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29&lt;P align=center&gt;I am redesigning the Life in Tudor England website, mostly to
30include lots of pictures.&lt;BR&gt;Until I finish, you can explore some of the topics
31listed here.&amp;nbsp; Thanks for your patience.&lt;/P&gt;
32&lt;P align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/P&gt;
33&lt;P align=left&gt;
34&lt;IMG height=43 src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/life-morpheus.gif&quot; width=333
35border=0 alt=&quot;Life in Tudor England&quot;&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/P&gt;
36&lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
37 &lt;P align=left&gt;
38 &lt;IMG height=371
39 alt=&quot;woodcut of a family going to market in Tudor England&quot;
40 src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/life.jpg&quot; width=300 align=left border=3&gt; &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
41 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;B&gt;Click on a topic below:&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
42&lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
43 &lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
44 &lt;P align=left&gt;
45 &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Chronology&quot;&gt;Chronology&lt;/a&gt; -
46 &lt;A href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Glossary&quot;&gt;Glossary&lt;/A&gt; -
47 &lt;A
48 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Government&quot;&gt;Government&lt;/A&gt; -
49 &lt;A href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Religion&quot;&gt;Religion&lt;/A&gt; &lt;/P&gt;
50 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A
51 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Population&quot;&gt;Population&lt;/A&gt; -
52 &lt;A href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Money&quot;&gt;Money&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
53 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Food&quot;&gt;Food&lt;/A&gt;&lt;A
54 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Food&quot;&gt; and Drink&lt;/A&gt;
55&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
56 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A
57 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Houses&quot;&gt;Houses&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
58 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Clothing&quot;&gt;Clothing and
59 Appearance&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
60 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Marriage&quot;&gt;Marriage&lt;/A&gt;
61 &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
62 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A
63 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Sex&quot;&gt;Sex&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
64 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Diseases&quot;&gt;Diseases&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
65 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Arts&quot;&gt;Arts and Education&lt;/A&gt;
66 &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
67 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A
68 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Crime&quot;&gt;Crime and
69 Punishment&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
70 &lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A
71 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Travel&quot;&gt;Travel&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
72 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Sorcery&quot;&gt;Sorcery&lt;/A&gt; - &lt;A
73 href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Rebellions&quot;&gt;Rebellions&lt;/A&gt;
74 &lt;/P&gt;&lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;&lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
75&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
76&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
77&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
78&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
79&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudorlife.html#Famous&quot;&gt;Famous
80Names to Know in Tudor England&lt;/A&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
81&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ffaq.html&quot;&gt;Tudor FAQ&lt;/A&gt;:
82frequently asked questions&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
83&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
84&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
85&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
86&lt;HR&gt;
87
88&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Chronology&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Chronology&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
89&lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
90 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;22 August 1485&lt;/B&gt; - Battle of Bosworth Field; Henry Tudor's army
91 defeats King Richard III; Henry becomes King Henry VII &lt;/P&gt;
92 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;18 January 1486&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VII marries King Edward IV's eldest
93 surviving child, Princess Elizabeth of York &lt;/P&gt;&lt;B&gt;28 June 1491&lt;/B&gt; - Henry
94 Tudor is born to King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York
95 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;8 August 1503&lt;/B&gt; - Princess Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII,
96 marries King James IV of Scotland &lt;/P&gt;
97 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;21 April 1509&lt;/B&gt; - Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VIII of
98 England&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
99 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;9 September 1513&lt;/B&gt; - Battle of Flodden Field between England and
100 Scotland; King James IV of Scotland is killed &lt;/P&gt;
101 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;24 December 1515&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII appoints Cardinal Thomas Wolsey
102 lord chancellor&lt;/P&gt;
103 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;7 June 1520&lt;/B&gt; - Field of the Cloth of Gold occurs; this is the famous
104 meeting between King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France &lt;/P&gt;
105 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;11 October 1521&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII is given the title 'Defender of
106 the Faith' by the pope &lt;/P&gt;
107 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;18 October 1529&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII's great statesman, Cardinal
108 Wolsey, is driven from power and dies in disgrace &lt;/P&gt;
109 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;25 January 1533&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn &lt;/P&gt;
110 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;7 September 1533&lt;/B&gt; - Elizabeth Tudor is born to King Henry VIII and
111 Anne Boleyn&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
112 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;17 November 1534&lt;/B&gt; - the Act of Supremacy is passed by Parliament; it
113 declares the English monarch to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England;
114 under Elizabeth this title is changed to Supreme Governor&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;June and
115 July 1535&lt;/B&gt; - Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More are executed&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
116 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;18 March 1536&lt;/B&gt; - dissolution of the monasteries begins &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
117 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;14 April 1536&lt;/B&gt; - Wales is officially incorporated into
118England&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
119 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;19 May 1536&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn, is
120 executed &lt;/P&gt;
121 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;12 October 1537&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII's only son, Prince Edward, is
122 born; his mother is the king's third wife, Jane Seymour, who dies shortly
123 thereafter&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
124 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;28 July 1540&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII's great statesman, Thomas Cromwell,
125 is executed&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
126 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;18 June 1541&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII is titled king of Ireland&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
127 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;13 February 1542&lt;/B&gt; - King Henry VIII's fifth wife, Catherine Howard,
128 executed&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
129 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;24 November 1542&lt;/B&gt; - Battle of Solway Moss between England and
130 Scotland &lt;/P&gt;
131 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;20 July 1545&lt;/B&gt; - the Mary Rose, the flagship of King Henry VIII's
132 navy, sinks &lt;/P&gt;
133 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;28 January 1547&lt;/B&gt; - Edward Tudor becomes King Edward VI &lt;/P&gt;
134 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;10 September 1547&lt;/B&gt; - Battle of Pinkie between England and
135 Scotland&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
136 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;23 September 1548&lt;/B&gt; - the Protestant Book of Common Prayer comes into
137 use &lt;/P&gt;
138 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;6 July 1553&lt;/B&gt; - King Edward VI dies &lt;/P&gt;
139 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;10 July 1553&lt;/B&gt; - the Tudor cousin Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed queen
140 of England; she rules for just nine days &lt;/P&gt;
141 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;3 August 1553&lt;/B&gt; - Mary Tudor becomes Queen Mary I &lt;/P&gt;
142 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;11 April 1554&lt;/B&gt; - Sir Thomas Wyatt is executed after leading a
143 rebellion against Queen Mary I &lt;/P&gt;
144 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;25 July 1554&lt;/B&gt; - Queen Mary I marries King Philip II of Spain &lt;/P&gt;
145 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;16 October 1555&lt;/B&gt; - the Protestant churchmen Latimer and Ridley are
146 burned at the stake&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
147 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;21 March 1556&lt;/B&gt; - Thomas Cranmer, former archbishop of Canterbury,
148 burned at the stake&lt;/P&gt;
149 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;17 November 1558&lt;/B&gt; - Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I
150&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
151 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;29 April 1559&lt;/B&gt; - the Elizabethan religious settlement is passed by
152 Parliament &lt;/P&gt;
153 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;22 February 1560&lt;/B&gt; - Treaty of Berwick between England and Scotland
154 &lt;/P&gt;
155 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;19 June 1566&lt;/B&gt; - King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary queen of
156 Scots, is born &lt;/P&gt;
157 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;24 July 1567&lt;/B&gt; - Mary, queen of Scots abdicates her throne in Scotland
158 and comes to England &lt;/P&gt;
159 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;24 August 1572&lt;/B&gt; - the St Batholomew's Day massacre of Protestants
160 occurs in Paris&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
161 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;18 October 1585&lt;/B&gt; - the English colony at Roanoke in Virginia is
162 established &lt;/P&gt;
163 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;8 February 1587&lt;/B&gt; - Mary, queen of Scots is executed at Fotheringhay
164 Castle &lt;/P&gt;
165 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;31 July 1588&lt;/B&gt; - defeat of the Spanish Armada&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
166 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;6 February 1595&lt;/B&gt; - Sir Walter Raleigh leaves England to sail to the
167 New World &lt;/P&gt;
168 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;14 August 1598 &lt;/B&gt;- Tyrone's Rebellion occurs in Ireland &lt;/P&gt;
169 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;25 February 1601&lt;/B&gt; - Robert Devereux, the earl of Essex, is executed
170 for leading a rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I &lt;/P&gt;
171 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;17 December 1601&lt;/B&gt;- the Elizabethan 'Poor Law' is passed; it has a
172 profound effect upon English society &lt;/P&gt;
173 &lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;24 March 1603&lt;/B&gt; - Queen Elizabeth I dies; the Tudor dynasty ends; King
174 James VI of Scotland becomes king of England&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
175&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
176&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
177&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Government&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Government&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Tudor England's government was
178an &lt;B&gt;absolute monarchy&lt;/B&gt;. In this system, the monarch (king or queen) has
179control over all aspects of government.&lt;BR&gt;Parliament did exist during the 16th
180century but its role was often merely advisory. As the years passed, it became
181increasingly powerful. Its main power was passing taxation. Whenever the king or
182queen needed money, they first had to convince Parliament to order more
183taxation. Parliament was only assembled when the king or queen ordered it,
184unlike modern times.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
185&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
186&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Religion&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Religion&lt;BR&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;England was a Catholic nation under
187the rule of Henry VII (1485-1509) and during much of Henry VIII's (1509-1547)
188reign. In 1534, King Henry VIII declared himself Supreme Head of a new Church of
189England. This coincided with the rejection of papal authority and dissolution of
190the English monasteries. Protestantism was introduced to England. Under King
191Edward VI (1547-1553), England was a Protestant nation. Under Queen Mary I
192(1553-1558), England was again a Catholic nation. Under Queen Elizabeth I
193(1558-1603), England was again a Protestant nation. It was under Elizabeth that
194the Anglican church became firmly established and
195dominant.&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
196&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
197
198&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Population&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Population: includes England and
199Wales.&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
200&lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;&lt;B&gt;1524.....2.3 million&lt;/B&gt;
201 &lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;1541.....2.7 million&lt;/B&gt; &lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;1550.....2.9 million&lt;/B&gt;
202 &lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;1569.....3.2 million&lt;/B&gt; &lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;1599.....4.0
203million&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;In &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT
204color=#000000&gt;1520&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;, 6% of the population lived in
205urban areas (towns of over 4,000 people.)&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;In
206&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;1520&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000000&gt;, 3% of the population
207lived in London.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Around 5% of the population were considered gentlemen.
208Their numbers increased throughout the 16th century. 'Gentlemen' are people who
209do not work with their hands. The middle class was larger; they were usually
210literate and included craftsmen and tradesmen. The vast majority of the
211population is poor and termed 'peasants' or 'common people'. They were mostly
212illiterate and suffered the most when famines occurred and the currency was
213debased.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;In 1509, there was one duke, one marquis, ten earls, and thirty
214barons in England. The peerage increased to 51 by the end of Henry VIII's reign
215and had reached 57 when Elizabeth I became queen. But she was stingy with
216granting peerages and the only duke left in England (Norfolk) was executed in
2171572. A new duke was not titled until 1623.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;B&gt;&lt;FONT
218color=#000000&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/B&gt;
219&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
220&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
221
222&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
223&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Money&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Money&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;The currency in Tudor England is
224divided into pounds, shilling, and pence. The pence/penny is the basic unit of
225currency; 12 pennies make a shilling and 20 shillings make a pound.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
226&lt;P&gt;There are numerous coins in circulation throughout the 16th century. When
227money becomes tight, the monarchs are fond of reducing the amount of precious
228metal in the coins. This debases the real worth of English money and causes
229problems for everyone.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
230&lt;P&gt;Among the coins in circulation are the royal (a gold coin worth 10
231shillings); this was introduced during the reign of King Henry VII. Under his
232grandson, King Edward VI, the angel was introduced; it was another gold coin
233worth 10 shillings. There were also groats, farthings, sixpences, etc Around the
234mid-16th century, a common laborer would make around 1 shilling per day.
235&amp;nbsp;So it would take a laborer twenty days to earn a pound! &amp;nbsp;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
236&lt;P&gt;Coins are made at royal mints located in several large cities. Forgery often
237occurs. Often, the royal treasurers are implicated.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
238&lt;P&gt;Because of debasement and famine, inflation is a constant problem. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
239&lt;P&gt;It is difficult to translate Tudor prices into contemporary money. Also,
240prices varied widely throughout the 16th century. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
241&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
242
243&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Food&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Food and Drink&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;There are three main components
244of the Tudor diet - bread, beer, and meat (usually beef or mutton.) Like us,
245they had three meals - breakfast, dinner, and supper. &lt;B&gt;Breakfast &lt;/B&gt;was early
246in the morning and a relatively simple meal. &amp;nbsp;&lt;B&gt;Dinner &lt;/B&gt;was the largest
247meal and held between 11 am and 1 pm. &amp;nbsp;&lt;B&gt;Supper &lt;/B&gt;could be held anytime
248between 5 pm and 8 pm, depending upon the person's social class. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
249&lt;P&gt;Everyone in Tudor England ate bread and cheese. The only difference between
250classes was the quality of bread and cheese. &amp;nbsp;The cheapest bread was called
251'Carter's bread'; it was a mixture of rye and wheat. &amp;nbsp;The middle classes or
252prosperous tenants ate 'ravel', also called 'yeoman's bread' and made of
253wholemeal. &amp;nbsp;The most expensive bread was called 'marchet' and made of white
254wheat flour. Aristocratic households ate marchet, particularly during banquets.
255&amp;nbsp;Everyone from the poorest peasant to the wealthies monarch drank beer.
256&amp;nbsp;It was brewed without hops and was not particularly alcoholic. People
257drank beer liberally. However, water was considered unhealthy - and for good
258reason. &amp;nbsp;Under Henry VII, French wines were imported in greater quantities
259but only aristocrats drank them. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;The poor and wealthy alike lived off
260the land.&amp;nbsp; England was self-sufficient, able to feed its population without
261resorting to imports, at least during good harvests.&amp;nbsp; Most peasants had
262small bits of land in villages and towns. They kept chickens, pigs, and perhaps
263a cow. &amp;nbsp;Those with animals slaughtered them in November. &amp;nbsp;The meat was
264smoked, dried, or salted so it could be kept for meals in the cold months.
265&amp;nbsp;Bacon was the most common meat of poor people. Smoked bacon and salted
266beef were most popular during the winter. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
267&lt;P&gt;Of course, meat could not be eaten on Fridays for religious reasons.
268&amp;nbsp;Instead, fish - dried cod or slated herring, most likely - was eaten. It
269was &lt;I&gt;not&lt;/I&gt; fresh since there was no efficient or speedy way to transport
270fresh foods. &amp;nbsp;Vegetables were plentiful, particularly beans, peas, carrots,
271and onions. &amp;nbsp;Fruits were available, too - apples, plums, pears,
272strawberries, cherries, etc &amp;nbsp;But potatoes and tomatoes were not available.
273&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
274&lt;P&gt;As you can see, diets were most interesting and varied in the warmer months
275but cold weather meant preserved meats and little else. &amp;nbsp;Everyone, rich and
276poor alike, suffered from malnutrition, particularly Vitamin C deficiency (which
277we call scurvy.) &amp;nbsp;Molds in certain breads could also cause health problems.
278&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
279&lt;P&gt;There were 2 great famines in Tudor England - in the mid-1550s during Mary
280I's reign and mid-1590s during Elizabeth I's reign.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
281&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
282
283&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Houses&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Houses&lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;Types&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt; of Houses:
284&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;/B&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;There are castles, mansions, manor houses, and
285cottages. The materials used to build them depend upon the wealth of their
286owners. Castles and churches were always built of stone, but it was expensive.
287Middle-class homes were timber-framed but wood was too expensive to use for the
288entire house. &lt;BR&gt;Instead, bricks were sometimes used, or white-washed wattle
289and daub. When timbers were coated with black tar, the famous Tudor
290'black-and-white' effect was achieved. Many houses had steep, thatched roofs and
291upper stories which hung over the lower ones. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
292&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;Rooms:&lt;/B&gt; The rooms in a nobleman's house would include a great hall for
293feasting and entertaining, a great chamber used for sleeping and receiving
294visitors and playing games, a cellar which was not necessarily below ground and
295was used primarily for storage, a closet used as a private office or study, a
296gallery (either enclosed or open on one side) which ran parallel to the house
297and was used for exercise, a private bedchamber for the master of the house), a
298kitchen, a parlor used as either a sitting room or small entertaining area, and
299a privy which was a small, windowless room used as a bathroom. There were also
300withdrawing rooms where wardrobes were kept or the owner could go for more
301privacy. Often these rooms connected two bedrooms. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
302&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;Noble Households:&lt;/B&gt; In Tudor England, a person's social status and
303prestige were determined by two main things: the lavishness of their standard of
304living and the number of their servants and attendants. The successful
305maintenance of a large household also indicated a person's ability to govern,
306albeit on a much smaller scale than the king.&lt;/P&gt;
307&lt;P&gt;A nobleman of sufficient rank and skill was often called to serve the monarch
308in London. To that end, they would purchase and maintain - often at great
309expense - townhomes in or just outside London. In London, the most affluent
310street was known as The Strand. These homes were built on the riverside and so
311were equipped with docks; the nobles could travel by personal barge from their
312homes to various royal palaces. Nobles also owned homes in the counties near
313their largest estates. Naturally enough, the maintenance of these various
314residences was expensive, and became increasingly so as the century progressed.
315But the greatest expense - and worry - was their principal estate, always
316situated in the countryside. At these estates, their spiritual, public, private,
317and economic worlds merged. They were an opportunity for the proud noble to
318demonstrate his standing in the nation and to dominate local affairs thoroughly.
319Also, they could play host to the reigning monarch on a royal progress. &lt;/P&gt;
320&lt;P&gt;Many of the most famous noble country homes can still be seen today. For
321example, view Compton Wynyates in Warwickshire where Henry VIII often visited
322and the duke of Buckingham's beautiful Penshurst Place in Kent. Five centuries
323ago, estates such as these were managed by noblemen and their principal
324officers, primarily knights and esquires. Together, they governed the estates
325and surrounding lands. They gathered in the official presence chamber where
326petitions were presented from tenants and neighbors. The councilors would judge
327their claims and mediate disputes. &lt;/P&gt;
328&lt;P&gt;When the nobleman traveled to London or his lesser homes, a large group of
329servants would accompany him - this was his 'skeleton' household. They journeyed
330in carts packed with people and possessions. As Henry VII's rule impressed some
331degree of stability upon England, such travel became less dangerous. But it
332remained uncomfortable, even for the wealthy in padded coaches. &lt;/P&gt;
333&lt;P&gt;The presence of such wealthy and accomplished landowners was both a blessing
334and a curse to Tudor monarchs. For early Tudor kings, these nobles could help
335secure their rule, particularly in the North where trouble traditionally brewed.
336Henry VII had no family ties to northern England; this made him even more
337reliant on the great Northern lords to maintain peace and effective government.
338&lt;/P&gt;
339&lt;P&gt;Knights and esquires wore their lord's livery; they also promised the support
340of their tenants and servants in case of conflict. In this way, great households
341could also serve as sources of rebellion and treason.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
342&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;Gardens &lt;/B&gt;are very popular in Tudor England. As the century goes on,
343they become increasingly ornate and expensive. Even noble families grow their
344own fruits and vegetables when they can. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
345&lt;P&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;I will add more information about homes of the poor, as well as
346pictures, soon. 17 October 2002&lt;/SMALL&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
347&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
348
349&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Clothing&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Clothing&lt;/BIG&gt; &lt;BIG&gt;and Appearance&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Tudor
350England is famous for its beautiful and ornate clothing, particularly during the
351reign of Queen Elizabeth I. &lt;A
352href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.geocities.com%2fmarilee-cody%2feliz1-images.html&quot;&gt;Click here&lt;/A&gt; to
353view portraits of the queen and her courtiers. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
354&lt;P&gt;Medieval sumptuary laws remained in force throughout the 16th century. These
355laws dictated what each member of society could wear, depending upon their
356social class. The laws are not enforced often. And fabrics such as silk, satin
357and velvet are so expensive that only the wealthy can afford them. Cloth of gold
358and the color purple are reserved for royalty. &lt;/P&gt;
359&lt;P&gt;During the reign of King Henry VIII, Spanish and French style gowns are very
360popular. Clothes become more form-fitting and ornate. Men wear colorful tights
361to emphasize well-developed calves. Women often have such low necklines that
362preachers condemn them. Both sexes wear as much jewelry as they can afford. And
363everyone, rich and poor, wears a hat. Certain clothing dyes are not expensive,
364and so even the poor can wear green and brown outfits. Foreign visitors comment
365upon the colorful outfits of the English poor. &lt;/P&gt;
366&lt;P&gt;Women have long hair which they wear loose until marriage. After the reign of
367King Henry VII, men typically have short hair and beards and mustaches. It is
368Henry VIII who makes beards popular; during his father's reign, men are
369clean-shaven.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
370&lt;P&gt;The poor wear homespun woolen clothing with knitted hose and hobnail shoes.
371In the field, they wear tunics and breeches.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
372&lt;P&gt;Children are dressed as miniature adults from the age of six onwards. Before
373then, both boys and girls wear simple shifts or gowns. They are swaddled as
374infants, a constricting practice which is believed to prevent illness. In fact,
375for the first four months of their lives, infants are completely immobilized in
376swaddling bands.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
377&lt;P&gt;Men generally wear flat-heeled shoes while women wore overshoes outside.
378These were clogs which raised her feet so her gown wouldn't drag in the
379dirt.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
380&lt;P&gt;Blonde hair is the most prized haircolor, but auburn and red hair are also
381popular. Very white skin and red lips are achieved through the use of dangerous
382cosmetics; lead, borax, and sulphur were sometimes used. Every woman hated
383spots, whether freckles or pimples. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
384&lt;P&gt;As for bathing, most Englishmen think baths are unhealthy. Queen Elizabeth I
385is considered strange for bathing as much as four times a year. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
386&lt;P&gt;Everyone uses perfume. Perfume is splashed on bodies and clothing,
387particularly the gloves. The most popular scents included marjoram, lavendar,
388musk, and rose.&lt;BR&gt;Noblemen and women carry pomanders, a hollow sphere holding a
389waxed perfume ball. Pomanders are often highly decorative and expensive
390accessories. Women attach them to their girdles and men dangle them from a
391chain. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
392&lt;P&gt;Dentists are surgeons who remove rotten teeth and also perform other small
393operations. People clean their teeth by rubbing them with a mixture of white
394wine and vinegar boiled with honey. Fashionable noblewomen will sometimes
395deliberately blacken their front teeth. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
396&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
397&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
398
399&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Marriage&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Marriage&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Marriage usually occurred during
400the mid-twenties for most Tudor citizens. The wealthy and aristocratic tended to
401marry earlier because of inheritance issues. But contrary to popular belief,
402there were few child marriages in Tudor England. Of course, you could be
403pre-contracted or betrothed at a much earlier age. Any marriage contract was
404legally binding if the girl was 12 and the boy was 14. &lt;/P&gt;
405&lt;P&gt;Annulments and divorces were uncommon because they required special religious
406dispensations. Most marriages ended with the death of a spouse. At any time in
407the 16th century, roughly a third of marriages are the second or third marriage.
408&lt;/P&gt;
409&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
410
411&lt;P&gt;&lt;BIG&gt;&lt;A name=Rebellions&gt;&lt;/A&gt;Rebellions&lt;/BIG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;People in Tudor England
412suffered through famine, poverty, and immense religious changes. Life was
413uncertain and dangerous. Most riots in the country were small and local; they
414usually involved food or the hated enclosure policies. Enclosure was the process
415by which noblemen seized public land for themselves. They would build hedges
416around the land to keep people out. But peasants needed the land to graze their
417animals and would often tear the hedges down.&lt;BR&gt;There were also larger
418rebellions throughout the 16th century. Here is a list of the most
419important:&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
420&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)&lt;/B&gt; - This rebellion occurred in November
4211536 in the north of England; it was a result of King Henry VIII's religious
422changes. Northern England was always more conservative and Catholic than the
423rest of the country. When their monasteries were destroyed and the lands and
424money seized by Henry's prominent noblemen, the northerners rebelled. There were
425roughly 30,000 people involved, a mix of lords, middle-class laborers, and
426peasants. They called themselves 'pilgrims' and were led by an attorney named
427Robert Aske. They chose the five wounds of Christ as their symbol. They did not
428specifically rebel against King Henry VIII, but rather his councilors such as
429Thomas Cromwell. The king promised clemency if the rebels dispersed but
430eventually executed about 100 rebels.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
431&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;Kett's Rebellion (1549) &lt;/B&gt;- In 1549, King Edward VI ruled England,
432though the government was under control of the Protestant Lord Protector
433Somerset. In East Anglia, a Norfolk gentleman named Robert Kett led a rebellion
434against the king's religious policies, the dissolution of the monasteries, and
435the very unpopular enclosure of common lands by greedy noblemen. The rebels were
436defeated at Norwich by an English army supported by foreign
437mercenaries.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Wyatt's Rebellion (1554)&lt;/B&gt; - In spring 1554, Sir Thomas
438Wyatt led a rebellion against Queen Mary I's proposed marriage to King Philip II
439of Spain. Despite an army of 3,000 men, Wyatt was unable to enter London. He was
440executed on 11 April 1554, after explicitly denying that Princess Elizabeth was
441involved in the rebellion. Nonetheless, Elizabeth is temporarily imprisoned in
442the Tower of London and Lady Jane Grey is executed. &lt;/P&gt;
443&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;The Northern Rebellion&lt;/B&gt; &lt;B&gt;(1569)&lt;/B&gt; - In 1569, the north of England
444again rebels against the Tudor monarchy, this time inspired by the imprisonment
445of Mary, queen of Scots and Catholic discontent. The rebels are led by the earls
446of Westmorland and Northumberland and the duke of Norfolk; they choose the five
447wounds of Christ as their symbol, as had the Pilgrimage of Grace rebels. The
448duke of Norfolk plans to depose Queen Elizabeth I and marry Mary, queen of
449Scots, thus becoming king of England. The rebellion is crushed and several
450hundred rebels are hanged. &lt;/P&gt;
451&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;The Throckmorton Plot (1583) &lt;/B&gt;- This was the second plot to free Mary,
452queen of Scots. In 1583, Sir Francis Throckmorton, a Catholic nobleman, works
453with the Spanish ambassador to use Spanish troops to depose Queen Elizabeth I
454and free Mary. He was arrested in November 1583 and later
455executed.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;B&gt;The Babington Plot&lt;/B&gt; &lt;B&gt;(1586)&lt;/B&gt; - This was the third
456and final plot to free Mary, queen of Scots. In 1586, Sir Anthony Babington, a
457Catholic nobleman, conspired with a Catholic priest and others to assassinate
458Queen Elizabeth I and proclaim Mary queen of England. The plot is discovered by
459the secretary of state Sir Francis Walsingham and Babington and Mary are
460executed. &lt;/P&gt;
461&lt;P&gt;&lt;B&gt;The Essex Rebellion (1601)&lt;/B&gt; - Robert Devereux, the earl of Essex, was a
462great favorite of Queen Elizabeth I's, but he was also arrogant and ambitious.
463Disgraced and sent from court on numerous occasions, he attempted to lead a
464rebellion against the queen on 8 February 1601. Essex protested that he did not
465intend to harm the queen but to free her from the bad influence of other
466councilors. He marched through London with 300 men but no others rallied to his
467side. He was later executed. &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
468&lt;HR width=&quot;100%&quot; SIZE=2&gt;
469
470&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
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480</Content>
481</Section>
482</Archive>
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