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| 9 | <P align=center>I am redesigning the Life in Tudor England website, mostly to
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| 10 | include lots of pictures.<BR>Until I finish, you can explore some of the topics
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| 11 | listed here. Thanks for your patience.</P>
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| 12 | <P align=center> </P>
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| 13 | <P align=left>
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| 14 | <IMG height=43 src="life-morpheus.gif" width=333
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| 15 | border=0 alt="Life in Tudor England"><BR> </P>
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| 16 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 17 | <P align=left>
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| 18 | <IMG height=371
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| 19 | alt="woodcut of a family going to market in Tudor England"
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| 20 | src="life.jpg" width=300 align=left border=3> <BR></P>
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| 21 | <P align=left><B>Click on a topic below:</B></P></BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 22 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 23 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 24 | <P align=left>
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| 25 | <a href="tudorlife.html#Chronology">Chronology</a> -
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| 26 | <A href="tudorlife.html#Glossary">Glossary</A> -
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| 27 | <A
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| 28 | href="tudorlife.html#Government">Government</A> -
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| 29 | <A href="tudorlife.html#Religion">Religion</A> </P>
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| 30 | <P align=left><A
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| 31 | href="tudorlife.html#Population">Population</A> -
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| 32 | <A href="tudorlife.html#Money">Money</A> - <A
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| 33 | href="tudorlife.html#Food">Food</A><A
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| 34 | href="tudorlife.html#Food"> and Drink</A>
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| 35 | <BR></P>
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| 36 | <P align=left><A
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| 37 | href="tudorlife.html#Houses">Houses</A> - <A
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| 38 | href="tudorlife.html#Clothing">Clothing and
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| 39 | Appearance</A> - <A
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| 40 | href="tudorlife.html#Marriage">Marriage</A>
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| 41 | <BR></P>
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| 42 | <P align=left><A
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| 43 | href="tudorlife.html#Sex">Sex</A> - <A
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| 44 | href="tudorlife.html#Diseases">Diseases</A> - <A
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| 45 | href="tudorlife.html#Arts">Arts and Education</A>
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| 46 | <BR></P>
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| 47 | <P align=left><A
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| 48 | href="tudorlife.html#Crime">Crime and
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| 49 | Punishment</A></P>
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| 50 | <P align=left><A
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| 51 | href="tudorlife.html#Travel">Travel</A> - <A
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| 52 | href="tudorlife.html#Sorcery">Sorcery</A> - <A
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| 53 | href="tudorlife.html#Rebellions">Rebellions</A>
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| 54 | </P></BLOCKQUOTE></BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 55 | <DIV align=left></DIV>
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| 56 | <DIV align=left></DIV>
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| 57 | <DIV align=left></DIV>
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| 58 | <DIV align=left></DIV>
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| 59 | <P align=left><A href="tudorlife.html#Famous">Famous
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| 60 | Names to Know in Tudor England</A><BR></P>
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| 61 | <P align=left><A href="faq.html">Tudor FAQ</A>:
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| 62 | frequently asked questions<BR></P>
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| 63 | <P align=left><BR></P>
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| 64 | <P align=left><BR></P>
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| 65 | <P align=left><BR></P>
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| 66 | <HR>
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| 67 |
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| 68 | <P align=left><BIG><A name=Chronology></A>Chronology<BR></BIG></P>
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| 69 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 70 | <P><B>22 August 1485</B> - Battle of Bosworth Field; Henry Tudor's army
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| 71 | defeats King Richard III; Henry becomes King Henry VII </P>
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| 72 | <P><B>18 January 1486</B> - King Henry VII marries King Edward IV's eldest
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| 73 | surviving child, Princess Elizabeth of York </P><B>28 June 1491</B> - Henry
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| 74 | Tudor is born to King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York
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| 75 | <P><B>8 August 1503</B> - Princess Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII,
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| 76 | marries King James IV of Scotland </P>
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| 77 | <P><B>21 April 1509</B> - Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VIII of
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| 78 | England<BR></P>
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| 79 | <P><B>9 September 1513</B> - Battle of Flodden Field between England and
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| 80 | Scotland; King James IV of Scotland is killed </P>
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| 81 | <P><B>24 December 1515</B> - King Henry VIII appoints Cardinal Thomas Wolsey
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| 82 | lord chancellor</P>
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| 83 | <P><B>7 June 1520</B> - Field of the Cloth of Gold occurs; this is the famous
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| 84 | meeting between King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France </P>
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| 85 | <P><B>11 October 1521</B> - King Henry VIII is given the title 'Defender of
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| 86 | the Faith' by the pope </P>
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| 87 | <P><B>18 October 1529</B> - King Henry VIII's great statesman, Cardinal
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| 88 | Wolsey, is driven from power and dies in disgrace </P>
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| 89 | <P><B>25 January 1533</B> - King Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn </P>
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| 90 | <P><B>7 September 1533</B> - Elizabeth Tudor is born to King Henry VIII and
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| 91 | Anne Boleyn<BR></P>
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| 92 | <P><B>17 November 1534</B> - the Act of Supremacy is passed by Parliament; it
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| 93 | declares the English monarch to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England;
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| 94 | under Elizabeth this title is changed to Supreme Governor<BR><BR><B>June and
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| 95 | July 1535</B> - Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More are executed<BR></P>
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| 96 | <P><B>18 March 1536</B> - dissolution of the monasteries begins <BR></P>
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| 97 | <P><B>14 April 1536</B> - Wales is officially incorporated into
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| 98 | England<BR></P>
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| 99 | <P><B>19 May 1536</B> - King Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn, is
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| 100 | executed </P>
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| 101 | <P><B>12 October 1537</B> - King Henry VIII's only son, Prince Edward, is
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| 102 | born; his mother is the king's third wife, Jane Seymour, who dies shortly
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| 103 | thereafter<BR></P>
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| 104 | <P><B>28 July 1540</B> - King Henry VIII's great statesman, Thomas Cromwell,
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| 105 | is executed<BR></P>
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| 106 | <P><B>18 June 1541</B> - King Henry VIII is titled king of Ireland<BR></P>
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| 107 | <P><B>13 February 1542</B> - King Henry VIII's fifth wife, Catherine Howard,
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| 108 | executed<BR></P>
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| 109 | <P><B>24 November 1542</B> - Battle of Solway Moss between England and
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| 110 | Scotland </P>
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| 111 | <P><B>20 July 1545</B> - the Mary Rose, the flagship of King Henry VIII's
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| 112 | navy, sinks </P>
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| 113 | <P><B>28 January 1547</B> - Edward Tudor becomes King Edward VI </P>
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| 114 | <P><B>10 September 1547</B> - Battle of Pinkie between England and
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| 115 | Scotland<BR></P>
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| 116 | <P><B>23 September 1548</B> - the Protestant Book of Common Prayer comes into
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| 117 | use </P>
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| 118 | <P><B>6 July 1553</B> - King Edward VI dies </P>
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| 119 | <P><B>10 July 1553</B> - the Tudor cousin Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed queen
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| 120 | of England; she rules for just nine days </P>
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| 121 | <P><B>3 August 1553</B> - Mary Tudor becomes Queen Mary I </P>
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| 122 | <P><B>11 April 1554</B> - Sir Thomas Wyatt is executed after leading a
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| 123 | rebellion against Queen Mary I </P>
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| 124 | <P><B>25 July 1554</B> - Queen Mary I marries King Philip II of Spain </P>
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| 125 | <P><B>16 October 1555</B> - the Protestant churchmen Latimer and Ridley are
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| 126 | burned at the stake<BR></P>
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| 127 | <P><B>21 March 1556</B> - Thomas Cranmer, former archbishop of Canterbury,
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| 128 | burned at the stake</P>
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| 129 | <P><B>17 November 1558</B> - Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I
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| 130 | <BR></P>
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| 131 | <P><B>29 April 1559</B> - the Elizabethan religious settlement is passed by
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| 132 | Parliament </P>
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| 133 | <P><B>22 February 1560</B> - Treaty of Berwick between England and Scotland
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| 134 | </P>
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| 135 | <P><B>19 June 1566</B> - King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary queen of
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| 136 | Scots, is born </P>
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| 137 | <P><B>24 July 1567</B> - Mary, queen of Scots abdicates her throne in Scotland
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| 138 | and comes to England </P>
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| 139 | <P><B>24 August 1572</B> - the St Batholomew's Day massacre of Protestants
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| 140 | occurs in Paris<BR></P>
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| 141 | <P><B>18 October 1585</B> - the English colony at Roanoke in Virginia is
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| 142 | established </P>
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| 143 | <P><B>8 February 1587</B> - Mary, queen of Scots is executed at Fotheringhay
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| 144 | Castle </P>
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| 145 | <P><B>31 July 1588</B> - defeat of the Spanish Armada<BR></P>
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| 146 | <P><B>6 February 1595</B> - Sir Walter Raleigh leaves England to sail to the
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| 147 | New World </P>
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| 148 | <P><B>14 August 1598 </B>- Tyrone's Rebellion occurs in Ireland </P>
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| 149 | <P><B>25 February 1601</B> - Robert Devereux, the earl of Essex, is executed
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| 150 | for leading a rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I </P>
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| 151 | <P><B>17 December 1601</B>- the Elizabethan 'Poor Law' is passed; it has a
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| 152 | profound effect upon English society </P>
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| 153 | <P><B>24 March 1603</B> - Queen Elizabeth I dies; the Tudor dynasty ends; King
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| 154 | James VI of Scotland becomes king of England</P></BLOCKQUOTE>
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| 155 | <P></P>
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| 156 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 157 | <BIG><A name=Government></A>Government</BIG><BR>Tudor England's government was
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| 158 | an <B>absolute monarchy</B>. In this system, the monarch (king or queen) has
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| 159 | control over all aspects of government.<BR>Parliament did exist during the 16th
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| 160 | century but its role was often merely advisory. As the years passed, it became
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| 161 | increasingly powerful. Its main power was passing taxation. Whenever the king or
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| 162 | queen needed money, they first had to convince Parliament to order more
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| 163 | taxation. Parliament was only assembled when the king or queen ordered it,
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| 164 | unlike modern times.<BR><BR>
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| 165 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 166 | <BIG><A name=Religion></A>Religion<BR><SMALL>England was a Catholic nation under
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| 167 | the rule of Henry VII (1485-1509) and during much of Henry VIII's (1509-1547)
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| 168 | reign. In 1534, King Henry VIII declared himself Supreme Head of a new Church of
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| 169 | England. This coincided with the rejection of papal authority and dissolution of
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| 170 | the English monasteries. Protestantism was introduced to England. Under King
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| 171 | Edward VI (1547-1553), England was a Protestant nation. Under Queen Mary I
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| 172 | (1553-1558), England was again a Catholic nation. Under Queen Elizabeth I
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| 173 | (1558-1603), England was again a Protestant nation. It was under Elizabeth that
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| 174 | the Anglican church became firmly established and
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| 175 | dominant.</SMALL><BR></BIG><BR>
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| 176 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 177 |
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| 178 | <P align=left><BIG><A name=Population></A>Population: includes England and
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| 179 | Wales.</BIG><BR></P>
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| 180 | <BLOCKQUOTE><FONT color=#000000><B>1524.....2.3 million</B>
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| 181 | <BR><B>1541.....2.7 million</B> <BR><B>1550.....2.9 million</B>
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| 182 | <BR><B>1569.....3.2 million</B> <BR><B>1599.....4.0
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| 183 | million<BR></B></FONT></BLOCKQUOTE><FONT color=#000000>In </FONT><FONT
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| 184 | color=#000000>1520</FONT><FONT color=#000000>, 6% of the population lived in
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| 185 | urban areas (towns of over 4,000 people.)</FONT><BR><FONT color=#000000>In
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| 186 | </FONT><FONT color=#000000>1520</FONT><FONT color=#000000>, 3% of the population
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| 187 | lived in London.<BR><BR>Around 5% of the population were considered gentlemen.
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| 188 | Their numbers increased throughout the 16th century. 'Gentlemen' are people who
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| 189 | do not work with their hands. The middle class was larger; they were usually
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| 190 | literate and included craftsmen and tradesmen. The vast majority of the
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| 191 | population is poor and termed 'peasants' or 'common people'. They were mostly
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| 192 | illiterate and suffered the most when famines occurred and the currency was
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| 193 | debased.<BR><BR>In 1509, there was one duke, one marquis, ten earls, and thirty
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| 194 | barons in England. The peerage increased to 51 by the end of Henry VIII's reign
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| 195 | and had reached 57 when Elizabeth I became queen. But she was stingy with
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| 196 | granting peerages and the only duke left in England (Norfolk) was executed in
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| 197 | 1572. A new duke was not titled until 1623.<BR></FONT><B><FONT
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| 198 | color=#000000></FONT></B>
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| 199 | <P></P>
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| 200 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 201 |
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| 202 | <P></P>
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| 203 | <P><BIG><A name=Money></A>Money</BIG><BR>The currency in Tudor England is
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| 204 | divided into pounds, shilling, and pence. The pence/penny is the basic unit of
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| 205 | currency; 12 pennies make a shilling and 20 shillings make a pound.<BR></P>
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| 206 | <P>There are numerous coins in circulation throughout the 16th century. When
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| 207 | money becomes tight, the monarchs are fond of reducing the amount of precious
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| 208 | metal in the coins. This debases the real worth of English money and causes
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| 209 | problems for everyone.<BR></P>
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| 210 | <P>Among the coins in circulation are the royal (a gold coin worth 10
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| 211 | shillings); this was introduced during the reign of King Henry VII. Under his
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| 212 | grandson, King Edward VI, the angel was introduced; it was another gold coin
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| 213 | worth 10 shillings. There were also groats, farthings, sixpences, etc Around the
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| 214 | mid-16th century, a common laborer would make around 1 shilling per day.
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| 215 | So it would take a laborer twenty days to earn a pound! <BR></P>
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| 216 | <P>Coins are made at royal mints located in several large cities. Forgery often
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| 217 | occurs. Often, the royal treasurers are implicated.<BR></P>
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| 218 | <P>Because of debasement and famine, inflation is a constant problem. <BR></P>
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| 219 | <P>It is difficult to translate Tudor prices into contemporary money. Also,
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| 220 | prices varied widely throughout the 16th century. <BR></P>
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| 221 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 222 |
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| 223 | <P><BIG><A name=Food></A>Food and Drink</BIG><BR>There are three main components
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| 224 | of the Tudor diet - bread, beer, and meat (usually beef or mutton.) Like us,
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| 225 | they had three meals - breakfast, dinner, and supper. <B>Breakfast </B>was early
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| 226 | in the morning and a relatively simple meal. <B>Dinner </B>was the largest
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| 227 | meal and held between 11 am and 1 pm. <B>Supper </B>could be held anytime
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| 228 | between 5 pm and 8 pm, depending upon the person's social class. <BR></P>
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| 229 | <P>Everyone in Tudor England ate bread and cheese. The only difference between
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| 230 | classes was the quality of bread and cheese. The cheapest bread was called
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| 231 | 'Carter's bread'; it was a mixture of rye and wheat. The middle classes or
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| 232 | prosperous tenants ate 'ravel', also called 'yeoman's bread' and made of
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| 233 | wholemeal. The most expensive bread was called 'marchet' and made of white
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| 234 | wheat flour. Aristocratic households ate marchet, particularly during banquets.
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| 235 | Everyone from the poorest peasant to the wealthies monarch drank beer.
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| 236 | It was brewed without hops and was not particularly alcoholic. People
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| 237 | drank beer liberally. However, water was considered unhealthy - and for good
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| 238 | reason. Under Henry VII, French wines were imported in greater quantities
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| 239 | but only aristocrats drank them. <BR><BR>The poor and wealthy alike lived off
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| 240 | the land. England was self-sufficient, able to feed its population without
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| 241 | resorting to imports, at least during good harvests. Most peasants had
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| 242 | small bits of land in villages and towns. They kept chickens, pigs, and perhaps
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| 243 | a cow. Those with animals slaughtered them in November. The meat was
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| 244 | smoked, dried, or salted so it could be kept for meals in the cold months.
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| 245 | Bacon was the most common meat of poor people. Smoked bacon and salted
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| 246 | beef were most popular during the winter. <BR></P>
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| 247 | <P>Of course, meat could not be eaten on Fridays for religious reasons.
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| 248 | Instead, fish - dried cod or slated herring, most likely - was eaten. It
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| 249 | was <I>not</I> fresh since there was no efficient or speedy way to transport
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| 250 | fresh foods. Vegetables were plentiful, particularly beans, peas, carrots,
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| 251 | and onions. Fruits were available, too - apples, plums, pears,
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| 252 | strawberries, cherries, etc But potatoes and tomatoes were not available.
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| 253 | <BR></P>
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| 254 | <P>As you can see, diets were most interesting and varied in the warmer months
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| 255 | but cold weather meant preserved meats and little else. Everyone, rich and
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| 256 | poor alike, suffered from malnutrition, particularly Vitamin C deficiency (which
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| 257 | we call scurvy.) Molds in certain breads could also cause health problems.
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| 258 | <BR></P>
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| 259 | <P>There were 2 great famines in Tudor England - in the mid-1550s during Mary
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| 260 | I's reign and mid-1590s during Elizabeth I's reign.<BR></P>
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| 261 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 262 |
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| 263 | <P><BIG><A name=Houses></A>Houses<BR><B><SMALL>Types</SMALL><SMALL> of Houses:
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| 264 | </SMALL><SMALL></SMALL></B><SMALL>There are castles, mansions, manor houses, and
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| 265 | cottages. The materials used to build them depend upon the wealth of their
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| 266 | owners. Castles and churches were always built of stone, but it was expensive.
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| 267 | Middle-class homes were timber-framed but wood was too expensive to use for the
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| 268 | entire house. <BR>Instead, bricks were sometimes used, or white-washed wattle
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| 269 | and daub. When timbers were coated with black tar, the famous Tudor
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| 270 | 'black-and-white' effect was achieved. Many houses had steep, thatched roofs and
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| 271 | upper stories which hung over the lower ones. <BR></SMALL></BIG></P>
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| 272 | <P><B>Rooms:</B> The rooms in a nobleman's house would include a great hall for
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| 273 | feasting and entertaining, a great chamber used for sleeping and receiving
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| 274 | visitors and playing games, a cellar which was not necessarily below ground and
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| 275 | was used primarily for storage, a closet used as a private office or study, a
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| 276 | gallery (either enclosed or open on one side) which ran parallel to the house
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| 277 | and was used for exercise, a private bedchamber for the master of the house), a
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| 278 | kitchen, a parlor used as either a sitting room or small entertaining area, and
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| 279 | a privy which was a small, windowless room used as a bathroom. There were also
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| 280 | withdrawing rooms where wardrobes were kept or the owner could go for more
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| 281 | privacy. Often these rooms connected two bedrooms. <BR></P>
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| 282 | <P><B>Noble Households:</B> In Tudor England, a person's social status and
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| 283 | prestige were determined by two main things: the lavishness of their standard of
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| 284 | living and the number of their servants and attendants. The successful
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| 285 | maintenance of a large household also indicated a person's ability to govern,
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| 286 | albeit on a much smaller scale than the king.</P>
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| 287 | <P>A nobleman of sufficient rank and skill was often called to serve the monarch
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| 288 | in London. To that end, they would purchase and maintain - often at great
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| 289 | expense - townhomes in or just outside London. In London, the most affluent
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| 290 | street was known as The Strand. These homes were built on the riverside and so
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| 291 | were equipped with docks; the nobles could travel by personal barge from their
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| 292 | homes to various royal palaces. Nobles also owned homes in the counties near
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| 293 | their largest estates. Naturally enough, the maintenance of these various
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| 294 | residences was expensive, and became increasingly so as the century progressed.
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| 295 | But the greatest expense - and worry - was their principal estate, always
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| 296 | situated in the countryside. At these estates, their spiritual, public, private,
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| 297 | and economic worlds merged. They were an opportunity for the proud noble to
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| 298 | demonstrate his standing in the nation and to dominate local affairs thoroughly.
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| 299 | Also, they could play host to the reigning monarch on a royal progress. </P>
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| 300 | <P>Many of the most famous noble country homes can still be seen today. For
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| 301 | example, view Compton Wynyates in Warwickshire where Henry VIII often visited
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| 302 | and the duke of Buckingham's beautiful Penshurst Place in Kent. Five centuries
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| 303 | ago, estates such as these were managed by noblemen and their principal
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| 304 | officers, primarily knights and esquires. Together, they governed the estates
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| 305 | and surrounding lands. They gathered in the official presence chamber where
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| 306 | petitions were presented from tenants and neighbors. The councilors would judge
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| 307 | their claims and mediate disputes. </P>
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| 308 | <P>When the nobleman traveled to London or his lesser homes, a large group of
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| 309 | servants would accompany him - this was his 'skeleton' household. They journeyed
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| 310 | in carts packed with people and possessions. As Henry VII's rule impressed some
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| 311 | degree of stability upon England, such travel became less dangerous. But it
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| 312 | remained uncomfortable, even for the wealthy in padded coaches. </P>
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| 313 | <P>The presence of such wealthy and accomplished landowners was both a blessing
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| 314 | and a curse to Tudor monarchs. For early Tudor kings, these nobles could help
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| 315 | secure their rule, particularly in the North where trouble traditionally brewed.
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| 316 | Henry VII had no family ties to northern England; this made him even more
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| 317 | reliant on the great Northern lords to maintain peace and effective government.
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| 318 | </P>
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| 319 | <P>Knights and esquires wore their lord's livery; they also promised the support
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| 320 | of their tenants and servants in case of conflict. In this way, great households
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| 321 | could also serve as sources of rebellion and treason.<BR></P>
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| 322 | <P><B>Gardens </B>are very popular in Tudor England. As the century goes on,
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| 323 | they become increasingly ornate and expensive. Even noble families grow their
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| 324 | own fruits and vegetables when they can. <BR></P>
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| 325 | <P><SMALL>I will add more information about homes of the poor, as well as
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| 326 | pictures, soon. 17 October 2002</SMALL><BR></P>
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| 327 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 328 |
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| 329 | <P><BIG><A name=Clothing></A>Clothing</BIG> <BIG>and Appearance</BIG><BR>Tudor
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| 330 | England is famous for its beautiful and ornate clothing, particularly during the
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| 331 | reign of Queen Elizabeth I. <A
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| 332 | href="http://www.geocities.com/marilee-cody/eliz1-images.html">Click here</A> to
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| 333 | view portraits of the queen and her courtiers. <BR></P>
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| 334 | <P>Medieval sumptuary laws remained in force throughout the 16th century. These
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| 335 | laws dictated what each member of society could wear, depending upon their
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| 336 | social class. The laws are not enforced often. And fabrics such as silk, satin
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| 337 | and velvet are so expensive that only the wealthy can afford them. Cloth of gold
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| 338 | and the color purple are reserved for royalty. </P>
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| 339 | <P>During the reign of King Henry VIII, Spanish and French style gowns are very
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| 340 | popular. Clothes become more form-fitting and ornate. Men wear colorful tights
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| 341 | to emphasize well-developed calves. Women often have such low necklines that
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| 342 | preachers condemn them. Both sexes wear as much jewelry as they can afford. And
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| 343 | everyone, rich and poor, wears a hat. Certain clothing dyes are not expensive,
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| 344 | and so even the poor can wear green and brown outfits. Foreign visitors comment
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| 345 | upon the colorful outfits of the English poor. </P>
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| 346 | <P>Women have long hair which they wear loose until marriage. After the reign of
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| 347 | King Henry VII, men typically have short hair and beards and mustaches. It is
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| 348 | Henry VIII who makes beards popular; during his father's reign, men are
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| 349 | clean-shaven.<BR></P>
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| 350 | <P>The poor wear homespun woolen clothing with knitted hose and hobnail shoes.
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| 351 | In the field, they wear tunics and breeches.<BR></P>
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| 352 | <P>Children are dressed as miniature adults from the age of six onwards. Before
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| 353 | then, both boys and girls wear simple shifts or gowns. They are swaddled as
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| 354 | infants, a constricting practice which is believed to prevent illness. In fact,
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| 355 | for the first four months of their lives, infants are completely immobilized in
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| 356 | swaddling bands.<BR></P>
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| 357 | <P>Men generally wear flat-heeled shoes while women wore overshoes outside.
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| 358 | These were clogs which raised her feet so her gown wouldn't drag in the
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| 359 | dirt.<BR></P>
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| 360 | <P>Blonde hair is the most prized haircolor, but auburn and red hair are also
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| 361 | popular. Very white skin and red lips are achieved through the use of dangerous
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| 362 | cosmetics; lead, borax, and sulphur were sometimes used. Every woman hated
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| 363 | spots, whether freckles or pimples. <BR></P>
|
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| 364 | <P>As for bathing, most Englishmen think baths are unhealthy. Queen Elizabeth I
|
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| 365 | is considered strange for bathing as much as four times a year. <BR></P>
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| 366 | <P>Everyone uses perfume. Perfume is splashed on bodies and clothing,
|
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| 367 | particularly the gloves. The most popular scents included marjoram, lavendar,
|
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| 368 | musk, and rose.<BR>Noblemen and women carry pomanders, a hollow sphere holding a
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| 369 | waxed perfume ball. Pomanders are often highly decorative and expensive
|
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| 370 | accessories. Women attach them to their girdles and men dangle them from a
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| 371 | chain. <BR></P>
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| 372 | <P>Dentists are surgeons who remove rotten teeth and also perform other small
|
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| 373 | operations. People clean their teeth by rubbing them with a mixture of white
|
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| 374 | wine and vinegar boiled with honey. Fashionable noblewomen will sometimes
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| 375 | deliberately blacken their front teeth. <BR></P>
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| 376 | <P></P>
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| 377 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 378 |
|
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| 379 | <P><BIG><A name=Marriage></A>Marriage</BIG><BR>Marriage usually occurred during
|
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| 380 | the mid-twenties for most Tudor citizens. The wealthy and aristocratic tended to
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|---|
| 381 | marry earlier because of inheritance issues. But contrary to popular belief,
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| 382 | there were few child marriages in Tudor England. Of course, you could be
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| 383 | pre-contracted or betrothed at a much earlier age. Any marriage contract was
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| 384 | legally binding if the girl was 12 and the boy was 14. </P>
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| 385 | <P>Annulments and divorces were uncommon because they required special religious
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| 386 | dispensations. Most marriages ended with the death of a spouse. At any time in
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| 387 | the 16th century, roughly a third of marriages are the second or third marriage.
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| 388 | </P>
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| 389 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 390 |
|
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| 391 | <P><BIG><A name=Rebellions></A>Rebellions</BIG><BR>People in Tudor England
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|---|
| 392 | suffered through famine, poverty, and immense religious changes. Life was
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|---|
| 393 | uncertain and dangerous. Most riots in the country were small and local; they
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| 394 | usually involved food or the hated enclosure policies. Enclosure was the process
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| 395 | by which noblemen seized public land for themselves. They would build hedges
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| 396 | around the land to keep people out. But peasants needed the land to graze their
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| 397 | animals and would often tear the hedges down.<BR>There were also larger
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| 398 | rebellions throughout the 16th century. Here is a list of the most
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| 399 | important:<BR></P>
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| 400 | <P><B>The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)</B> - This rebellion occurred in November
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|---|
| 401 | 1536 in the north of England; it was a result of King Henry VIII's religious
|
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| 402 | changes. Northern England was always more conservative and Catholic than the
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| 403 | rest of the country. When their monasteries were destroyed and the lands and
|
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| 404 | money seized by Henry's prominent noblemen, the northerners rebelled. There were
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| 405 | roughly 30,000 people involved, a mix of lords, middle-class laborers, and
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| 406 | peasants. They called themselves 'pilgrims' and were led by an attorney named
|
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| 407 | Robert Aske. They chose the five wounds of Christ as their symbol. They did not
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| 408 | specifically rebel against King Henry VIII, but rather his councilors such as
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| 409 | Thomas Cromwell. The king promised clemency if the rebels dispersed but
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| 410 | eventually executed about 100 rebels.<BR></P>
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| 411 | <P><B>Kett's Rebellion (1549) </B>- In 1549, King Edward VI ruled England,
|
|---|
| 412 | though the government was under control of the Protestant Lord Protector
|
|---|
| 413 | Somerset. In East Anglia, a Norfolk gentleman named Robert Kett led a rebellion
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| 414 | against the king's religious policies, the dissolution of the monasteries, and
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| 415 | the very unpopular enclosure of common lands by greedy noblemen. The rebels were
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| 416 | defeated at Norwich by an English army supported by foreign
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| 417 | mercenaries.<BR><B><BR>Wyatt's Rebellion (1554)</B> - In spring 1554, Sir Thomas
|
|---|
| 418 | Wyatt led a rebellion against Queen Mary I's proposed marriage to King Philip II
|
|---|
| 419 | of Spain. Despite an army of 3,000 men, Wyatt was unable to enter London. He was
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| 420 | executed on 11 April 1554, after explicitly denying that Princess Elizabeth was
|
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| 421 | involved in the rebellion. Nonetheless, Elizabeth is temporarily imprisoned in
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| 422 | the Tower of London and Lady Jane Grey is executed. </P>
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| 423 | <P><B>The Northern Rebellion</B> <B>(1569)</B> - In 1569, the north of England
|
|---|
| 424 | again rebels against the Tudor monarchy, this time inspired by the imprisonment
|
|---|
| 425 | of Mary, queen of Scots and Catholic discontent. The rebels are led by the earls
|
|---|
| 426 | of Westmorland and Northumberland and the duke of Norfolk; they choose the five
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| 427 | wounds of Christ as their symbol, as had the Pilgrimage of Grace rebels. The
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| 428 | duke of Norfolk plans to depose Queen Elizabeth I and marry Mary, queen of
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|---|
| 429 | Scots, thus becoming king of England. The rebellion is crushed and several
|
|---|
| 430 | hundred rebels are hanged. </P>
|
|---|
| 431 | <P><B>The Throckmorton Plot (1583) </B>- This was the second plot to free Mary,
|
|---|
| 432 | queen of Scots. In 1583, Sir Francis Throckmorton, a Catholic nobleman, works
|
|---|
| 433 | with the Spanish ambassador to use Spanish troops to depose Queen Elizabeth I
|
|---|
| 434 | and free Mary. He was arrested in November 1583 and later
|
|---|
| 435 | executed.<BR><BR><B>The Babington Plot</B> <B>(1586)</B> - This was the third
|
|---|
| 436 | and final plot to free Mary, queen of Scots. In 1586, Sir Anthony Babington, a
|
|---|
| 437 | Catholic nobleman, conspired with a Catholic priest and others to assassinate
|
|---|
| 438 | Queen Elizabeth I and proclaim Mary queen of England. The plot is discovered by
|
|---|
| 439 | the secretary of state Sir Francis Walsingham and Babington and Mary are
|
|---|
| 440 | executed. </P>
|
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| 441 | <P><B>The Essex Rebellion (1601)</B> - Robert Devereux, the earl of Essex, was a
|
|---|
| 442 | great favorite of Queen Elizabeth I's, but he was also arrogant and ambitious.
|
|---|
| 443 | Disgraced and sent from court on numerous occasions, he attempted to lead a
|
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| 444 | rebellion against the queen on 8 February 1601. Essex protested that he did not
|
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| 445 | intend to harm the queen but to free her from the bad influence of other
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| 446 | councilors. He marched through London with 300 men but no others rallied to his
|
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| 447 | side. He was later executed. <BR></P>
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| 448 | <HR width="100%" SIZE=2>
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| 449 |
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| 450 | <P></P>
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