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2 | <!DOCTYPE Archive SYSTEM "https://greenstone.org/dtd/Archive/1.0/Archive.dtd">
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4 | <Section>
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5 | <Description>
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6 | <Metadata name="gsdlsourcefilename">import/englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/more.html</Metadata>
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11 | <Metadata name="Source">more.html</Metadata>
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12 | <Metadata name="SourceFile">more.html</Metadata>
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13 | <Metadata name="Language">en</Metadata>
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14 | <Metadata name="Encoding">windows_1252</Metadata>
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15 | <Metadata name="Page_topic">Sir Thomas More: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
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16 | <Metadata name="Content">Sir Thomas More: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
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17 | <Metadata name="Author">Marilee Mongello</Metadata>
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18 | <Metadata name="Title">Sir Thomas More: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
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19 | <Metadata name="FileFormat">HTML</Metadata>
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20 | <Metadata name="URL">http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/more.html</Metadata>
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21 | <Metadata name="UTF8URL">http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/more.html</Metadata>
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22 | <Metadata name="hascover">1</Metadata>
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23 | <Metadata name="dc.Subject">Tudor period|Citizens</Metadata>
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25 | <Metadata name="lastmodified">1665905530</Metadata>
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26 | <Metadata name="lastmodifieddate">20221016</Metadata>
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28 | <Metadata name="oailastmodifieddate">20221016</Metadata>
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30 | <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">more.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
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36 | </Description>
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37 | <Content>
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38 |
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39 | <table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="100%" height="667">
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40 | <tr>
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41 | <td width="25%" height="29"></td>
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42 | <td valign="top" width="50%" height="29">&nbsp;</td>
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43 | <td width="25%" height="29"></td>
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44 | </tr>
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45 | <tr>
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46 | <td width="25%" height="3"></td>
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47 | <td width="50%" height="3"><font size="3"></font></td>
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48 | <td width="25%" height="3"></td>
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49 | </tr>
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50 | <tr>
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51 | <td width="25%" height="610"></td>
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52 | <td valign="top" width="50%" height="610">
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53 | <p align="center">
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54 |
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55 | <IMG height=51 alt="Sir Thomas More"
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56 |
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57 | src="_httpdocimg_/more.gif" width=310></p>
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58 | <p align="center">
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59 | <img border="2" src="_httpdocimg_/more.jpg" alt="portrait of Sir Thomas More" width="250" height="315"><p><FONT size=-1>Thomas More's most famous literary
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60 |
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61 | work, <I>Utopia</I>, was first conceived in 1515 when More was sent on a
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62 |
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63 | diplomatic mission to Flanders.&nbsp; The story, inspired by and modeled upon
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64 |
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65 | Plato's <I>Republic</I>, has given its name to a whole genre of
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66 |
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67 | literature.&nbsp; I do not wish to ignore More's literary and philosophical
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68 |
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69 | accomplishments at this page, but I simply don't have the time to discuss
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70 |
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71 | <I>Utopia</I> within the context of the following biography.&nbsp; I urge
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72 |
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73 | readers to visit the following links to learn about More's work:</FONT><font size="2"> <BR>
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74 | </font><FONT size=-1> <A
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75 |
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76 | href="gopher://gopher.cc.columbia.edu:71/11/miscellaneous/cubooks/offbooks/more">Read
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77 |
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78 | the entire text of <I>Utopia</I> at this link</A></FONT><font size="2"> <BR>
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79 | </font><FONT
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80 |
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81 | size=-1> <A
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82 |
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83 | href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.d-holliday.com%2ftmore%2futopia.htm">Another electronic version of
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84 |
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85 | the text</A></FONT></p>
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86 | <p><FONT
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87 |
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88 | size=-1> <br>This website lists various
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89 |
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90 | essays on <I>Utopia</I> available in electronic format:</FONT><font size="2">
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91 | </font> <FONT
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92 |
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93 | size=-1>&nbsp;<A
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94 |
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95 | href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.d-holliday.com%2ftmore%2fmore.htm">More about More</A></FONT><font size="2">
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96 |
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97 | <BR></font><a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.d-holliday.com%2ftmore%2ferasmus.htm"><font size="-1">Click
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98 | here to read
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99 | Erasmus's famous description of More in a letter from 1519</font></a><font size="2">.</font></p>
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100 | <p><font size="2"><br>
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101 | </font>
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102 | <b><font size="2">Other online biographies of Sir Thomas More:</font></b><FONT size=-1><br>William
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103 | Roper was More's son-in-law;
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104 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.fordham.edu%2fhalsall%2fmod%2f16Croper-more.html">click here
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105 | to read his famous biography</a> of More.<br>John Farrow's
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106 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.cin.org%2ffarmor.html">biography of More</a><br>The
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107 | Catholic Encyclopedia's
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108 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.newadvent.org%2fcathen%2f14689c.htm">biography of More</a></FONT></p>
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109 | <p><FONT size=-1><br>An <A
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110 |
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111 | href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2f1535exec.html">eyewitness account of
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112 |
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113 | More's execution</A> can be read at the Primary Sources section.</FONT><font size="2">
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114 |
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115 | <BR></font><FONT size=-1>You can also read <A
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116 |
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117 | href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimore.html">More's final letter</A>,
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118 |
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119 | written to his beloved daughter Margaret while he was imprisoned in the
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120 |
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121 | Tower.</FONT></p>
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122 |
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123 | <blockquote>
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124 |
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125 | <P align="left">&nbsp;<P align="left"><u><b><font size="-1">Chronology of major events in More's life:<br></font>
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126 | </b></u><font size="2">Born 7
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127 |
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128 | February 1478 at Milk Street, London <BR>Entered Parliament in 1504
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129 |
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130 | <BR>Appointed undersheriff of London in 1510 <BR>Became a member of the Privy
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131 |
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132 | Council in 1518 <BR>Knighted in 1521 <BR>Made Speaker of the House of Commons
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133 |
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134 | in 1523 <BR>Made Lord Chancellor of England in 1529 <BR>Imprisoned in the
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135 |
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136 | Tower of London on charges of treason in 1534 <BR>Executed 6 July 1535 at
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137 |
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138 | Tower Hill, the Tower of London <BR>Canonized as a saint by the Catholic
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139 |
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140 | Church in 1935</font><P align="left">&nbsp;</blockquote>
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141 | </td>
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142 | <td width="25%" height="610"></td>
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143 | </tr>
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144 | </table>
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145 |
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146 | <blockquote>
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147 | <hr>
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148 | <p><font size="4">'[E]ven though we should have no word or deed to charge upon
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149 | you, yet we have your silence, and that is a sign of your evil intention and a
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150 | sure proof of malice.'&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><i><font size="2">Henry
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151 |
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152 | VIII's attorney-general at the trial of Thomas More, 1535</font></i></p>
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153 | <hr>
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154 | <blockquote>
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155 |
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156 |
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157 |
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158 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
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159 | <p>Thomas More is perhaps the most famous victim of Henry VIII's
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160 |
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161 | perverse judicial policies.&nbsp; He was England's most famous and respected
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162 |
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163 | intellectual, close friends with the great philosopher Erasmus, and beloved by
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164 |
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165 | his closely-knit family and wide circle of friends.&nbsp; He was that most
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166 |
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167 | rare of intellectuals - one who was humble, patient, and truly kind; he spent
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168 |
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169 | his life in ceaseless study, both intellectual and spiritual, and was a
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170 |
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171 | dedicated public servant.&nbsp; He was also an astute judge of character, and
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172 |
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173 | capable of witty, trenchant observations - he once said of his famous king,
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174 |
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175 | 'If a lion knew his strength, it were hard for any man to hold him.'&nbsp;
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176 |
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177 | And, of course, when his son-in-law mentioned Henry VIII's fondness for More,
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178 |
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179 | the philosopher noted even more famously that if the king thought 'my head
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180 |
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181 | could win him a castle in France it should not fail to go!' </p>
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182 |
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183 | <P>
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184 |
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185 | <IMG height=236 alt="sketch of Thomas More as Lord Chancellor, by Holbein"
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186 |
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187 | src="_httpdocimg_/moresketch1.jpg" width=175 align=left border=0>In the end, Henry did not want More's head in exchange for any French
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188 |
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189 | castles; he wanted it because More refused to recognize the king's sovereignty
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190 |
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191 | over the English church.&nbsp; But Henry had wanted More's approval
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192 |
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193 | desperately, and kept his former Lord Chancellor imprisoned for months in
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194 |
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195 | increasingly dire conditions, alternating between threats and flattery in
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196 |
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197 | desperate attempts to secure More's acknowledgment of the king's new
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198 |
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199 | role.&nbsp; Henry knew, none better, that More's approval would carry great
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200 |
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201 | weight throughout Europe, and he offered More his life in return for a few
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202 |
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203 | simple words.&nbsp; But More refused, and he learned the truth of the medieval
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204 |
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205 | adage that 'the king's wrath is death'.
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206 |
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207 | <P>More was the sole surviving son of Sir John More, a prominent lawyer and
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208 |
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209 | later judge, and Agnes Graunger.&nbsp; He was born on 7 February 1478 (some
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210 |
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211 | sources say 1477), and entered Parliament in 1504.&nbsp; One of his first acts
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212 |
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213 | in public life was to speak against one of Henry VII's more austere financial
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214 |
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215 | policies; as a result, Sir John was imprisoned and only released after a fine
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216 |
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217 | was paid and Thomas retired from public life.&nbsp; After the king's death in
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218 |
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219 | 1509, however, Thomas once again entered public service.&nbsp; His early
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220 |
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221 | education had prepared him well for such a life.&nbsp; His father had sent him
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222 |
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223 | to St Anthony's School at Threadneedle Street, under the direction of Nicholas
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224 |
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225 | Holt; upon reaching adolescence, More was sent to the household of Cardinal
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226 |
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227 | Morton, then archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England.&nbsp; As
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228 |
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229 | Morton was the most powerful man in England next to the king, and the most
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230 |
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231 | prominent ecclesiastic, his household was an invigorating blend of political
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232 |
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233 | and religious life.&nbsp; It was undoubtedly here that More first learned how
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234 |
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235 | to reconcile a deeply spiritual character with a devotion to secular
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236 |
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237 | affairs.&nbsp; Morton was living proof that a religious leader did not have to
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238 |
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239 | be monkish or retiring; he was also an inveterate gossip, and his twisted tale
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240 |
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241 | of Richard III's brief reign inspired More's awful <I>Life</I> of the last
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242 |
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243 | Plantagenet king.&nbsp; That biography is the only blight upon More's literary
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244 |
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245 | career.
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246 |
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247 | <P>Morton was sufficiently impressed with his young charge to sponsor More at
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248 |
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249 | Oxford.&nbsp; The young man entered Canterbury Hall (now part of Christ
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250 |
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251 | Church) probably around 1492.&nbsp; His time at Oxford was well-spent; under
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252 |
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253 | the tutelage of great scholars such as Thomas Linacre, More studied the
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254 |
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255 | classics and classical languages, as well as the other liberal arts.&nbsp; He
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256 |
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257 | was a bright and engaging student, enthusiastic about learning but also
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258 |
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259 | accustomed to more basic pleasures (he loved to play upon the flute and viol,
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260 |
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261 | and began his lifelong passion for collecting pets - apparently his adult home
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262 |
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263 | in Chelsea was a veritable zoo.)&nbsp; But like many university students, More
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264 |
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265 | found himself constantly short of money, a ploy his father used to keep the
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266 |
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267 | young man's mind upon his studies and not other, less academic pursuits.
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268 |
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269 | <P>He returned to London after about two years at Oxford, and entered as a law
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270 |
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271 | student at the New Inn in late 1494; in early 1496 he was admitted to
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272 |
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273 | Lincoln's Inn as well, and then called to the outer bar and made a
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274 |
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275 | bencher.&nbsp; He was once again a successful student, now following in his
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276 |
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277 | father's footsteps.&nbsp; He was made a 'reader' (or tutor) at Furnival's Inn,
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278 |
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279 | and was successful enough to retain the appointment for three years.&nbsp; But
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280 |
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281 | the law was not his true passion, and perhaps More already recognized this
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282 |
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283 | fact; he wrote poetry in his spare time, and entered into correspondence with
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284 |
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285 | the great English intellectuals of his age.&nbsp; Most of these men were
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286 |
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287 | introduced to him through his former professor at Oxford, Thomas
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288 |
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289 | Linacre.&nbsp; More's own reputation as a man of learning and wit was already
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290 |
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291 | begun, but he was beginning to suffer great spiritual conflict.&nbsp; The law
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292 |
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293 | was not wholly satisfying to his character, but religious study might be, or
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294 |
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295 | so he thought.&nbsp; Perhaps his introduction to the famous Dutch humanist
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296 |
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297 | Desiderius Erasmus in 1497 spurred his intense personal examination; the men
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298 |
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299 | became fast friends, and corresponded until More's execution.&nbsp; Whatever
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300 |
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301 | the cause, it is certain that around the turn of the century, More turned his
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302 |
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303 | attention to religious matters; he delivered well-attended lectures on St
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304 |
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305 | Augustine's <I>The City of God</I>, and was seriously considering becoming a
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306 |
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307 | priest.&nbsp; He underwent a dramatic personal struggle, debating whether he
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308 |
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309 | had a true vocation, or calling, to be a priest; he left his comfortable home
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310 |
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311 | in Chelsea and moved near the London Charterhouse.
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312 |
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313 | <P>At the Charterhouse, More began to examine the possibility of a wholly
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314 |
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315 | religious life.&nbsp; He joined the monks in daily prayer, and wore a hair
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316 |
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317 | shirt; he wavered between joining the Franciscans or Carthusians, and both
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318 |
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319 | orders were particularly dedicated to lives of strictness and denial.&nbsp;
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320 |
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321 | Perhaps their extreme fervor dismayed More, for he possessed an ironic wit
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322 |
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323 | which would not rest easy with their single-minded worship.&nbsp; Or perhaps
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324 |
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325 | he remembered his comfortable home and lifestyle in London.&nbsp; Whatever the
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326 |
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327 | case, he decided to abandon his brief dream of becoming a priest.
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328 |
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329 | <P>(It is worth noting that Erasmus later referred to his friend's decision in
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330 | a letter, writing that More 'chose, therefore, to be a chaste husband rather
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331 |
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332 | than an impure priest.'&nbsp; The implication is obvious, but sexual desires
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333 |
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334 | are normal enough in young men, and - even if Erasmus is correct - it does not
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335 |
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336 | speak ill of More's character.)
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337 |
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338 | <P>After finally deciding that the priesthood was not his true vocation, More
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339 |
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340 | returned to his law practice with a vengeance.&nbsp; He was soon enough
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341 |
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342 | elected to Parliament, and found himself firmly on the side of his friends,
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343 |
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344 | mostly London merchants, as they battled Henry VII's unjust 'grants'.&nbsp; As
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345 |
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346 | mentioned at the beginning of this biography, his speeches in defense of the
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347 |
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348 | merchants irked the king; as a result of More's persuasive oratory, Parliament
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349 |
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350 | lessened the amount from Henry's request of over £100,000 to about
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351 |
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352 | £30,000.&nbsp; Immediately, the temperamental king imprisoned More's father
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353 |
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354 | upon some pretext, and demanded that the hefty sum of £100 as a fine.&nbsp;
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355 |
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356 | More paid the fine, and thought it wise to disappear a bit from public
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357 |
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358 | life.&nbsp; He had other, more personal matters to occupy him anyway; in 1505,
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359 |
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360 | he married Jane, the eldest daughter of Master John Colte.&nbsp; It was a
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361 |
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362 | happy marriage, and Jane bore four children before her untimely death in 1511
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363 |
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364 | (daughters Margaret, Elizabeth, and Cecilia, and son John.)&nbsp; His
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365 |
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366 | son-in-law William Roper's biography implies that More married Jane out of
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367 |
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368 | pity; he preferred her younger sister, but thought it would bring shame upon
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369 |
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370 | the eldest daughter for her younger sister to be married before her.&nbsp;
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371 |
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372 | This anecdote was perhaps Roper's attempt to further enshrine More's generous
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373 |
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374 | character.&nbsp; In truth, More loved his wife deeply, and two decades after
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375 |
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376 | her death he called her 'uxorcula Mori'.
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377 |
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378 | <P>In any case, More was not a widower for long.&nbsp; He was left with four
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379 |
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380 | young children to care for, and soon decided to marry again.&nbsp; This time
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381 |
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382 | he chose a widow, Alice Middleton, seven years his senior.&nbsp; She had a
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383 |
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384 | good dowry and became exceptionally devoted to More and his children.&nbsp; The
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385 |
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386 | marriage was quite happy, and Alice maintained the household in London as a
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387 |
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388 | refuge for her busy, scholarly husband.&nbsp; More became a renowned 'family
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389 |
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390 | man', loathe to leave his home and kin, and truly dedicated to their
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391 |
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392 | happiness.<P align="center">
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393 | <img border="0" src="_httpdocimg_/morefamilysmall.jpg" alt="Holbein's famous portrait of Sir Thomas More and his family" width="550" height="370"><P align="center">
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394 | <i><font size="2">Rowland Lockey's 1593 copy of Holbein's famous portrait of
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395 | Sir Thomas More and his family</font></i><P>But More's love of family and learning were soon to become secondary to the
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396 |
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397 | desires of his king.&nbsp; Henry VIII was crowned in 1509, and More's
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398 |
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399 | reputation for learning and wit was already well-known.&nbsp; In 1510, he was
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400 |
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401 | made Under-Sheriff of London, and four years later the Lord Chancellor,
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402 |
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403 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fwolsey.html">Cardinal Thomas Wolsey</a>, appointed More as ambassador to Flanders.&nbsp; The
|
---|
404 |
|
---|
405 | mission was close to More's heart for it involved the rights of London
|
---|
406 |
|
---|
407 | merchants.&nbsp; But he was unhappy in Flanders; the salary was insufficient
|
---|
408 |
|
---|
409 | for his needs, and he missed his family.&nbsp; But it was in Flanders that he
|
---|
410 |
|
---|
411 | first began his most famous literary work, <I>Utopia</I>; it was published
|
---|
412 |
|
---|
413 | shortly after his return to England and helped secure his fame throughout
|
---|
414 |
|
---|
415 | Europe.
|
---|
416 |
|
---|
417 | <P>Wolsey and Henry VIII were impressed enough by More's services that they
|
---|
418 | offered him a position at Court.&nbsp; In 1516, after returning from Flanders,
|
---|
419 | he was officially granted a pension of £100 for life, a significant sum at the
|
---|
420 | time.&nbsp; In 1517, the government
|
---|
421 |
|
---|
422 | duties began in earnest - missions to the all-important Calais, and
|
---|
423 |
|
---|
424 | appointment to the Privy Council.&nbsp; Other honors soon followed; he
|
---|
425 |
|
---|
426 | attended Henry personally at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, was knighted and
|
---|
427 |
|
---|
428 | made treasurer to the king in 1521, and secured lands in Kent and
|
---|
429 |
|
---|
430 | Oxford.&nbsp; In 1523 Wolsey secured More's appointment as Speaker of the
|
---|
431 |
|
---|
432 | House of Commons, and a few years later More was appointed High Steward of
|
---|
433 |
|
---|
434 | Cambridge University and Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, all honorable
|
---|
435 |
|
---|
436 | and important offices.
|
---|
437 |
|
---|
438 | <P>It is obvious that both Henry VIII and Wolsey greatly favored More, though
|
---|
439 |
|
---|
440 | how More himself thought of his government service is unclear.&nbsp; He
|
---|
441 |
|
---|
442 | performed his offices with aplomb, but undoubtedly wished for
|
---|
443 |
|
---|
444 | more time with his family - and even more time with his studies.&nbsp; Life at
|
---|
445 |
|
---|
446 | court held little attraction for him; he was not ambitious (which intrigued
|
---|
447 |
|
---|
448 | the king and Wolsey) and he thought little of the gossip and mad scramble for
|
---|
449 |
|
---|
450 | power which characterized the Tudor court.&nbsp; But he did admire Henry and
|
---|
451 |
|
---|
452 | the king's intelligent and pious wife, Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; For her
|
---|
453 |
|
---|
454 | part, Henry's queen once commented that, of all her husband's ministers, only
|
---|
455 |
|
---|
456 | Thomas More had deserved the title 'Lord Chancellor', a remarkable comment
|
---|
457 |
|
---|
458 | considering More was the first layman to hold the office.
|
---|
459 |
|
---|
460 | <P>More first purchased the land for his famous home in Chelsea in 1523; soon
|
---|
461 |
|
---|
462 | enough his mansion upon the Thames was built, complete with a large garden
|
---|
463 |
|
---|
464 | bordering the river.&nbsp; It was here that he retreated as often as possible
|
---|
465 |
|
---|
466 | from court; here, too, that he entertained his many friends, including
|
---|
467 |
|
---|
468 | Erasmus.&nbsp; Often the king would arrive unannounced for dinner and stroll
|
---|
469 |
|
---|
470 | about the garden with More.&nbsp; Despite his later decision to imprison and
|
---|
471 |
|
---|
472 | execute More, it is clear that the king was truly fond of his councilor.&nbsp;
|
---|
473 |
|
---|
474 | Henry enjoyed intellectual debate and More was arguably the most learned man
|
---|
475 |
|
---|
476 | in England; he was also witty and kind-hearted.&nbsp; And for a long while, he
|
---|
477 |
|
---|
478 | basked in the king's service.
|
---|
479 |
|
---|
480 | <P>The conflict within More between government service and personal time was
|
---|
481 |
|
---|
482 | never fully resolved, though for many successful years he remained a respected
|
---|
483 |
|
---|
484 | and influential friend to the king and an independent philosopher.&nbsp; It
|
---|
485 |
|
---|
486 | was simply that he and Henry, for a long while, shared similar philosophical
|
---|
487 |
|
---|
488 | and religious views.&nbsp; Henry had, after all, jumped to the defense of the
|
---|
489 |
|
---|
490 | Catholic faith with a religious treatise of his own, and thus won the title
|
---|
491 |
|
---|
492 | 'Defender of the Faith' from the pope.&nbsp; More had little reason to suspect
|
---|
493 |
|
---|
494 | that Henry, originally raised as the second son destined for the church, would
|
---|
495 |
|
---|
496 | one day force papal power from England.&nbsp; But in the mid-1520s, More was
|
---|
497 |
|
---|
498 | aware - like everyone in England - that the king's long marriage to
|
---|
499 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2faragon.html">Katharine
|
---|
500 |
|
---|
501 | of Aragon</a> was unlikely to produce a male heir.&nbsp; Of the four sons
|
---|
502 |
|
---|
503 | Katharine had borne, all had died - and only the Princess Mary, born in 1516,
|
---|
504 |
|
---|
505 | survived as a viable heir for the Tudor throne.&nbsp; It was clear to everyone
|
---|
506 |
|
---|
507 | - especially the king - that something had to be done, though Henry never
|
---|
508 |
|
---|
509 | envisioned anything as drastic as what has come to be known as the '<a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ffaq.html">Henrician
|
---|
510 |
|
---|
511 | Reformation</a>'.&nbsp; It was only after years of frustration, delays,
|
---|
512 |
|
---|
513 | double-talk, and interference from Charles V that Henry finally denounced the
|
---|
514 |
|
---|
515 | pope's authority on religious matters.
|
---|
516 |
|
---|
517 | <P>Both the king and More had responded to the growing threat of Lutheranism
|
---|
518 |
|
---|
519 | with religious works (as mentioned above, Henry's work won special praise from the
|
---|
520 |
|
---|
521 | pope.)&nbsp; Today More's work strike us as bigoted and narrow-minded, but
|
---|
522 |
|
---|
523 | it should be read within the context of his time and beliefs, and it is often less inflammatory than other Catholic polemics.&nbsp; Also, the
|
---|
524 |
|
---|
525 | Lutherans were hardly decorous in their prose.&nbsp; More was eventually
|
---|
526 |
|
---|
527 | persuaded to write in English so he could reach a wider audience; he had also
|
---|
528 |
|
---|
529 | watched as the Lutheran 'heretics' wrote in the vernacular and attracted
|
---|
530 |
|
---|
531 | numerous followers.
|
---|
532 |
|
---|
533 | <P>But More's response to this new heresy was reinforced by the fall of
|
---|
534 |
|
---|
535 | Cardinal Wolsey, once his great patron.&nbsp; Henry's decision to annul his
|
---|
536 |
|
---|
537 | marriage to Katharine of Aragon was simple enough, and quite common among
|
---|
538 |
|
---|
539 | monarchs and other high nobles in Europe.&nbsp; It was a necessary way to end
|
---|
540 |
|
---|
541 | unsuccessful (i.e., childless) unions.&nbsp; Henry had every reason to expect
|
---|
542 |
|
---|
543 | that the pope would grant his petition for an annulment; he even had a
|
---|
544 |
|
---|
545 | stronger claim that most men.&nbsp; Henry could quote liberally from
|
---|
546 |
|
---|
547 | Leviticus, particularly the injunction against marrying a brother's
|
---|
548 |
|
---|
549 | wife.&nbsp; On grounds of strict theology, he certainly had a case for
|
---|
550 |
|
---|
551 | annulment.&nbsp; But he had two problems - a stubborn wife who refused to see
|
---|
552 |
|
---|
553 | reason, and her very powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who
|
---|
554 |
|
---|
555 | virtually controlled the pope.&nbsp; As a result, the simple matter of an
|
---|
556 |
|
---|
557 | annulment became a major European political issue.
|
---|
558 |
|
---|
559 | <P>
|
---|
560 | <img border="0" src="_httpdocimg_/anne2.jpg" alt="portrait of Anne Boleyn, whose marriage to King Henry VIII brought about More's downfall" align="left" width="139" height="194">Matters were complicated by Henry's growing - and
|
---|
561 | scandalously open - passion for
|
---|
562 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fboleyn.html">Anne
|
---|
563 |
|
---|
564 | Boleyn</a>, the daughter of Thomas Boleyn and niece of the duke of Norfolk.&nbsp; More knew
|
---|
565 |
|
---|
566 | the Boleyns well enough for Thomas was an ambassador and well-liked; like
|
---|
567 |
|
---|
568 | More, he was from humble beginnings but used his skill and intelligence to
|
---|
569 |
|
---|
570 | rise quickly in Henry's service.&nbsp; His eldest daughter Mary had been
|
---|
571 | Henry's mistress, and possibly borne his son.&nbsp; Anne, however, was more
|
---|
572 | ambitious than her sister.&nbsp; She recognized
|
---|
573 |
|
---|
574 | the king's predicament; he needed heirs, and she was young and healthy.&nbsp;
|
---|
575 |
|
---|
576 | And Henry loved her passionately, at least for a time.&nbsp; But it is far too
|
---|
577 |
|
---|
578 | simplistic to argue, as many biographers have, that Henry defied the Catholic
|
---|
579 |
|
---|
580 | Church because of Anne Boleyn.&nbsp; The king was dissatisfied with his
|
---|
581 |
|
---|
582 | marriage before they met and there had been talk of an annulment as
|
---|
583 |
|
---|
584 | well.&nbsp; His love for Anne simply gave new impetus to an existing desire to
|
---|
585 |
|
---|
586 | break with Katharine.
|
---|
587 |
|
---|
588 | <P>
|
---|
589 |
|
---|
590 | Wolsey's hatred of the Boleyns was spurred by jealousy.&nbsp; He had been the king's closest advisor and confidante
|
---|
591 |
|
---|
592 | until his failure to secure an annulment earned royal displeasure.&nbsp; Anne and her supporters were quick to put distance between Henry
|
---|
593 |
|
---|
594 | and the elderly cardinal.&nbsp; Wolsey's time had passed, and he died while on
|
---|
595 |
|
---|
596 | the way to the Tower for trial.&nbsp; And so, in October of 1529, Thomas More
|
---|
597 |
|
---|
598 | became the first layperson appointed Lord Chancellor of England.&nbsp; He was
|
---|
599 |
|
---|
600 | now Keeper of the Great Seal, and second only to the king in power.&nbsp; It
|
---|
601 |
|
---|
602 | was a heady appointment, but More probably greeted the appointment with his
|
---|
603 |
|
---|
604 | usual ironic stance - particularly since he had just witnessed Wolsey's fall
|
---|
605 |
|
---|
606 | from grace.
|
---|
607 |
|
---|
608 | <P>More did not like the Boleyns.&nbsp; They represented a new generation at
|
---|
609 |
|
---|
610 | court - greedy, flamboyant, and openly ambitious.&nbsp; They were quick to
|
---|
611 |
|
---|
612 | make enemies, and difficult to please.&nbsp; More, who had no love of gossip
|
---|
613 |
|
---|
614 | and admired Katharine of Aragon's deep piety (the old queen spent several
|
---|
615 |
|
---|
616 | hours a day on her knees in prayer), was aware that Henry was drifting from
|
---|
617 |
|
---|
618 | him intellectually and spiritually.&nbsp; Anne Boleyn had come to represent
|
---|
619 |
|
---|
620 | the Lutheran cause in More's mind as well, though not because she was a
|
---|
621 |
|
---|
622 | Lutheran.&nbsp; It was simply that her marriage to Henry would mean defiance
|
---|
623 |
|
---|
624 | of papal law, and would place England in spiritual jeopardy.&nbsp; And so, to
|
---|
625 |
|
---|
626 | More and most Englishmen, Katharine represented the piety and virtues of the
|
---|
627 |
|
---|
628 | old faith, and Anne represented the startling spiritual changes sweeping
|
---|
629 |
|
---|
630 | throughout Europe.
|
---|
631 |
|
---|
632 | <P>More used his position as Lord Chancellor to wipe out as much of the new
|
---|
633 |
|
---|
634 | heresy as possible; he had always been a great lawyer and judge, and he used
|
---|
635 |
|
---|
636 | these talents formidably.&nbsp; He never equaled Wolsey's power or prestige,
|
---|
637 |
|
---|
638 | simply because Henry had temporarily lost his taste for all-powerful political
|
---|
639 |
|
---|
640 | advisors.&nbsp; But More was completely successful in ridding the English
|
---|
641 |
|
---|
642 | court of cases - he actually exhausted the case log!&nbsp; And, of course, he
|
---|
643 |
|
---|
644 | didn't simply judge cases; he also enforced the existing heresy laws with
|
---|
645 |
|
---|
646 | great zeal.&nbsp; One cannot condemn More for following the tenets of his own
|
---|
647 |
|
---|
648 | religious convictions, and it is worth noting that he specifically
|
---|
649 |
|
---|
650 | distinguished between the vice of heresy and the actual heretic.&nbsp; He
|
---|
651 |
|
---|
652 | hesitated to bring the full force of the law against heretics; he was
|
---|
653 |
|
---|
654 | scrupulous about offering them every possible opportunity to recant.&nbsp; In
|
---|
655 |
|
---|
656 | this he was successful, and only four people were actually executed for heresy
|
---|
657 |
|
---|
658 | during his tenure as Lord Chancellor.
|
---|
659 |
|
---|
660 | <P>More's religious views were shortly to conflict with his king's
|
---|
661 |
|
---|
662 | desires.&nbsp; Henry was frustrated with the pope's endless delays in deciding
|
---|
663 |
|
---|
664 | his case, and he was determined to establish some control over the church in
|
---|
665 |
|
---|
666 | England.&nbsp; He did not tell More of his plans, preferring to confide in
|
---|
667 |
|
---|
668 | more liberal members of his council and parliament.&nbsp; And so, just a few
|
---|
669 |
|
---|
670 | months after More's elevation to the position of lord chancellor, a new
|
---|
671 |
|
---|
672 | parliament began to pass the sweeping laws which would end the supremacy of
|
---|
673 |
|
---|
674 | the Roman Catholic Church in England.&nbsp; First there was a royal
|
---|
675 |
|
---|
676 | proclamation that all members of the clergy must acknowledge the king as
|
---|
677 |
|
---|
678 | 'Supreme Head' of English affairs 'as far as the law of God will
|
---|
679 |
|
---|
680 | permit'.&nbsp; More realized the threat to his own spiritual beliefs and
|
---|
681 |
|
---|
682 | immediately proffered his resignation.&nbsp; Henry refused angrily, and
|
---|
683 |
|
---|
684 | promised More that he would never have to agree to anything proclamation that
|
---|
685 |
|
---|
686 | went against his conscience.&nbsp; Was this promise a deliberate lie on the
|
---|
687 |
|
---|
688 | king's part?&nbsp; Probably not, for Henry truly believed in the religious
|
---|
689 |
|
---|
690 | righteousness of his own cause and undoubtedly expected all to do the same.
|
---|
691 |
|
---|
692 | <P>But More could not hold out for long, and nor could Henry - whose designs
|
---|
693 |
|
---|
694 | were becoming more sweeping and offensive to the old faith - ignore his chief
|
---|
695 |
|
---|
696 | minister's open opposition.&nbsp; It was an embarrassment, and in May 1532 he
|
---|
697 |
|
---|
698 | finally accepted More's resignation.&nbsp; By this time, More had lost his
|
---|
699 |
|
---|
700 | close friendship with the king; there were no more impromptu dinner visits, or
|
---|
701 |
|
---|
702 | intense conversations about philosophical matters.&nbsp; It was clear to
|
---|
703 |
|
---|
704 | everyone that a line would soon be clearly drawn, and everyone would be either
|
---|
705 |
|
---|
706 | for or against the king - always remembering, of course, the old adage that
|
---|
707 |
|
---|
708 | 'the king's wrath is death'.
|
---|
709 |
|
---|
710 | <P>More still had powerful friends and allies, and Henry was always far more
|
---|
711 |
|
---|
712 | eager to have More's cooperation than his disobedience.&nbsp; More was still,
|
---|
713 |
|
---|
714 | after all, the most famous English philosopher, widely read and respected on
|
---|
715 |
|
---|
716 | the continent.&nbsp; And in England he even had the friendship of Thomas
|
---|
717 |
|
---|
718 | Cranmer, the very Protestant archbishop of Canterbury and, along with Thomas
|
---|
719 |
|
---|
720 | Cromwell, the chief advisor to the king.&nbsp; But English Catholics, feeling
|
---|
721 |
|
---|
722 | their faith under siege, were also looking to More as their most prominent
|
---|
723 |
|
---|
724 | champion.&nbsp; And so he was faced with the simple fact that despite his own
|
---|
725 |
|
---|
726 | longing for retirement and personal peace, he was too much a public figure to
|
---|
727 |
|
---|
728 | fade into the background.&nbsp; His opinion mattered too much, and was sought
|
---|
729 |
|
---|
730 | by too many.
|
---|
731 |
|
---|
732 | <P>After resigning from the lord chancellorship, More had immediately lost a
|
---|
733 |
|
---|
734 | great deal of his income but he scaled back his lifestyle and happily returned
|
---|
735 |
|
---|
736 | to Chelsea.&nbsp; His greatest wish was to simply stay at home with his
|
---|
737 |
|
---|
738 | beloved family and write; he wanted no part in the politics of Henry's
|
---|
739 |
|
---|
740 | court.&nbsp; But he couldn't escape so easily.&nbsp; Still, it is worth
|
---|
741 |
|
---|
742 | remembering that More did not hurry toward his fate; he did not accept death
|
---|
743 |
|
---|
744 | as inevitable and put himself directly in opposition to the king.&nbsp; He
|
---|
745 |
|
---|
746 | wanted to live, and in the following years he did much to avoid his eventual
|
---|
747 |
|
---|
748 | fate - everything except betray his conscience.
|
---|
749 |
|
---|
750 | <P>For about eighteen months he was able to escape the king's wrath.&nbsp; He
|
---|
751 |
|
---|
752 | stayed away from Anne Boleyn's coronation, deliberately avoiding a public
|
---|
753 |
|
---|
754 | confrontation with the king.&nbsp; And when his nephew, William Rastell, wrote
|
---|
755 |
|
---|
756 | a pro-Catholic treatise, More immediately wrote to Cromwell and Henry denying
|
---|
757 |
|
---|
758 | any involvement.&nbsp; More specifically stressed that he knew his duty as a
|
---|
759 |
|
---|
760 | citizen, and supported his prince completely - too completely to criticize any
|
---|
761 |
|
---|
762 | of his decisions.&nbsp; But such dissembling - and from such a famous man -
|
---|
763 |
|
---|
764 | would not please Henry for long.&nbsp; Soon enough More's name was included in
|
---|
765 |
|
---|
766 | the Bill of Attainder against the Catholic mystic Elizabeth Barton, the Holy
|
---|
767 |
|
---|
768 | Maid of Kent.&nbsp; More had once visited the woman, but was too skeptical to
|
---|
769 |
|
---|
770 | believe in her increasingly dramatic 'visions'.&nbsp; He was brought before
|
---|
771 |
|
---|
772 | the Council and asked about his religious views; he explained that he had
|
---|
773 |
|
---|
774 | discussed his feelings to the king on various occasions, and never incurred
|
---|
775 |
|
---|
776 | Henry's wrath.&nbsp; More was popular enough, and quite innocent, and so Henry
|
---|
777 |
|
---|
778 | grudgingly removed his name from the bill.&nbsp; But he had intended the
|
---|
779 |
|
---|
780 | measure as a warning to More, and it was well-taken.&nbsp; The duke of
|
---|
781 |
|
---|
782 | Norfolk, Anne Boleyn's uncle, warned More that 'the king's wrath is death' and
|
---|
783 |
|
---|
784 | More replied wittily, 'Is that all, my lord?&nbsp; Then, in good faith,
|
---|
785 |
|
---|
786 | between your grace and me is but this - that I shall die today, and you
|
---|
787 |
|
---|
788 | tomorrow'.</BLOCKQUOTE>
|
---|
789 |
|
---|
790 | </blockquote>
|
---|
791 | <hr>
|
---|
792 |
|
---|
793 | <P><font size="4">'Thou wilt give me this day a greater benefit than ever any mortal man
|
---|
794 |
|
---|
795 | can be able to give me.&nbsp; Pluck up thy spirits, man, and be not afraid
|
---|
796 |
|
---|
797 | to do thine office.&nbsp; My neck is very short: take heed, therefore, thou
|
---|
798 |
|
---|
799 | strike not awry for saving of thine honesty.'</font>&nbsp; <i> <FONT size=-1>&nbsp;Thomas
|
---|
800 |
|
---|
801 | More's last words to his executioner, 6 July
|
---|
802 |
|
---|
803 | 1535</FONT></i></P><hr>
|
---|
804 | <blockquote>
|
---|
805 |
|
---|
806 |
|
---|
807 |
|
---|
808 | <BLOCKQUOTE>
|
---|
809 |
|
---|
810 | <P>Today came quickly for More; in March of 1534, just months after the birth
|
---|
811 |
|
---|
812 | of Henry and Anne's
|
---|
813 | <a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz.html">daughter</a>, the Act of Succession was passed which ordered
|
---|
814 |
|
---|
815 | everyone the government called upon to swear an oath acknowledging the
|
---|
816 |
|
---|
817 | legitimacy of Anne and Henry's heirs, and - most significantly - including a
|
---|
818 |
|
---|
819 | clause which repudiated the power of any 'foreign authority' in English
|
---|
820 |
|
---|
821 | affairs.&nbsp; On the 14th of April More was summoned from Chelsea to take the
|
---|
822 |
|
---|
823 | oath at Lambeth; he refused.&nbsp; He was turned over to the custody of the
|
---|
824 |
|
---|
825 | abbot of Westminster, and four days later taken to the Tower of London where he was
|
---|
826 |
|
---|
827 | lodged in the Bell Tower.&nbsp; Months passed, and the king both threatened
|
---|
828 |
|
---|
829 | and cajoled his former friend, sending various emissaries while also keeping
|
---|
830 |
|
---|
831 | More in increasingly dire conditions.&nbsp; More did not break.&nbsp;
|
---|
832 |
|
---|
833 | Imprisoned with John Fisher, the bishop of Rochester, More took strength from
|
---|
834 |
|
---|
835 | that great man's equal courage.
|
---|
836 |
|
---|
837 | <P>When not entertaining a rare visitor with his wit and charm, More engaged
|
---|
838 |
|
---|
839 | in prayer and writing.&nbsp; In the spring of 1535 Cromwell visited the Tower
|
---|
840 |
|
---|
841 | personally to ask More's opinion of recently-passed statutes which gave Henry
|
---|
842 |
|
---|
843 | the title 'Supreme Head of the Church of England'.&nbsp; More judiciously
|
---|
844 |
|
---|
845 | replied that he was a faithful servant of the king; in June, the
|
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846 |
|
---|
847 | solicitor-general interviewed him and reported to Henry and Cromwell that More
|
---|
848 |
|
---|
849 | had denied parliament's power to confer supreme ecclesiastical authority upon
|
---|
850 |
|
---|
851 | the king.&nbsp; Henry now turned both petty and cruel - he used the pretext of
|
---|
852 |
|
---|
853 | More and Fisher's occasional letters to one another to confiscate all of
|
---|
854 |
|
---|
855 | More's writing materials.&nbsp; He was now reduced to writing upon scraps with
|
---|
856 |
|
---|
857 | a stick of charcoal.
|
---|
858 |
|
---|
859 | <P>The king was further angered when the pope made Fisher a cardinal,
|
---|
860 |
|
---|
861 | essentially a prince of the church, even while the bishop was imprisoned for
|
---|
862 |
|
---|
863 | treason.&nbsp; The king caustically remarked that he would soon send Fisher's
|
---|
864 |
|
---|
865 | head to Rome so it could wear the red cardinal's hat.&nbsp; By now, Henry had
|
---|
866 |
|
---|
867 | pushed aside all thought of popular reaction; he was flush with his own power,
|
---|
868 |
|
---|
869 | and determined to have his way.&nbsp; More refused to submit to royal
|
---|
870 |
|
---|
871 | authority, and he would pay the ultimate price.&nbsp; And so, on the 1st of
|
---|
872 |
|
---|
873 | July 1535, he was indicted for high treason at Westminster Hall.&nbsp; More
|
---|
874 |
|
---|
875 | denied the chief charges and defended himself ably, but it was of no
|
---|
876 |
|
---|
877 | matter.&nbsp; The jury found him guilty and he was sentenced to hang at
|
---|
878 |
|
---|
879 | Tyburn.&nbsp; A few days later news arrived that the king would be merciful -
|
---|
880 |
|
---|
881 | More would instead be beheaded at Tower Hill.&nbsp; On the 6th of July, a bit
|
---|
882 |
|
---|
883 | before nine o'clock in the morning, More was executed; he met his end with
|
---|
884 |
|
---|
885 | great dignity, grace, and courage.&nbsp; His body was buried at the Tower
|
---|
886 |
|
---|
887 | church of St Peter ad Vincula, but his head was parboiled and stuck on a pike
|
---|
888 |
|
---|
889 | in Tower Bridge.&nbsp; His beloved daughter Margaret bribed a worker to give
|
---|
890 |
|
---|
891 | it to her and it was interred in the Roper family vault in Canterbury,
|
---|
892 |
|
---|
893 | Margaret having married William Roper some years before.
|
---|
894 |
|
---|
895 | <P>King Henry VIII was increasingly tyrannical and hated as his reign
|
---|
896 | progressed.&nbsp; Anne Boleyn was beheaded less than a year after More on
|
---|
897 | false charges of witchcraft, adultery and incest; the king would eventually
|
---|
898 | marry four more times.&nbsp; His fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was also
|
---|
899 | executed.</P>
|
---|
900 |
|
---|
901 | <P>On 29 December 1886, Pope Leo XIII formally beatified Thomas More, and his
|
---|
902 |
|
---|
903 | reputation for learning and saintliness has only grown.</P></BLOCKQUOTE>
|
---|
904 |
|
---|
905 | <HR width="100%">
|
---|
906 |
|
---|
907 | <p>
|
---|
908 |
|
---|
909 | <font size="-1"><b>Note:</b> Modern studies of More often discuss his religious
|
---|
910 | conservatism and intolerance of more progressive views.&nbsp; He openly
|
---|
911 | denounced and persecuted members of the Protestant faith, and much of his
|
---|
912 | writing was both vitriolic and inflammatory on this point.&nbsp; But to condemn
|
---|
913 | More for his religious intolerance is unfair.&nbsp; He (and Bishop Fisher, et
|
---|
914 | al) represented the last gasp of Catholicism in England.&nbsp; After his death,
|
---|
915 | the faith never regained its intellectual breadth and stature.</font> <BR><FONT
|
---|
916 |
|
---|
917 | size=-1>In our own increasingly secular age, it is easy to be cynical and
|
---|
918 |
|
---|
919 | dismissive of deeply held religious beliefs.&nbsp; But to judge More by modern
|
---|
920 |
|
---|
921 | standards is obviously wrong; the following books do an admirable job of placing
|
---|
922 |
|
---|
923 | More in the context of his time, and I recommend them to students for further
|
---|
924 |
|
---|
925 | study:</FONT></p>
|
---|
926 |
|
---|
927 | <CENTER>
|
---|
928 | <p><i><FONT size=-1>The Life of Thomas More</FONT><BR></i><FONT size=-1>by Peter
|
---|
929 |
|
---|
930 | Ackroyd.</FONT> <BR><i><FONT size=-1>The King's Good Servant but God's First: The
|
---|
931 |
|
---|
932 | Life and Writings of Saint Thomas More</FONT><BR></i><FONT size=-1>by James
|
---|
933 |
|
---|
934 | Monti.</FONT> <BR><i><FONT size=-1>Thomas More: A Biography</FONT><BR></i><FONT
|
---|
935 |
|
---|
936 | size=-1>by Richard Marius.</FONT> <BR><i><FONT size=-1>Thomas More: A Portrait of
|
---|
937 |
|
---|
938 | Courage</FONT><BR></i><FONT size=-1>by Gerard B. Wegemer.</FONT></p>
|
---|
939 | </CENTER>
|
---|
940 |
|
---|
941 | <p align="center"><FONT
|
---|
942 |
|
---|
943 | size=-1><A href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens.html">to Tudor
|
---|
944 |
|
---|
945 | Citizens</A><A
|
---|
946 |
|
---|
947 | href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=1&amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor.html"><br>to Tudor England</A></FONT><p align="center">
|
---|
948 | <font size="-1"><a href="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html">Visit <i>Tudor
|
---|
949 | England: Images</i> to view portraits of the Tudor monarchs and their courtiers</a>.</font></blockquote>
|
---|
950 | </blockquote>
|
---|
951 |
|
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952 |
|
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953 |
|
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954 | <!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --><!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --><script language="JavaScript" src="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;href=http:%2f%2fhostingprod.com%2fjs%5fsource%2fgeov2.js"></script><script language="javascript">geovisit();</script><noscript><img src="_httpextlink_&amp;rl=0&amp;el=direct&amp;href=http://visit.webhosting.yahoo.com/visit.gif?us1108082582" alt="setstats" border="0" width="1" height="1"></noscript>
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---|
956 | </Content>
|
---|
957 | </Section>
|
---|
958 | </Archive>
|
---|