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-    <Metadata name="Content">Secondary Sources: The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, by JA Froude: Chapter One</Metadata>
-    <Metadata name="Page_topic">Secondary Sources: The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, by JA Froude: Chapter One</Metadata>
-    <Metadata name="Author">Marilee Mongello</Metadata>
-    <Metadata name="Title">Secondary Sources: The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, by JA Froude: Chapter One</Metadata>
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-    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;7&quot;&gt;The Divorce of&lt;br&gt;Catherine of Aragon&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
-    &lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;by 
-    JA Froude, 1891&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragon-new1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Lucas Horenbout&quot; width=&quot;325&quot; height=&quot;321&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
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-&lt;blockquote&gt;
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-    &lt;font face=&quot;Times New Roman&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;
-      &lt;b&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;CHAPTER ONE&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
-    &lt;blockquote&gt;
-      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Prospects of a disputed succession to the 
-      crown -- Various claimants -Catherine incapable of having further children 
-      -- Irregularity of her marriage with the King -- Papal dispensations -- 
-      First mention of the divorce -- Situation of the Papacy -- Charles V. -- 
-      Policy of Wolsey -- Anglo-French alliance -- Imperial troops in Italy -- 
-      Appeal of the Pope -- Mission of Inigo de Mendoza -- The Bishop of Tarbes 
-      -Legitimacy of the Princess Mary called in question -- Secret meeting of 
-      the Legates' court -- Alarms of Catherine -- Sack of Rome by the Duke of 
-      Bourbon -- Proposed reform of the Papacy -- The divorce promoted by Wolsey 
-      -- Unpopular in England -- Attempts of the Emperor to gain Wolsey.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;/blockquote&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;IN the year 1526 the political prospects of England became 
-    seriously clouded. A disputed succession had led in the previous century to 
-    a desperate civil war. In that year it became known in private circles that 
-    if Henry VIII. was to die the realm would again be left without a certain 
-    heir, and that the strife of the Roses might be renewed on an even more 
-    distracting scale. The sons who had been born to Queen Catherine had died in 
-    childbirth or had died immediately after it. The passionate hope of the 
-    country that she might still produce a male child who would survive had been 
-    constantly disappointed, and now could be entertained no longer. She was 
-    eight years older than her husband. She had &amp;quot;certain diseases&amp;quot; which made it 
-    impossible that she should be again pregnant, and Henry had for two years 
-    ceased to cohabit with her. He had two children still living -- the Princess 
-    Mary, Catherine's daughter, then a girl of eleven, and an illegitimate son 
-    born in 1519, the mother being a daughter of Sir John Blount, and married 
-    afterwards to Sir Gilbert Talboys. By presumptive law the Princess was the 
-    next heir; but no woman had ever sat on the throne of England alone and in 
-    her own right, and it was doubtful whether the nation would submit to a 
-    female sovereign. The boy, though excluded by his birth from the prospect of 
-    the crown, was yet brought up with exceptional care, called a prince by his 
-    tutors, and probably regarded by his father as a possible successor should 
-    his sister go the way of her brothers. In 1525, after the King had 
-    deliberately withdrawn from Catherine, he was created Duke of Richmond -- a 
-    title of peculiar significance, since it had been borne by his grandfather, 
-    Henry VII. -- and he was granted precedence over the rest of the peerage. 
-    Illegitimacy was a serious, but, it might be thought, was not an absolute, 
-    bar. The Conqueror had been himself a bastard. The Church, by its habits of 
-    granting dispensations for irregular marriages or of dissolving them on 
-    pleas of affinity or consanguinity or other pretext, had confused the 
-    distinction between legitimate and illegitimate. A Church Court had 
-    illegitimatised the children of Edward IV. and Elizabeth Grey, on the ground 
-    of one of Edward's previous connections; yet no one regarded the princes 
-    murdered in the Tower as having been illegitimate in reality; and to prevent 
-    disputes and for an adequate object, the Duke of Richmond, had he grown to 
-    manhood, might, in the absence of other claims, have been recognised by 
-    Parliament. But the Duke was still a child, and might die as Henry's other 
-    sons had died; and other claims there were which, in the face of the bar 
-    sinister, could not fail to be asserted. James V. of Scotland was next in 
-    blood, being the son of Henry's eldest sister, Margaret. There were the 
-    Greys, inheriting from the second sister, Mary. Outside the royal house 
-    there were the still popular representatives of the White Rose, the Marquis 
-    of Exeter, who was Edward IV.'s grandson; the Countess of Salisbury, 
-    daughter of Edward's brother the Duke of Clarence, and sister of the 
-    murdered Earl of Warwick; and Henry's life was the only obstacle between the 
-    collision of these opposing pretensions. James, it was quite certain, would 
-    not be allowed to succeed without a struggle. National rivalry forbade it. 
-    Yet it was no less certain that he would try, and would probably be backed 
-    by France. There was but one escape from convulsions which might easily be 
-    the ruin of the realm. The King was in the flower of his age, and might 
-    naturally look for a Prince of Wales to come after him if he was married to 
-    a woman capable of bearing one. It is neither unnatural nor, under the 
-    circumstances, a matter to be censured if he and others began to reflect 
-    upon the peculiar character of his connection with Catherine of Aragon. It 
-    is not sufficiently remembered that the marriage of a widow with her 
-    husband's brother was then, as it is now, forbidden by the laws of all 
-    civilised countries. Such a marriage at the present day would be held &lt;i&gt;
-    ipso facto&lt;/i&gt; invalid and not a marriage at all. An irregular power was 
-    then held to rest with the successors of St. Peter to dispense, under 
-    certain conditions, with the inhibitory rules. The popes are now understood 
-    to have never rightly possessed such an authority, and therefore, according 
-    to modern law and sentiment, Henry and Catherine never were husband and wife 
-    at all. At the time it was uncertain whether the dispensing power extended 
-    so far as to sanction such a union, and when the discussion rose upon it the 
-    Roman canonists were themselves divided. Those who maintained the widest 
-    view of thepapal faculty yet agreed that such a dispensation could only be 
-    granted for urgent cause, such as to prevent foreign wars or internal 
-    seditions, and no such cause was alleged to have existed when Ferdinand and 
-    Henry VII. arranged the marriage between their children. The dispensation 
-    had been granted by Pope Julius with reluctance, had been acted upon after 
-    considerable hesitation, and was of doubtful validity, since the necessary 
-    conditions were absent. The marriages of kings were determined with little 
-    reference to the personal affection of the parties. Between Henry and 
-    Catherine there was probably as much and as little personal attachment as 
-    there usually is in such cases. He respected and perhaps admired her 
-    character; but she was not beautiful, she was not attractive, while she was 
-    as proud and intractable as her mother Isabella. Their union had been 
-    settled by the two fathers to cement the alliance between England and Spain. 
-    Such connections rest on a different foundation from those which are 
-    voluntarily entered into between private persons. What is made up for 
-    political reasons may pardonably be dissolved when other reasons of a 
-    similar kind require it; and when it became clear that Catherine could never 
-    bear another child, that the penalty threatened in the Levitical law against 
-    marriages of this precise kind had been literally enforced in the death of 
-    the male offspring, and that civil war was imminent in consequence upon the 
-    King's death, Henry may have doubted in good faith whether she had ever been 
-    his wife at all -- whether, in fact, the marriage was not of the character 
-    which everyone would now allow to attach to similar unions. Had there been a 
-    Prince of Wales, the question would never have arisen, and Henry, like other 
-    kings, would have borne his fate. But there was no prince, and the question 
-    had risen, and there was no reason why it should not. There was no trace at 
-    the outset of an attachment to another woman. If there had been, there would 
-    be little to condemn; but Anne Boleyn, when it was first mooted, was no more 
-    to the King than any other lady of the court. He required a wife who could 
-    produce a son to secure the succession. The powers which had allowed an 
-    irregular marriage could equally dissolve it, and the King felt that he had 
-    a right to demand a familiar concession which other sovereigns had often 
-    applied for in one form or another, and rarely in vain. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Thus as early as 1526 certainly, and probably as much as a 
-    year before, Cardinal Wolsey had been feeling his way at Rome for a 
-    separation between Henry and Catherine. On September 7 in that year the 
-    Bishop of Bath, who was English Ambassador at Paris, informed the Cardinal 
-    of the arrival there of a confidential agent of Pope Clement VII. The agent 
-    had spoken to the Bishop on this especial subject, and had informed him that 
-    there would be difficulties about it. The &amp;quot;blessed divorce&amp;quot; -- &lt;i&gt;benedictum 
-    divorcium&lt;/i&gt; the Bishop calls it -- had been already under consideration at 
-    Rome. The difficulties were not specified, but the political features of the 
-    time obliged Clement to be circumspect, and it was these that were probably 
-    referred to. Francis I. had been defeated and taken prisoner by the 
-    Imperialists at Pavia. He had been carried to Spain, and had been released 
-    at Henry's intercession, under severe conditions, to which he had 
-    reluctantly consented, and his sons had been left at Madrid as hostages for 
-    the due fulfilment of them. The victorious army, half Spanish, half German, 
-    remained under the Duke of Bourbon to complete the conquest of Italy; and 
-    Charles V., with his already vast dominions and a treasury which the world 
-    believed to be inexhaustibly supplied from the gold mines of the New World, 
-    seemed advancing to universal empire. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;France in the preceding centuries had been the hereditary 
-    enemy of England; Spain and Burgundy her hereditary friends. The marriage of 
-    Catherine of Aragon had been a special feature of the established alliance. 
-    She was given first to Prince Arthur, and then to Henry, as link in the 
-    confederacy which was to hold in check French ambition. Times were changing. 
-    Charles V. had been elected emperor, largely through English influence; but 
-    Charles was threatening to be a more serious danger to Europe than France 
-    had been. The Italian princes were too weak to resist the conqueror of Pavia. 
-    Italy once conquered, the Papacy would become a dependency of the empire, 
-    and, with Charles's German subjects in open revolt against it, the Church 
-    would lose its authority, and the organisation of the Catholic world would 
-    fall into hopeless decrepitude. So thought Wolsey, the most sharp-sighted of 
-    English ministers. He believed that the maintenance of the Papacy was the 
-    best defence of order and liberty. The only remedy which he could see was a 
-    change of partners. England held the balance between the great rival powers. 
-    If the English alliance could be transferred from the Empire to France, the 
-    Emperor could be held in check, and his supposed ambition neutralised. 
-    Wolsey was utterly mistaken; but the mistake was not an unnatural one. 
-    Charles, busy with his Italian wars, had treated the Lutheran schism with 
-    suspicious forbearance. Notwithstanding his Indian ingots his finances were 
-    disordered. Bourbon's lansquenets had been left to pay themselves by 
-    plunder. They had sacked monasteries, pillaged cathedral plate, and ravished 
-    nuns with irreverent ferocity. The estates of the Church had been as little 
-    spared by them as Lombardy; and to Clement VII. the invasion was another 
-    inroad of barbarians, and Bourbon a second Attila. What Bourbon's master 
-    meant by it, and what he might intend to do, was as uncertain to Clement as 
-    perhaps it was to Charles himself. In the prostrate, degraded, and desperate 
-    condition into which the Church was falling, any resolution was possible. To 
-    the clearest eyes in Europe the Papacy seemed tottering to its fall, and 
-    Charles's hand, if he chose to raise it, might precipitate the catastrophe. 
-    To ask a pope at such a time to give mortal offence to the Spanish nation by 
-    agreeing to the divorce of Catherine of Aragon was to ask him to sign his 
-    death-warrant. No wonder, therefore, that he found difficulties. Yet it was 
-    to France and England that Clement had to look for help in his extremities. 
-    The divorce perhaps had as yet been no more than a suggestion, a part of a 
-    policy which was still in its infancy. It could wait at any rate for a more 
-    convenient season. Meantime he sent his secretary, Sanga, to Paris to beg 
-    aid; and to Henry personally he made a passionate appeal, imploring him not 
-    to desert the Apostolic See in its hour of extreme need. He apologised for 
-    his importunacy, but he said he hoped that history would not have to record 
-    that Italy had been devastated in the time of Clement VII. to the dishonour 
-    of the King and of Wolsey. If France and England failed him, he would 
-    himself be ruined. The Emperor would be universal monarch. They would open 
-    their eyes at last, but they would open them too late. So piteous was the 
-    entreaty that Henry when he read the Pope's letter burst into tears. Clement 
-    had not been idle. He had brought his own small army into the field to 
-    oppose Bourbon; he joined the Italian League, and prepared to defend 
-    himself. He was called the father of Christendom, yet he was at open war 
-    with the most Catholic king. But Wolsey reasonably considered that unless 
-    the Western powers interfered the end would come. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;If England was to act, she could act only in alliance with 
-    France. The change of policy was ill understood, and was not popular among 
-    Henry's subjects. The divorce as yet had not been spoken of. No breath of 
-    such a purpose had gone abroad. But English sentiment was imperial, and 
-    could endure with equanimity even the afflictions of a pope. The King was 
-    more papal than his people; he allowed Wolsey to guide him, and negotiations 
-    were set on foot at once for a special treaty with France, one of the 
-    conditions of which was to be the marriage of the Princess Mary -- allotted 
-    like a card in a game -- either to Francis or to one of his sons; another 
-    condition being that the English crown should be settled upon her should 
-    Henry die without a legitimate son. Sir John Russell was simultaneously 
-    despatched to Rome with money to help the Pope in paying his troops and 
-    garrisoning the city. The ducats and the &amp;quot;kind words&amp;quot; which accompanied them 
-    &amp;quot;created incredible joy,&amp;quot; encouraged his Holiness to reject unjust 
-    conditions which had been offered, and restored him, if for the moment only, 
-    &amp;quot;from death to life.&amp;quot; If Russell described correctly what he saw in passing 
-    through Italy, Clement had good cause for anxiety. &amp;quot;The Swabians and 
-    Spaniards,&amp;quot; he wrote, &amp;quot;had committed horrible atrocities. They had burnt 
-    houses to the value of two hundred million ducats, with all the churches, 
-    images, and priests that fell into their hands. They had compelled the 
-    priests and monks to violate the nuns. Even where they were received without 
-    opposition they had burned the place; they had not spared the boys, and they 
-    had carried off the girls; and whenever they found the Sacrament of the 
-    Church they had thrown it into a river or into the vilest place they could 
-    find. If God did not punish such cruelty and wickedness, men would infer 
-    that He did not trouble Himself about the affairs of this world.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The news from Italy gave a fresh impulse to Wolsey's policy 
-    and the Anglo-French Alliance, which was pushed forward in spite of popular 
-    disapproval. The Emperor, unable to pay, and therefore unable to control, 
-    his troops, became himself alarmed. He found himself pressed into a course 
-    which was stimulating the German revolt against the Papacy, and he professed 
-    himself anxious to end the war. Inigo de Mendoza, the Bishop of Burgos, was 
-    despatched to Paris to negotiate for a general pacification. From Paris he 
-    was to proceed to London to assure Henry of the Emperor's inalienable 
-    friendship, and above all things to gain over Wolsey by the means which 
-    experience had shown to be the nearest way to Wolsey's heart. The great 
-    Cardinal was already Charles's pensionary, but the pension was several years 
-    in arrear. Mendoza was to tell him not only that the arrears should be 
-    immediately paid up, but that a second pension should be secured to him on 
-    the revenues of Milan, and that the Emperor would make him a further grant 
-    of 6,000 ducats annually out of the income of Spanish bishoprics. No means 
-    was to be spared to divert the hostility of so dangerous an enemy.&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Wolsey was not to be so easily gained. He had formed large 
-    schemes which he did not mean to part with, and in the matter of pensions 
-    Francis I. was as liberal in promises as Charles. The Pope's prospects were 
-    brightening. Besides the English money, he had improved his finances by 
-    creating six new cardinals, and making 240,000 crowns out of the disposition 
-    of these sacred offices. A French embassy, with the Bishop of Tarbes at its 
-    head, came to England to complete the treaty with Henry in the Pope's 
-    defence. Demands were to be made upon the Emperor; if those demands were 
-    refused, war was to follow, and the cement of the alliance was to be the 
-    marriage of Mary with a French prince. It is likely that other secret 
-    projects were in view also of a similar kind. The marriage of Henry with 
-    Catherine had been intended to secure the continuance of the alliance with 
-    Spain. Royal ladies were the counters with which politicians played; and 
-    probably enough there were thoughts of placing a French princess in 
-    Catherine's place. However this may be, the legality of the King's marriage 
-    with his nominal queen was suddenly and indirectly raised in the discussion 
-    of the terms of the treaty, when the Bishop of Tarbes inquired whether it 
-    was certain that Catherine's daughter was legitimate. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Mr. Brewer, the careful and admirable editor of the &amp;quot;Foreign 
-    and Domestic Calendar of State Papers,&amp;quot; doubts whether the Bishop did 
-    anything of the kind. I cannot agree with Mr. Brewer. The Bishop of Tarbes 
-    was among the best-known diplomatists in Europe. He was actively concerned 
-    during subsequent years in the process of the divorce case in London, in 
-    Paris, and at Rome. The expressions which he used on this occasion were 
-    publicly appealed to by Henry in his addresses to the peers and to the 
-    country, in the public pleas which he laid before the English prelates, in 
-    the various repeated defences which he made for his conduct. It is 
-    impossible that the Bishop should have been ignorant of the use which was 
-    made of his name, and impossible equally to suppose that he would have 
-    allowed his name to be used unfairly. The Bishop of Tarbes was 
-    unquestionably the first person to bring the question publicly forward. It 
-    is likely enough, however, that his introduction of so startling a topic had 
-    been privately arranged between himself and Wolsey as a prelude to the 
-    further steps which were immediately to follow. For the divorce had by this 
-    time been finally resolved on as part of a general scheme for the alteration 
-    of the balance of power. The domestic reasons for it were as weighty as ever 
-    were alleged for similar separations. The Pope's hesitation, it might be 
-    assumed, would now be overcome, since he had flung himself for support upon 
-    England and France, and his relations with the Emperor could hardly be worse 
-    than they were. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The outer world, and even the persons principally concerned, 
-    were taken entirely by surprise. For the two years during which it had been 
-    under consideration the secret had been successfully preserved. Not a hint 
-    had reached Catherine herself, and even when the match had been lighted by 
-    the Bishop of Tarbes the full meaning of it does not seem to have occurred 
-    to her. Mendoza, on his arrival in England, had found her disturbed; she was 
-    irritated at the position which had been given to the Duke of Richmond; she 
-    was angry, of course, at the French alliance; she complained that she was 
-    kept in the dark about public affairs; she was exerting herself to the 
-    utmost among the friends of the imperial connection to arrest Wolsey's 
-    policy and maintain the ancient traditions; but of the divorce she had not 
-    heard a word. It was to come upon her like a thunderstroke.&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Before the drama opens a brief description will not be out 
-    of place of the two persons who were to play the principal parts on the 
-    stage, as they were seen a year later by Ludovico Falieri, the Venetian 
-    ambassador in England. Of Catherine his account is brief. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;The Queen is of low stature and rather stout; very good and 
-    very religious; speaks Spanish, French, Flemish, and English; more beloved 
-    by the Islanders than any queen that has ever reigned; about forty-five 
-    years old, and has been in England thirty years. She has had two sons and 
-    one daughter. Both the sons died in infancy. One daughter survives.&amp;quot; &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;On the King, Falieri is more elaborate. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;In the 8th Henry such beauty of mind and body is combined 
-    as to surprise and astonish. Grand stature, suited to his exalted position, 
-    showing the superiority of mind and character; a face like an angel's, so 
-    fair it is; his head bald like CÃŠsar's, and he wears a beard, which is not 
-    the English custom. He is accomplished in every manly exercise, sits his 
-    horse well, tilts with his lance, throws the quoit, shoots with his bow 
-    excellent well; he is a fine tennis player, and he practises all these gifts 
-    with the greatest industry. Such a prince could not fail to have cultivated 
-    also his character and his intellect. He has been a student from his 
-    childhood; he knows literature, philosophy, and theology; speaks and writes 
-    Spanish, French, and Italian, besides Latin and English. He is kind, 
-    gracious, courteous, liberal, especially to men of learning, whom he is 
-    always ready to help. He appears religious also, generally hears two masses 
-    a day, and on holy days High Mass besides. He is very charitable, giving 
-    away ten thousand gold ducats annually among orphans, widows, and cripples.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Such was the King, such the Queen, whom fate and the 
-    preposterous pretensions of the Papacy to dispense with the established 
-    marriage laws had irregularly mated, and whose separation was to shake the 
-    European world. Pope Clement complained in subsequent years that the burden 
-    of decision should have been thrown in the first instance upon himself. If 
-    the King had proceeded at the outset to try the question in the English 
-    courts; if a judgment had been given unfavourable to the marriage, and had 
-    he immediately acted upon it, Queen Catherine might have appealed to the 
-    Holy See; but accomplished facts were solid things. Her case might have been 
-    indefinitely protracted by legal technicalities till it died of itself. It 
-    would have been a characteristic method of escape out of the difficulty, and 
-    it was a view which Wolsey himself perhaps at first entertained. He knew 
-    that the Pope was unwilling to take the first step.&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;On the 17th of May, 1527, after a discussion of the Treaty 
-    with France, he called a meeting of his Legatine court at York Place. 
-    Archbishop Warham sate with him as assessor. The King attended, and the 
-    Cardinal, having stated that a question had arisen on the lawfulness of his 
-    marriage, enquired whether the King, for the sake of public morals and the 
-    good of his own soul, would allow the objections to be examined into. The 
-    King assented, and named a proctor. The Bull of Julius II. was introduced 
-    and considered. Wolsey declared that in a case so intricate the canon 
-    lawyers must be consulted, and he asked for the opinions of the assembled 
-    bishops. The bishops, one only excepted, gave dubious answers. The aged 
-    Bishop of Rochester, reputed the holiest and wisest of them, said decidedly 
-    that the marriage was good, and the Bull which legalised it sufficient. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;These proceedings were not followed up, but the secrecy 
-    which had hitherto been observed was no longer possible, and Catherine and 
-    her friends learnt now for the first time the measure which was in 
-    contemplation. Mendoza, writing on the day following the York Place meeting 
-    to the Emperor, informed him, as a fact which he had learnt on reliable 
-    authority, that Wolsey, for a final stroke of wickedness, was scheming to 
-    divorce the Queen. She was so much alarmed that she did not venture herself 
-    to speak of it, but it was certain that the lawyers and bishops had been 
-    invited to sign a declaration that, being his brother's widow, she could not 
-    be the wife of the King. The Pope, she was afraid, might be tempted to take 
-    part against her, or the Cardinal himself might deliver judgment as Papal 
-    Legate. Her one hope was in the Emperor. The cause of the action taken 
-    against her was her fidelity to the Imperial interests. Nothing as yet had 
-    been made formally public, and she begged that the whole matter might be 
-    kept as private as possible.&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;That the Pope would be willing, if he dared, to gratify 
-    Henry at Charles's expense was only too likely. The German Lutherans and the 
-    German Emperor were at the moment his most dangerous enemies. France and 
-    England were the only Powers who seemed willing to assist him, and a week 
-    before the meeting of Wolsey's court he had experienced in the most terrible 
-    form what the imperial hostility might bring upon him. On the 7th of that 
-    same month of May the army of the Duke of Bourbon had taken Rome by storm. 
-    The city was given up to pillage. Reverend cardinals were dragged through 
-    the streets on mules' backs, dishonoured and mutilated. Convents of nuns 
-    were abandoned to the licentious soldiery. The horrors of the capture may 
-    have been exaggerated, but it is quite certain that to holy things or holy 
-    persons no respect was paid, and that the atrocities which in those days 
-    were usually perpetrated in stormed towns were on this occasion eminently 
-    conspicuous. The unfortunate Pope, shut up in the Castle of St. Angelo, 
-    looked down from its battlements upon scenes so dreadful that it must have 
-    appeared as if the Papacy and the Church itself had been overtaken by the 
-    final judgment. We regard the Spaniards as a nation of bigots, we consider 
-    it impossible that the countrymen of Charles and Philip could have been 
-    animated by any such bitterness against the centre of Catholic Christendom. 
-    Charles himself is not likely to have intended the humiliation of the Holy 
-    See. But Clement had reason for his misgivings, and Wolsey's policy was not 
-    without excuse. Lope de Soria was Charles's Minister at Genoa, and Lope de 
-    Soria's opinions, freely uttered, may have been shared by many a Catholic 
-    besides himself. On the 25th of May, a fortnight after the storm, he wrote 
-    to his master the following noticeable letter: -- &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;The sack of Rome must be regarded as a visitation from God, 
-    who permits his servant the Emperor to teach his Vicar on earth and other 
-    Christian princes that their wicked purposes shall be defeated, the unjust 
-    wars which they have raised shall cease, peace be restored to Christendom, 
-    the faith be exalted, and heresy extirpated. . . . Should the Emperor think 
-    that the Church of God is not what it ought to be, and that the Pope's 
-    temporal power emboldens him to promote war among Christian princes, I 
-    cannot but remind your Majesty that it will not be a sin, but a meritorious 
-    action, to reform the Church; so that the Pope's authority be confined 
-    exclusively to his own spiritual affairs, and temporal affairs to be left to 
-    CÃŠsar, since by right what is God's belongs to God, and what is CÃŠsar's to 
-    CÃŠsar. I have been twenty-eight years in Italy, and I have observed that the 
-    Popes have been the sole cause of all the wars and miseries during that 
-    time. Your Imperial Majesty, as Supreme Lord on earth, is bound to apply a 
-    remedy to that evil.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Heretical English and Germans were not the only persons who 
-    could recognise the fitness of the secular supremacy of princes over popes 
-    and Churches. Such thoughts must have passed through the mind of Charles 
-    himself, and of many more besides him. De Soria's words might have been 
-    dictated by Luther or Thomas Cromwell. Had the Emperor at that moment placed 
-    himself at the head of the Reformation, all later history would have been 
-    different. One statesman at any rate had cause to fear that this might be 
-    what was about to happen. Wolsey was the embodiment of everything most 
-    objectionable and odious to the laity in the ecclesiastical administration 
-    of Europe. To defend the Papacy and to embarrass Charles was the surest 
-    method of protecting himself and his order. The divorce was an incident in 
-    the situation, but not the least important. Catherine represented the 
-    Imperialist interest in England. To put her away was to make the breach with 
-    her countrymen and kindred irreparable. He took upon himself to assure the 
-    King that after the last outrage the Pope would agree to anything that 
-    France and England demanded of him, and would trust to his allies to bear 
-    him harmless. That the divorce was a thing reasonable in itself to ask for, 
-    and certain to be conceded by any pope who was free to act on his own 
-    judgment, was assumed as a matter of course. Sir Gregory Casalis, the 
-    English agent at Rome, was instructed to obtain access to Clement in St. 
-    Angelo, to convey to him the indignation felt in England at his treatment, 
-    and then to insist on the illegality of the King's relations with Catherine, 
-    on the King's own scruples of conscience, and on the anxiety of his subjects 
-    that there should be a male heir to the crown. The &amp;quot;urgent cause&amp;quot; such as 
-    was necessary to be produced when exceptional actions were required of the 
-    popes was the imminence or even certainty of civil war if no such heir was 
-    born. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Catherine meanwhile had again communiated with Mendoza. She 
-    had spoken to her husband, and Henry, since further reticence was 
-    impossible, had told her that they had been living in mortal sin, and that a 
-    separation was necessary. A violent scene had followed, with natural tears 
-    and reproaches. The King endeavoured to console her, but it was not a matter 
-    where consolation could avail. Wolsey advised him to deal with her gently, 
-    till it was seen what the Pope and the King of France would do in the 
-    matter. Wolsey himself was to go immediately to Paris to see Francis, and 
-    consult with him on the measures necessary to be taken in consequence of the 
-    Pope's imprisonment. It was possible that Clement, finding himself helpless, 
-    might become a puppet in the Emperor's hands. Under such circumstances he 
-    could not be trusted by other countries with the spiritual authority 
-    attaching to his office, and schemes were being formed for some interim 
-    arrangement by which France and England were to constitute themselves into a 
-    separate patriarchate, with Wolsey at its head as Archbishop of Rouen. 
-    Mendoza says that this proposal had been actually made to Wolsey by the 
-    French Ambassador. In Spain it was even believed to be contemplated as a 
-    permanent modification of the ecclesiastical system. The Imperial 
-    Councillors at Valladolid told the Venetian Minister that the Cardinal 
-    intended to separate the Churches of England and France from that of Rome, 
-    saying that as the Pope was a prisoner he was not to be obeyed, and that 
-    even if the Emperor released him, he still would not be free unless his 
-    fortresses and territory now in the Emperor's hands were restored to him. 
-    Wolsey had reason for anxiety, for Catherine and Mendoza were writing to the 
-    Emperor insisting that he should make the Pope revoke Wolsey's Legatine 
-    powers. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;In spite of efforts to keep secret the intended divorce, it 
-    soon became known thoughout England. The Queen was personally popular. The 
-    nation generally detested France, and looked on the Emperor as their 
-    hereditary friend. The reasons for the divorce might influence statesmen, 
-    but did not touch the body of the people. They naturally took the side of an 
-    injured wife, and if Mendoza can be believed (and there is no reason why he 
-    should not be believed), the first impression was decidedly unfavourable to 
-    a project which was regarded as part of the new policy. Mendoza made the 
-    most of the opposition. He told the Emperor that if six or seven thousand 
-    men were landed in Cornwall, forty thousand Englishmen would rise and join 
-    them. He saw Wolsey -- he reasoned with him, and when he found reason 
-    ineffectual, he named the bribe which the Emperor was willing to give. 
-    Knowing what Francis was bidding, he baited his hook more liberally. He 
-    spoke of the Papacy: &amp;quot;how the chair was now in the Emperor's hands, and the 
-    Emperor, if Wolsey deserved it, would no doubt promote his elevation.&amp;quot; The 
-    glittering temptation was unavailing. The papal chair had been Wolsey's 
-    highest ambition, but he remained unmoved. He said that he had served the 
-    Emperor in the past out of disinterested regard. He still trusted that the 
-    Emperor would replace the Pope and restore the Church. Mendoza's answer was 
-    not reassuring to an English statesman. He said that both the spiritual and 
-    temporal powers were now centred in his master, and he advised Wolsey, if he 
-    desired an arrangement, to extend his journey from France, go on to Spain, 
-    and see the Emperor in person. It was precisely this centering which those 
-    who had charge of English liberties had a right to resent. Divorce or no 
-    divorce, they could not allow a power possessed of so much authority in the 
-    rest of Christendom to be the servant of a single prince. The divorce was 
-    but an illustration of the situation, and such a Papacy as Mendoza 
-    contemplated would reduce England and all Catholic Europe into fiefs of the 
-    Empire. &lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;/font&gt;
-    &lt;font face=&quot;Times New Roman&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;hr&gt;
-    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;From &lt;i&gt;The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon: 
-    The Story as Told by the Imperial Ambassadors Resident at the Court of Henry 
-    VIII&lt;/i&gt; by J.A. Froude.&amp;nbsp; Published in New York by C. Scribner's Sons, 
-    1891.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
-&lt;/blockquote&gt;
-
-&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
-&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ffroudetwo.html&quot;&gt;to Chapter Two&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fsecondary.html&quot;&gt;
-&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;to Secondary Sources&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
-&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2faragon.html&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;to 
-Katharine of Aragon website&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;/font&gt;
-&lt;blockquote&gt;
-  &lt;blockquote&gt;
-    &lt;font style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;font face=&quot;Times New Roman&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;/font&gt;&lt;font style=&quot;FONT-FAMILY: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;
-    &lt;/font&gt;
-    &lt;p class=&quot;3text&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
-    &lt;/font&gt;
-  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
-&lt;/blockquote&gt;
-
-
-
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