourage a marriage between Henry's sister and Louis XII.&nbsp; This
1276
1277pro-France policy naturally placed him at odds with Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp;
1278
1279Though she recognized her father's treachery and protected her marriage
1280
1281by no longer pressing Spanish claims, she was still the daughter of the
1282
1283Spanish king.&nbsp; Wolsey didn't trust her, which certainly wasn't surprising.&nbsp;
1284
1285Katharine developed a natural antipathy to the Cardinal as well.&nbsp;
1286
1287She was a deeply pious woman, growing more so as she aged.&nbsp; She thought
1288
1289Wolsey far too worldly to be a man of the church.&nbsp; She favored councilors
1290
1291like <a href="../citizens/more.html">Thomas
1292
1293More</a> and <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/fisher.html">John
1294
1295Fisher</a>, bishop of Rochester, men whose dedication to the church was
1296
1297as passionate as her own.&nbsp; She was also peeved that her role as Henry's
1298
1299confidante and advisor was slowly stolen away by Wolsey.&nbsp; Katharine
1300
1301was jealous of the Cardinal's influence with her husband, particularly
1302
1303since it meant a subsequent decline in her own influence.&nbsp; The king
1304
1305no longer brought foreign ambassadors to her rooms and he no longer sought
1306
1307her opinions.&nbsp; It was as if her father's betrayals implicated her.&nbsp;
1308
1309Wolsey was the consummate diplomat, skilled at flattering the queen when
1310
1311they met, but their mutual dislike was open knowledge at court.
1312
1313<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In December 1514, Katharine suffered another miscarriage;
1314
1315it was her fourth, and the third son.&nbsp; It was particularly galling
1316
1317for her since earlier that year Henry had taken his first public mistress.&nbsp;
1318
1319He was not a lecher, and certainly less victimized by lust than his fellow
1320
1321monarchs, particularly Francis I of France.&nbsp; But kings take mistresses
1322
1323and around New Years' 1514, Henry's eye was caught by <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/relative/fitzroy.html">Elizabeth
1324
1325Blount</a>.&nbsp; She was the cousin of Lord Mountjoy and one of Katharine's
1326
1327ladies-in-waiting.&nbsp; Bessie was pretty and vivacious, and quite happy
1328
1329to bask in the king's attention.&nbsp; And she had his attention for several
1330
1331years, which once more proves Henry's monogamous streak.&nbsp; And he did
1332
1333not neglect his wife.&nbsp; On 18 February 1516, Katharine and Henry's
1334
1335luck changed.&nbsp; Their only surviving child, a princess called Mary,
1336
1337was born.&nbsp; She was healthy and survived the difficult early months
1338
1339of infancy.&nbsp; Henry was proud, if disappointed, and told an ambassador:
1340
1341'We are both young.&nbsp; If it was a daughter this time, by the grace
1342
1343of God the sons will follow.'
1344
1345<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; One can easily understand Henry's disappointment.&nbsp;
1346
1347He was a good father to Mary in those early years, proudly carrying her
1348
1349about and showing her off to visitors.&nbsp; But he was perhaps aware that
1350
1351time was running out for a male heir to be born.&nbsp; There are indications
1352
1353that he explored the idea of divorcing Katharine as early as 1518.&nbsp;
1354
1355An English courtier had supposedly visited the Vatican on an exploratory
1356
1357mission earlier that year.&nbsp; And gossip about Katharine's miscarriages
1358
1359had spread through the English court as early as 1514.
1360
1361<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry was still affectionate towards Katharine,
1362
1363and they remained intimate for several years after Mary's birth, as evidenced
1364
1365by other pregnancies.&nbsp; But perhaps the bloom of the relationship had
1366
1367gone.&nbsp; His wife looked older than her years, her body worn out by
1368
1369ceaseless pregnancies and births.&nbsp; She was by nature a reserved and
1370
1371serious person; her mind dwelt constantly upon the failure of her most
1372
1373important duty as queen.&nbsp; On 10 November 1518, her last child - another
1374
1375daughter - was born, and died.&nbsp; Special doctors summoned from Spain
1376
1377arrived to help the queen conceive again.&nbsp; They were unsuccessful.&nbsp;
1378
1379Henry publicly vowed to lead a crusade against the&nbsp;<img SRC="fitzroy.jpg" ALT="miniature portrait of Henry Fitzroy, Henry VIII's illegitimate son" height=203 width=208 align=LEFT>Turks
1380
1381if God granted him a son.
1382
1383<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; But it was not to be, at least not with Katharine
1384
1385of Aragon.&nbsp; In 1519, Elizabeth Blount, his young mistress, bore him
1386
1387a healthy son.&nbsp; Henry was ecstatic.&nbsp; Here at last was proof that
1388
1389the king could father sons.&nbsp; Henry named the boy after himself, giving
1390
1391him the last name 'Fitzroy', the traditional surname of royal bastards.&nbsp;
1392
1393He would soon lavish so many titles upon the boy that Katharine felt it
1394
1395necessary to remind him that Princess Mary was his heir.&nbsp; Henry publicly
1396
1397chastised her and, in a fit of spite, sent several of her favorite attendants
1398
1399back to Spain.
1400
1401<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Now we come to an important moment in what came
1402
1403to be called 'the king's great matter' (Henry's attempt to annul his marriage
1404
1405to Katharine.)&nbsp; Fitzroy's birth proved Henry could have a son, and
1406
1407no one could deny Katharine's fertility.&nbsp; It is doubtful Henry ever
1408
1409blamed her for the failure to produce a male heir after witnessing the
1410
1411endless cycle of pregnancies and prayer.&nbsp; Yet why had he and Katharine
1412
1413been unable to produce a living son between them?&nbsp; Naturally enough,
1414
1415the king's mind turned to God.&nbsp; It must be God's will that they had
1416
1417no male heir.&nbsp; But what had he done to offend God?&nbsp; Henry searched
1418
1419for an answer and soon found it quite easily.&nbsp; In the Bible, <i>Leviticus
1420
1421</i>XVIII,
1422
142316 clearly stated 'Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy brother's wife:
1424it is thy brother's nakedness'.&nbsp; And, later, in chapter XX, 'If a man shall
1425take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother's
1426nakedness; they shall be childless'.&nbsp; What could be more clear?&nbsp; The
1427Bible itself condemned his marriage to Katharine.&nbsp; The pope's dispensation
1428was meaningless.<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; And so began one of the most fascinating decades in English
1429history.<p>
1430
1431<font size=-2><a href="henry8.html#Top">TOP</a></font>
1432
1433<br>
1434
1435 </p>
1436
1437<hr WIDTH="100%">
1438
1439 <p>
1440
1441<br><a NAME="Five"></a><b>1526-1536: Anne Boleyn and the Henrician Reformation</b>
1442 </p>
1443 <p align="center">This section, along with the remainder of the biography, is
1444
1445 not available as of March 2004.
1446
1447<br>I will post its completion soon.</p>
1448 <p>
1449
1450<font size=-2><a href="henry8.html#Top">TOP</a></font>
1451
1452<br>
1453
1454 </p>
1455
1456<hr WIDTH="100%">
1457
1458<center>
1459
1460 <p> <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Portraits
1461
1462of Henry VIII</a><br> <a href="../primary.html">Primary
1463
1464Sources</a></p>
1465
1466<p> <b>Henry's wives:</b>&nbsp;
1467 <a href="wives.html">The Six Wives of Henry VIII</a><br>
1468<br> <b>Henry's children:<br></b><a href="edward6.html">
1469 King Edward VI</a><br>
1470 <a href="mary1.html">Queen Mary I</a><a href="eliz1.html"><br>
1471 Queen Elizabeth I</a><p><a href="../tudor1.html">Test your knowledge
1472
1473of Henry VIII's life at Tudor Quizzes</a>.<p><font size=-1><a href="../monarchs.html">to
1474
1475Tudor Monarchs</a></font><br><font size=-1><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to Tudor
1476
1477England</a></font></center>
1478
1479
1480
1481 </blockquote>
1482</blockquote>
1483
1484</body>
1485
1486</html><!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --><!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --><script language="JavaScript" src="http://hostingprod.com/js_source/geov2.js"></script><script language="javascript">geovisit();</script><noscript><img src="http://visit.webhosting.yahoo.com/visit.gif?us1108082557" alt="setstats" border="0" width="1" height="1"></noscript>
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