source: other-projects/nightly-tasks/diffcol/trunk/model-collect/Web-Tudor/archives/HASH2063.dir/doc.xml@ 28812

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
<!DOCTYPE Archive SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/Archive/1.0/Archive.dtd">
<Archive>
<Section>
  <Description>
    <Metadata name="gsdlsourcefilename">import/englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/henry8.html</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdldoctype">indexed_doc</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Plugin">HTMLPlugin</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="FileSize">53816</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Source">henry8.html</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="SourceFile">henry8.html</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Language">en</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Encoding">windows_1252</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Page_topic">King Henry VIII (1491-1547): Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources The Six Wives of Henry VIII The Reformation</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Content">King Henry VIII (1491-1547): Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources The Six Wives of Henry VIII</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Author">Marilee Mongello</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Title">King Henry VIII: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="FileFormat">HTML</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="URL">http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/henry8.html</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="UTF8URL">http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/henry8.html</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="weblink">&lt;a href=&quot;http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/henry8.html&quot;&gt;</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="webicon">_iconworld_</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="/weblink">&lt;/a&gt;</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="dc.Subject">Tudor period|Monarchs</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="Identifier">HASH20631d2f433d6af891439d</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="lastmodified">1391133421</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="lastmodifieddate">20140131</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="oailastmodified">1391133770</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="oailastmodifieddate">20140131</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="assocfilepath">HASH2063.dir</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">henry8.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">henry8main.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">h8two.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">henry8-cr.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">aragon-min.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">wolsey-cr.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">fitzroy.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
  </Description>
  <Content>

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; height=&quot;667&quot;&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;50%&quot; height=&quot;3&quot;&gt;
    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
    &lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/henry8.gif&quot; ALT=&quot;King Henry VIII&quot; height=52 width=315&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;610&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; height=&quot;610&quot;&gt;
    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
    &lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/henry8main.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;portrait of King Henry VIII by an unknown artist&quot; BORDER=2 height=348 width=250&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#One&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
    View portraits of King Henry VIII at
    &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html&quot;&gt;Tudor England: Images&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#One&quot;&gt;A

brief discussion of his personality and historical importance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; 
    &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Two&quot;&gt;Henry Tudor, duke of York: 1491-1502&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Three&quot;&gt;Heir

apparent: 1502-1509&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Four&quot;&gt;1509-1526:

Katharine of Aragon, Cardinal Wolsey &amp;amp; Princess Mary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Five&quot;&gt;1526-1536:

Anne Boleyn and the Henrician Reformation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Six&quot;&gt;1536-1546:

Four wives, Thomas Cromwell &amp;amp; foreign policy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Seven&quot;&gt;Death

and disorder: Henry's last months and a discussion of his illness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Eight&quot;&gt;The

English nobility during Henry's reign&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;

&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Nine&quot;&gt;Henry: 
    lapsed Catholic or Protestant reformer?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;blockquote&gt;
      &lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;Primary

Sources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Ten&quot;&gt;Notable

Dates and Events&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Eleven&quot;&gt;Bibliography

and Further Reading&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Henry's wives:&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;
      &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fwives.html&quot;&gt;The Six Wives of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;      &lt;b&gt;Henry's children:&lt;br&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fedward6.html&quot;&gt;
      King Edward VI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;
      &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fmary1.html&quot;&gt;Queen Mary I&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz1.html&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
      Queen Elizabeth I&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
    &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot; height=&quot;610&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
  &lt;blockquote&gt;

&lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;'My, you ought to seen old Henry the Eight when he was in bloom.&amp;nbsp;

He &lt;i&gt;was&lt;/i&gt; a blossom.&amp;nbsp; He used to marry a new wife every day, and

chop off her head next morning.&amp;nbsp; And he would do it just as indifferent

as if he was ordering up eggs.&amp;nbsp; 'Fetch up Nell Gwynn,' he says.&amp;nbsp;

They fetch her up.&amp;nbsp; Next morning, 'Chop off her head!'&amp;nbsp; And they

chop it off.&amp;nbsp; 'Fetch up Jane Shore,' he says; and up she comes.&amp;nbsp;

Next morning, 'Chop off her head' - and they chop it off.&amp;nbsp; 'Ring up

Fair Rosamun.'&amp;nbsp; Fair Rosamun answers the bell.&amp;nbsp; Next morning,

'Chop off her head.'&amp;nbsp; And he made every one of them tell him a tale

every night; and he kept that up till he had hogged a thousand and one

tales that way, and then he put them all in a book, and called it Domesday

Book - which was a good name and stated the case.&amp;nbsp; You don't know

kings, Jim, but I know them; and this old rip of ourn is one of the cleanest

I've struck in history.&amp;nbsp; Well, Henry he takes a notion he wants to

get up some trouble with this country.&amp;nbsp; How does he go at it - give

notice? - give the country a show?&amp;nbsp; No.&amp;nbsp; All of a sudden he heaves

all the tea in Boston Harbor overboard, and whacks out a declaration of

independence, and dares them to come on.&amp;nbsp; That was &lt;i&gt;his&lt;/i&gt; style

- he never give anybody a chance.&amp;nbsp; He  had suspicions of his father,

the Duke of Wellington.&amp;nbsp; Well, what did he do? - ask him to show up?&amp;nbsp;

No - drownded him in a butt of mamsey, like a cat.&amp;nbsp; Spose people left

money laying around where he was - what did he do?&amp;nbsp; He collared it.&amp;nbsp;

Spose he contracted to do a thing; and you paid him, and didn't set down

there and see that he done it - what did he do?&amp;nbsp; He always done the

other thing.&amp;nbsp; Spose he opened his mouth - what then?&amp;nbsp; If he didn't

shut it up powerful quick, he'd lose a lie, every time.&amp;nbsp; That's the

kind of a bug Henry was....&lt;/b&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;b&gt;All I say is, kings is kings, and you got to make allowances.&amp;nbsp;

Take them all around, they're a mighty ornery lot.&amp;nbsp; It's the way they're

raised.'&lt;/b&gt;

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;from Mark Twain's &lt;i&gt;Adventures of Huckleberry Finn&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
  &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;a NAME=&quot;One&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;I have no fear but when you

heard that our Prince, now Henry the Eighth, whom we may call our Octavius,

had succeeded to his father's throne, all your melancholy left you at once.&amp;nbsp;

What may you not promise yourself from a Prince with whose extraordinary

and almost Divine character you are acquainted?&amp;nbsp; When you know what

a hero he now shows himself, how wisely he behaves, what a lover he is

of justice and goodness, what affection he bears to the learned I will

venture to swear that you will need no wings to make you fly to behold

this new and auspicious star.&amp;nbsp; If you could see how all the world

here is rejoicing in the possession of so great a Prince, how his life

is all their desire, you could not contain your tears for joy.&amp;nbsp; The

heavens laugh, the earth exults, all things are full of milk, of honey,

of nectar!&amp;nbsp; Avarice is expelled the country.&amp;nbsp; Liberality scatters

wealth with bounteous hand.&amp;nbsp; Our King does not desire gold or gems

or precious metals, but virtue, glory, immortality.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/font&gt;
  &lt;font size=2&gt;&lt;i&gt;Lord Mountjoy to Erasmus&lt;/i&gt;, 1509&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;blockquote&gt;

&lt;center&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;A brief discussion of his personality and historical

importance&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; How can one adequately describe Henry's personality?&amp;nbsp;

Imagine yourself as Henry VIII, the second son suddenly yanked into the

spotlight by your older brother's death. Sheltered and smothered by a father

suddenly aware that he has just one heir left; handsome and intelligent

and, by turns, both recklessly indulged and then denied.&amp;nbsp; Any of us

would have emerged as a mass of contradictions and frustrations.&amp;nbsp;

So Henry VIII, crowned king at the prime of his life, just eighteen years

old and physically magnificent with more enthusiasm and energy than most

of his contemporaries, became a conflicted and confused man.&amp;nbsp; But

it is a shame to let the last twenty years of his life color the interpretation

of his entire life.&amp;nbsp; One should not see him as simply an ogre king

who beheaded two wives, divorced two others, and rejected another in one

of the most humiliating ways possible.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; His personality was quite amazing; his intelligence,

learning, and curiosity impressed even the world-weary ambassadors who

littered his court.&amp;nbsp; His thirst for knowledge was insatiable, though

it never became the near-mania that haunted Philip II.&amp;nbsp; Henry VIII

didn't spend his declining years surrounded by slips of paper detailing

the most minute occurrences in his realm.&amp;nbsp; But he did spend his entire

reign reading dispatches, scribbling notations, meeting with diplomats

and politicians.&amp;nbsp; Very little occurred in England that escaped his

attention; indeed, very little occurred in Europe that escaped Henry VIII.&amp;nbsp;

He prided himself on this and well he should; the Spanish ambassador reported

that Henry knew of the fall of Cadiz before the Holy Roman Emperor.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; He was usually genial company.&amp;nbsp; He loved music

and wrote his own.&amp;nbsp; He enjoyed dancing and entertainment.&amp;nbsp; He

held countless banquets and tournaments.&amp;nbsp; He enjoyed all physical

activities and excelled at most of them.&amp;nbsp; Hunting, archery, tennis,

jousting - the king made his court into an endless round of competition

and celebration.&amp;nbsp; When he grew older, these former pleasures became

torments; like most former athletes, Henry became fat as he aged and the

once-loved pastimes became bitter reminders of the ravages of time.&amp;nbsp;

And he ruled over a country where almost half the population was 18 years

old or younger!&amp;nbsp; Youth was everywhere, staring the old king in his

face.&amp;nbsp; We can imagine the effects.&amp;nbsp; Quite naturally, he sought

reassurances - from women, his courtiers, his council.&amp;nbsp; Affairs could

distract him, but love affairs were never his grand passion.&amp;nbsp; Despite

his licentious reputation, Henry VIII was really a 16th century sexual

prude; among his European contemporaries, he philandered the least.&amp;nbsp;

State affairs indulged his taste for war and glory; family affairs gnawed

at his conscience and pride.&amp;nbsp; But Henry VIII did not want distractions.&amp;nbsp;

He wanted a grand mission, a defining statement.&amp;nbsp; In the end, he got

his wish, though in the most improbable way possible.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; He began life as a second son, destined for the

church.&amp;nbsp; It was the dream of Henry VII for his eldest son, Arthur,

to be king and for his second son, Henry, to be the highest churchman in

England.&amp;nbsp; And so, for the first ten years of his life, Henry was a

student of theology.&amp;nbsp; And for the next thirty years of his life, he

remained a dutiful son of the church.&amp;nbsp; It is ironic, then, that his

most significant historical achievement was the destruction of the Roman

Catholic faith in England.&amp;nbsp; The impact of the Henrician reformation

forever altered the course of English history.&amp;nbsp; Henry VIII, who had

indulged in endless diplomatic squabbles and foreign wars, left no grand

achievement beyond his own borders.&amp;nbsp; Vast amounts of money were spent

on these foreign entanglements - and many lives lost - but, in the end,

nothing changed in the European balance of power.&amp;nbsp; England, constantly

pulled between the two great continental powers of France and the Holy

Roman Empire, nearly bankrupted itself in an attempt to become respected

and feared.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Why did Henry ultimately fail in those tasks normally

reserved for monarchs?&amp;nbsp; Ultimately, he was a victim of his times.&amp;nbsp;

The 16th century was a confusing mess of changing loyalties, betrayals,

near-constant fighting, and most importantly, a rising skepticism of that

great institution of the fading medieval world, the Roman Catholic church.&amp;nbsp;

With the advent of the printing press a century before, literacy and intellectual

debate grew rapidly.&amp;nbsp; The High Renaissance in Italy occurred during

the first 20 years of Henry VIII's reign.&amp;nbsp; It was a time of unparalleled

scientific experiment, intellectual fervor, and spirited debate.&amp;nbsp;

In such a time, traditional views of kingship were bound to change for

both the ruler and those he ruled.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (As evidence of this confusion, one need only remember

that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor crowned by the Pope, led the brutal

sack of Rome in 1527.&amp;nbsp; Charles, supposedly the anointed defender of

the papacy, actually ordered his imperial army to loot, pillage, and kill

their way through Rome and the Vatican.&amp;nbsp; The pope ended up fleeing

to relative safety in his nightshirt.)

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; While reading any biography of Henry VIII, one must

remember the flavor of his times and judge him, if at all, by sixteenth-century

standards.&amp;nbsp; It's always amusing to read descriptions of Henry as the

lustful tyrant torn between bedding and beheading innocent women; in truth,

he blushed at dirty jokes and was more faithful than many 20th century

husbands.&amp;nbsp; He was married to Katharine of Aragon for over twenty years

and had just a handful of mistresses.&amp;nbsp; He waited years to physically

consummate his relationship with Anne Boleyn, and despite being in the

prime of his life, remained faithful to her until marriage.&amp;nbsp; Was this

sexual prudery a result of his early church training?&amp;nbsp; Perhaps.&amp;nbsp;

Whatever the case, it was a hallmark of his life.&amp;nbsp; Henry VIII was

always an incurable romantic.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; His personal and political decisions were always

grandiose, melodramatic, and played for great effect.&amp;nbsp; He loved pomp

and pageantry, even as he loathed to deal with the consequences of his

actions.&amp;nbsp; Like his father, he was caught in the transition from medieval

England to renaissance England.&amp;nbsp; And like his father, he was well-versed

in English history and desperate to continue the Tudor dynasty, to secure

his claims to Ireland, Scotland, and France, to raise England to the status

of its continental neighbors, and to expand his God-given right to rule

all Englishmen.&amp;nbsp; When reading about Henry's political and dynastic

ambitions, one is always struck by the wide scope of his desires.&amp;nbsp;

Though most came to naught in the end, he actually planned invasions of

France, plotted to join Charles V's invasion of Italy, and intended to

seize the Scottish throne.&amp;nbsp; The word 'ambitious' hardly does Great

Harry justice.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; His political ambitions failed and he bequeathed

a woeful mess to his nine-year-old heir, Edward VI.&amp;nbsp; His greatest

achievement was a dubious one, and one for which he was often eager to

distance himself - the Henrician reformation, the end of Roman Catholicism

in England and the birth of the Anglican church.&amp;nbsp; The king, for all

his contradictions and failures, helped destroy the greatest institution

in medieval Europe.&amp;nbsp; Once Germany and England fell to the new heresy,

its spread across Europe was inevitable and invincible.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; In the biography of Henry at this site, I hope to

capture both the king's personality and assess his importance to history.&amp;nbsp;

Henry VIII's reign was as tumultuous as the king himself.&amp;nbsp; If nothing

else, it makes for entertaining reading.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Top&quot;&gt;TOP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

    &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;hr WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;a NAME=&quot;Two&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;b&gt;Henry Tudor, duke of York: 1491-1502&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; The second Henry Tudor was born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich

Palace in London.&amp;nbsp; He was the third child of the first Tudor monarch,

Henry VII, and his wife, Elizabeth Plantagenet, daughter of the Yorkist

king, Edward IV.&amp;nbsp; At the time of her second son's birth, Queen Elizabeth

was just 25 years old; her husband was 34, and had been king for almost

six years.&amp;nbsp; Those six years had been difficult ones.&amp;nbsp; Henry's

marriage to Elizabeth had helped amass Yorkist support for his rule, but

the English people were hardly enthusiastic about Henry, even as they had

been noticeably ambivalent about his predecessor, Elizabeth's uncle, Richard

III.&amp;nbsp; Elizabeth was popular with the common people; her young life

had all the romance and tragedy necessary for sympathetic gossip and she

was a classical fair beauty, possessing all the female virtues necessary

for a queen.&amp;nbsp; She was quiet, demure, and charming; she was also content

to allow her formidable mother-in-law, Margaret Beaufort, assume a position

of unprecedented influence over the king.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;

Elizabeth's emotional attachment to her husband has been much-debated.&amp;nbsp;

In truth, she had known all her&lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/h8two.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;sketch of Henry VIII as a toddler&quot; BORDER=1 height=214 width=150 align=right&gt; life that she would never marry a man of

her own choice.&amp;nbsp; In the end, her mother, Elizabeth Woodville, conspired

with Margaret Beaufort for Elizabeth to marry Henry Tudor, exiled son of

Henry VI's half-brother.&amp;nbsp; Henry was, by all accounts, grateful for

the match.&amp;nbsp; He appreciated its political implications.&amp;nbsp; He also

respected his new queen and was faithful to his marriage vows, an unusual

trait in a king.&amp;nbsp; Upon her marriage, Elizabeth entered a semi-retirement

- she was queen and her duty was to produce as many heirs as possible.&amp;nbsp;

Nine months after her marriage, she gave birth to her first child at St Swithin's Priory in Winchester, a prince named Arthur.&amp;nbsp; Henry and

Elizabeth had wed on 18 January 1486 at Westminster Abbey in London; Prince

Arthur was born 20 September 1486.&amp;nbsp; Three years later, Elizabeth gave

birth to their second child, a princess called Margaret after Henry VII's

mother.&amp;nbsp; She was born on 28 November 1489 at Westminster Palace in

London.&amp;nbsp; For the new king, the birth of a healthy second child, and

his wife's rapid recovery, were good omens.&amp;nbsp; Even as he attempted

to enforce his rule in the always troublesome northern England which had

been Richard III's base of support, Henry VII could rest assured that his

dynasty was becoming secure.&amp;nbsp; But it was only on 28 June 1491, when

another healthy prince was born, this time at Greenwich Palace, that Henry

VII could breathe a sigh of relief.&amp;nbsp; This second son was a necessary

insurance policy for the new Tudor dynasty.&amp;nbsp; Childhood mortality was

high and diseases such as small pox, the sweating sickness, and the plague

were rife throughout England.&amp;nbsp; A king needed as many healthy heirs

as possible, and the birth of a second son was an occasion for celebration.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; On 27 February 1490, Prince Arthur was titled prince

of Wales at Westminster Palace in London; this was the real beginning of

a tradition that continues to this day.&amp;nbsp; And in 1494, Arthur's baby

brother was titled duke of York, the traditional title of the king's brother.&amp;nbsp;

At this early age, all we know of Prince Henry was that he was considered

a handsome and precocious toddler, but one would expect such descriptions

of the king's son.&amp;nbsp; He did not share his brother's fair coloring or

slight build.&amp;nbsp; Prince Henry was a sturdy, strawberry-blond boy noted

for his energy and temper.&amp;nbsp; Just a year after his birth, his mother

bore another daughter; this child was called Elizabeth and she died three

years later.&amp;nbsp; It was the first in a series of tragedies for the young

queen.&amp;nbsp; She and Henry VII were considered good and affectionate parents,

but they never lost sight of the political importance of their children.&amp;nbsp;

Together they decided that Prince Henry, like most second sons, was destined

for the church, and his early schooling was planned accordingly.&amp;nbsp;

This strong emphasis upon theology and its esoteric debates remained with

Henry for the rest of his life and made him feel uniquely qualified to

interpret religious law during the 1520s.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Top&quot;&gt;TOP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

    &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;hr WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;a NAME=&quot;Three&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heir apparent: 1502-1509&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Henry's position as the second son lasted only until 2 April

1502, just a few months before his eleventh birthday.&amp;nbsp; It was on that

day that his brother Arthur died at Ludlow Castle, the government seat

of the prince of Wales.&amp;nbsp; The insecurity of the Tudor succession was

suddenly unavoidable.&amp;nbsp; Elizabeth of York, despite repeated pregnancies,

had not borne another healthy son; after Henry's birth, there was just

one more male child - a son called Edmund, born in 1499 and dead just a

year later.&amp;nbsp; The queen did become pregnant shortly after Arthur's

death but this eighth pregnancy proved to be her last.&amp;nbsp; The child,

called Katherine, was born and died on 2 February 1503.&amp;nbsp; Elizabeth

contracted an infection and died a few days later, on 11 February, her

thirty-seventh birthday.&amp;nbsp; So in the short space of a year, Henry lost

both his older brother and mother.&amp;nbsp; But the effects of these losses

was felt even more keenly by Henry VII.&amp;nbsp; His reign had proved to be

neither peaceful or happy.&amp;nbsp; He was beset by worries - constant diplomatic

maneuvering, subjects who mocked him as a cold-hearted, tax-hungry miser,

and now he had lost his son and wife.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Arthur's death was more than a personal tragedy;

it was a political tragedy as well.&amp;nbsp; The young prince had been married

to &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2faragon.html&quot;&gt;Princess

Katharine of Aragon&lt;/a&gt; on 14 November 1501 at St.Paul's Cathedral, London.&amp;nbsp;

The daughter of the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Ferdinand of Aragon and

Isabella of Castile, Katharine's marriage to the Tudor heir had marked

the high point of Henry VII's foreign diplomacy.&amp;nbsp; His grip on the

English throne had long been considered both illegitimate and untenable

by most European powers, except in cases where it suited their interests

to pretend otherwise.&amp;nbsp; But a bond of marriage between the house of

Tudor and the ruling dynasty of Spain gave Henry's rule a stamp of approval.&amp;nbsp;

He was now allied with one of the most powerful ruling families in Europe.&amp;nbsp;

Prince Henry met his sister-in-law and future wife on this momentous occasion,

heading the procession that led her to the cathedral.&amp;nbsp; Later, he officially

introduced her to the citizens of London.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; With Arthur's death, his teenage wife was trapped

in England while Henry VII squabbled with her father over the remaining

payments on her dowry.&amp;nbsp; Henry VII was perhaps even then mulling over

the idea of not letting the all-important Spanish alliance go to waste.&amp;nbsp;

Soon enough he was openly proposing that Katharine marry young Prince Henry,

now the heir apparent and five years her junior.&amp;nbsp; What did young Prince

Henry know of these plans?&amp;nbsp; Probably very little.&amp;nbsp; After Arthur's

death, Henry VII became somewhat paranoid and tried desperately to protect

his only son from any injury or illness.&amp;nbsp; People who wished to visit

the young prince had to receive permission from Henry VII, and this remained

the case well into the boy's adolescence.&amp;nbsp; Such strict rules may have

irked the heir but they did not interfere with his continuing education.&amp;nbsp;

While his older brother was in Wales learning the intricacies of government,

Henry received a primarily classical education, mastering Latin and French

and becoming an excellent and exuberant athlete.&amp;nbsp; Contemporary sources

make it clear that he was a happy child, fond of sports and spectacle,

and equally proud of his intellectual accomplishments.&amp;nbsp; In short,

he possessed all the personality and charm his father noticeably lacked.&amp;nbsp;

Both his physical appearance and character were similar to those of his

Plantagenet grandfather Edward IV.&amp;nbsp; This fact was much remarked upon

by those Englishmen who had lived through the last years of the Wars of

the Roses.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Luckily for Prince Henry, his father spent the last

years of his reign establishing good relationships with other monarchs

and avoiding expensive war; also, his fondness for extorting money from

an unwilling populace never wavered.&amp;nbsp; He left his son a king's greatest

gift - a healthy treasury.&amp;nbsp; Ironically, one of Henry VIII's first

acts as king was to execute his father's most productive, and hence most

notorious, tax collectors.&amp;nbsp; But Henry VII never really decided whether

he wanted to marry Prince Henry to Katharine of Aragon.&amp;nbsp; He kept the

young princess in England for seven years while he toyed with the idea.&amp;nbsp;

Her living conditions steadily deteriorated; she was miserably unhappy,

many of her Spanish attendants were sent home, she lacked money for even

basic necessities.&amp;nbsp; Food and adequate clothing were constant concerns.&amp;nbsp;

She struggled to bear her hardships with the serene and regal dignity that

was ingrained in her character as a princess of Spain, and such calm in

the face of deprivation impressed young Prince Henry.&amp;nbsp; It is certainly

true that even years later, in the midst of an acrimonious separation,

he never lost his respect for Katharine.&amp;nbsp; This respect was always

tinged with a bit of fear.&amp;nbsp; He was keenly aware of her great ancestry

and extensive education, her self-deprecating wit and complete mastery

of all feminine tasks.&amp;nbsp; Even as queen of England, she took particular

pride in sewing and mending Henry's shirts.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;

They had little contact during the later years of Henry VII's reign, only

meeting occasionally at formal&lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/henry8-cr.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;portrait of Henry VIII, c1509&quot; BORDER=1 height=194 width=125 align=right&gt; events.&amp;nbsp; Henry was formally promised

in marriage to Katharine on 23 June 1503; the treaty stated that he would

marry Katharine on his fifteenth birthday, 28 June 1505, and that her parents

send over 100,000 crowns worth of plate and jewels in addition to the dowry

she had given when married to Prince Arthur.&amp;nbsp; Henry VII was a stickler

on the dowry issue, refusing to allow the marriage to be solemnized, much

less celebrated and consummated, until the money arrived.&amp;nbsp; But the

Spaniards were as loathe to part with money as Henry.&amp;nbsp; So 1505 came

and went with no marriage though Prince Henry referred in letters to Katharine

as his 'most dear and well-beloved consort, the princess my wife'.&amp;nbsp;

But his father was still king, and his father refused to allow the marriage.&amp;nbsp;

To strengthen his bargaining power with the Spaniards, he had Prince Henry

make a formal protest to Richard Fox, the bishop of Winchester, disowning

the marriage contract.&amp;nbsp; Both parties prevaricated - until 1509, when

Henry VII suddenly died at the age of 52, and his headstrong son, chafing

at his father's authority, was free to make his own decisions.&amp;nbsp; To

the surprise of all, including the Spaniards, he promptly announced he

would marry Katharine and crown her queen of England.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; After years of being shut away from the world, he

was now king.&amp;nbsp; All of the boundless energy and enthusiasm of his character

was unleashed.&amp;nbsp; Perhaps out of chivalry, or adolescent affection,

or, as he later claimed, out of respect for his father's wishes, he wed

his late brother's wife.&amp;nbsp; In light of future events, it is worth noting

that the dowry had not been the only sticking-point in the marriage plans

- there was the not insignificant fact that Katharine had been married

to Henry's brother, and her marriage to Henry would be regarded as incestuous

and unacceptable to the church.&amp;nbsp; As Henry VIII would later argue,

&lt;i&gt;Leviticus&lt;/i&gt;

clearly stated that a man was forbidden to marry his brother's widow.&amp;nbsp;

For her part, Katharine claimed, and her duenna, Dona Elvira, agreed, that

her marriage to Arthur had never been consummated.&amp;nbsp; The young prince

of Wales had been suffering from consumption for months, even before the

wedding, and their wedding night had passed uneventfully.&amp;nbsp; If this

was true, and it seems to have been (until it was in Henry VIII's interests

for it not to be), there was no barrier to her union with Henry.&amp;nbsp;

Both the English and Spanish courts sought the requisite papal dispensation.&amp;nbsp;

It was granted and the path to marriage was clear.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Top&quot;&gt;TOP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

    &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;hr WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;

  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever

set eyes on; above the usual height, with an extremely fine calf to his

leg, his complexion very fair and bright, auburn hair combed straight and

short, in the French fashion, and a round face so very beautiful that it

would become a pretty woman, his throat being rather long and thick....&amp;nbsp;

He will enter his twenty-fifth year the month after next.&amp;nbsp; He speaks

French, English and Latin, and a little Italian, plays well on the lute

and harpsichord, sings from book at sight, draws the bow with greater strength

than any man in England and jousts marvelously....&amp;nbsp; a most accomplished

Prince.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/font&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;the Venetian diplomat Pasqualigo in a dispatch&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;, 1515&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;blockquote&gt;
    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;a NAME=&quot;Four&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;b&gt;1509-1526: Katharine of Aragon, Cardinal Wolsey

and Princess Mary&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Henry was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 23 June 1509.&amp;nbsp;

He had married Katharine on 11 June at Grey Friars Church in Greenwich

and she shared his coronation.&amp;nbsp; It was a splendid event and continued

throughout midsummer with much celebration and spectacle.&amp;nbsp; There is

an account of the coronation at the &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;Primary

Sources&lt;/a&gt; section.&amp;nbsp; It was soon clear that the young king, who turned

18 just a few days after his coronation, had little interest in the day-to-day

business of government.&amp;nbsp; While it is true that Henry was a vocal participant

at council meetings, the early years of his reign were devoted more to

enjoyment than the drudgery of administration.&amp;nbsp; He was content to

allow trusted nobles and ecclesiastics to rule in his name - William Warham,

archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey and later 2d duke

of Norfolk, Bishop Richard Foxe, and, beginning around 1514, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fwolsey.html&quot;&gt;Thomas

Wolsey&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; As mentioned earlier, one of the first acts of Henry's

reign was a particularly brutal one, especially designed to benefit his

popularity.&amp;nbsp; He ordered the executions of his father's most productive

and hated tax collectors, Edmund Dudley and Sir Richard Empson.&amp;nbsp; It

was a bloody beginning for his reign and a taste of things to come.&amp;nbsp;

Certainly it pleased the English people for most tax collectors were hated,

and Dudley and Empson had been particularly ruthless.&amp;nbsp; But their efficiency

had the complete support of King Henry VII, whose orders they followed.&amp;nbsp;

A problem had emerged for the new king - how could he execute the tax collectors

when their only crime was to obey their king?&amp;nbsp; He resorted, for the

first but not the last time, to judicial murder, charging the men with

'constructive treason'.&amp;nbsp; It was a wholly fictitious charge which no

one fully understood, even those at the trial.&amp;nbsp; This cold-blooded

act pleased the people and demonstrated Henry's desire for popular approval.&amp;nbsp;

But it also revealed a ruthlessness to his character that grew more pronounced

as the years passed.&amp;nbsp; Many historians argue that Henry grew tyrannical

only after Katharine of Aragon failed to provide an heir but the evidence

proves otherwise.&amp;nbsp; If someone could not be legally executed, the king

simply invented a new charge.&amp;nbsp; For example, in 1513, before leaving

for war in France, he executed Edmund de la Pole, his Plantagenet cousin

held prisoner in the Tower since Henry VII's reign.&amp;nbsp; A benign spirit,

locked away for most of his life, Edmund was no threat to anyone.&amp;nbsp;

But Henry executed him to remind his subjects that, though he would be

in France, any challenge to his authority would be met with grave displeasure.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; His marriage to Katharine was very happy, at least

during these early years.&amp;nbsp; She had a more reserved character than

her husband and blushed at his ribald jests, but she entered into the spirit

of frivolity which pervaded their court.&amp;nbsp; There was dancing and music,

for Henry was a splendid dancer and musician; he composed songs and wrote

poetry, most of which has survived and is quite lovely.&amp;nbsp; He also enjoyed

hunting, sometimes tiring ten horses during a single hunt, and jousting;

by all accounts, he was the greatest athlete at the court.&amp;nbsp; And he

was a dedicated and affectionate husband.&amp;nbsp; Everything he built was

decorated with an intertwined H and K, and Katharine's pomegranates were

carved next to Tudor roses.&amp;nbsp; He called himself the 'Knight of the

Loyal Heart' and bowed before his queen after each grueling tournament.&amp;nbsp;

He also involved Katharine in the seemingly endless visits of foreign dignitaries,

inviting the ambassadors to her apartments and openly seeking her advice

and opinion.&amp;nbsp; It was clear that they loved and respected one another,

and those early years made his eventual disinterest all the more painful

for the queen to bear.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;

Katharine bore their first child on 31 January 1510, just six months after

their coronation.&amp;nbsp; It was a girl, born too early to survive.&amp;nbsp;

The next birth, on 1 January 1511, was a far happier occasion.&amp;nbsp; It

was a boy, called Henry after his father and titled duke of Cornwall.&amp;nbsp;

The delighted father planned celebrations to rival his&lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragon-min.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;portrait of Katharine of Aragon, c1525 by Horenbout&quot; height=168 width=166 align=right&gt; coronation.&amp;nbsp;

The boy was apparently healthy yet died about two months later.&amp;nbsp; The

cause was unknown, but it was an age of high infant mortality.&amp;nbsp; The

young parents were devastated.&amp;nbsp; Henry consoled himself by waging war

against France, courtesy of his father-in-law Ferdinand of Aragon, and

Katharine's fierce piety led her to kneel for hours on cold stone floors

in prayer.&amp;nbsp; But Henry's attempts to gain glory on the battlefield

were misplaced.&amp;nbsp; In June 1512, the marquess of Dorset sailed out of

Southampton, bound for Gascony with 12,000 troops.&amp;nbsp; They reached the

port of Fuentarrabia, where they were to join the Spanish and attack Bayonne.&amp;nbsp;

But the Spanish troops never arrived.&amp;nbsp; Ferdinand, without consulting

his son-in-law, attacked and seized Navarre instead and then declared the

'Holy War' over.&amp;nbsp; He had essentially used Henry's troops as bait;

when the French went off to fight the English, Ferdinand seized his chance

and attacked Navarre.&amp;nbsp; To top off his treachery, he also openly criticized

the English soldiers who, without receiving his permission, had sailed

home after waiting four months at Fuentarrabia.&amp;nbsp; Henry was too embarrassed

by his soldiers' mutiny to call his father-in-law's bluff.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Desperate to erase the memory of that military blunder,

he planned a grand campaign for the spring of 1513.&amp;nbsp; His ambassadors

even secured the support of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian.&amp;nbsp; He

joined the 'Holy Alliance' of England and Spain to attack France.&amp;nbsp;

But once again Ferdinand's self-interest ruled the day.&amp;nbsp; He went behind

his allies' backs to make a secret truce with Louis XII of France, and

so he kept Navarre peacefully.&amp;nbsp; This happened in March 1513 and suitably

angered Henry.&amp;nbsp; But the English king had learned a lesson from his

previous blunder.&amp;nbsp; His forces were launched from England's only possession

on the continent, Calais in northern France.&amp;nbsp; The Spanish would not

be involved.&amp;nbsp; On 1 August 1513, about a month after he left England,

Henry besieged the town of Therouanne.&amp;nbsp; Two centuries before, Edward

III had seized that city after the great battle of Crecy.&amp;nbsp; With Maximilian

by his side (actually as his subordinate; he allowed Henry command of his

troops in exchange for paying their salaries), Henry won a victory within

a fortnight.&amp;nbsp; The capture of a duke, marquis, and vice-admiral fleeing

the scene helped raise substantial ransoms.&amp;nbsp; He gave the town to Maximilian

as a gift and the emperor ordered it razed to the ground.&amp;nbsp; Their next

battle was one month later at Tournai.&amp;nbsp; It surrendered after eight

days and Henry decided it would become another English stronghold within

France.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; He had left Katharine in charge at home, officially

titled Governor of the Realm and Captain-General of the Armed Forces, an

honor never allowed his other wives.&amp;nbsp; She had been resoundingly successful.&amp;nbsp;

France and Scotland had an 'Auld Alliance' against England, and&amp;nbsp; James

IV of Scotland, married to Henry's sister Margaret Tudor, had responded

to English aggression against his ally.&amp;nbsp; He led his armies into northern

England.&amp;nbsp; Thomas Howard, the earl of Surrey, took the few English

troops left in the nation to meet him.&amp;nbsp; The armies clashed at Flodden

Edge, between Berwick and the Cheviots.&amp;nbsp; Three hours of fighting ended

the Scottish threat.&amp;nbsp; The evening of 9 September 1513 saw over 10,000

Scots dead, including most of their aristocracy.&amp;nbsp; James IV himself

was killed.&amp;nbsp; Had Henry's attention been focused on his own country,

he could have seized a golden opportunity - with James dead and the high

nobility of Scotland destroyed, he could have marched into Edinburgh and

seized his sister Margaret and her infant son, now King James V.&amp;nbsp;

But instead he remained enthralled with dreams of European conquest, perhaps

comparing himself to his hero, Henry V.&amp;nbsp; And these dreams were encouraged

by news that the Pope had, in secret, promised to recognize Henry as king

of France if he could physically seize possession of the country.&amp;nbsp;

This generous offer had been inspired by French meddling in papal affairs.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; During this triumphant time, Katharine lost another

child.&amp;nbsp; In November 1513, another prince, also called Henry, duke

of Cornwall, was born and soon died.&amp;nbsp; It was the third miscarriage

in as many years.&amp;nbsp; Was Henry worried?&amp;nbsp; He was still young, as

was Katharine, and had been king for just five years.&amp;nbsp; He was naturally

optimistic, though undoubtedly disappointed.&amp;nbsp; Once again, the queen

was on her knees in prayer.&amp;nbsp; Perhaps she felt the losses more keenly.&amp;nbsp;

In letters to her father, she blamed herself.&amp;nbsp; She clearly saw the

dead children as a reproof of some sort, a failure to fulfill the most

basic feminine role.&amp;nbsp; But she was able to send Henry the bloody coat

of the Scottish king; it may have been some consolation.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Still, in 1514, as &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fwolsey.html&quot;&gt;Cardinal

Thomas Wolsey&lt;/a&gt; extended his control of government, Katharine had reason

to become wary.&amp;nbsp; The golden happiness of the first years with Henry

was wearing thin.&amp;nbsp; Her father had betrayed her husband openly and

scornfully, treating them both as little more than foolish children.&amp;nbsp;

She had been her father's best ambassador, heedlessly pressing his claims

upon Henry, using the natural affection between husband and wife to urge

alliances with Spain.&amp;nbsp; She felt the sting of her father's betrayals.&amp;nbsp;

He had lied to her, misled her, and tricked her into betraying her husband.&amp;nbsp;

It was clear that her primary loyalty must be to Henry and the English

people; she would never trust Ferdinand again.&amp;nbsp; In 1514, the king

returned home and his councilors told him that Henry VII's great treasury

was fast running low.&amp;nbsp; War with France was too costly to continue.&amp;nbsp;

Henry had seized Tournai and made the competent Thomas Wolsey its bishop,

but more extensive campaigning was out of the question.&amp;nbsp; In this,

the king surprisingly agreed.&amp;nbsp; He had won his share of glory - at

least for now - and it would be enough.&amp;nbsp; And Ferdinand's betrayal

had been met with a suitable reply.&amp;nbsp; Henry's younger sister

&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2frelative%2fbrandon.html&quot;&gt;Mary&lt;/a&gt;,

the most beautiful of the Tudor children, had been betrothed to Ferdinand's

nephew, the duke of Burgundy, but now Henry made peace with France and

promised Mary to Louis XII, three times her age and suffering from gout.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Henry's

new desire for peace with France, England's traditional enemy, was encouraged

by Spanish duplicity.&amp;nbsp; But it&lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/wolsey-cr.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;portrait of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey&quot; height=234 width=150 align=right&gt; was also due to the growing influence

of Wolsey.&amp;nbsp; Derisively called 'Master Almoner' by those jealous of

his influence, Wolsey came from a humble background and, like most talented

and ambitious men from poor families, he used the church to advance in

society.&amp;nbsp; He attended Oxford and showed such promise that he was made

bursar of Magdalen College and then chaplain to Archbishop Deane.&amp;nbsp;

In 1507, in his thirties and now well-connected, he became chaplain to

Henry VII.&amp;nbsp; Upon Henry VIII's accession, Wolsey received a seat on

the council and was made king's almoner.&amp;nbsp; This position allowed him

personal contact with the young, impressionable monarch.&amp;nbsp; He accompanied

Henry to France during the successful campaigns of 1513, where he was made

bishop of Tournai, and their close relationship grew stronger.&amp;nbsp; Henry

appreciated Wolsey's dedication to administrative detail and hard work.&amp;nbsp;

And both Warham and Fox, the two senior councilors Henry inherited from

his father, regarded Wolsey as their protégé.&amp;nbsp; They

were quite happy to retire to their dioceses, leaving the younger man to

deal with the headstrong and rash young king.&amp;nbsp; One can easily sympathize

with Warham and Fox since Henry VIII's personality was quite different

from his father's.&amp;nbsp; The most obvious difference was that he spent

money with the same passion his father had collected it.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; But it is important to remember that Henry VIII

never completely abandoned his power to Wolsey, though court gossip believed

otherwise.&amp;nbsp; He carefully read the Cardinal's dispatches and proved

himself well-informed about domestic and foreign affairs when dealing with

ambassadors.&amp;nbsp; Also, Henry possessed a lifelong love of keeping his

subjects, noble or common, on their toes; he enjoyed indulging his taste

for surprises.&amp;nbsp; In banquets, this showed itself in his passion for

elaborate costumes in which his identity was hidden.&amp;nbsp; His subjects

would guess which costume hid their king, to the delight of all.&amp;nbsp;

Once, he and several courtiers dressed as Robin Hood and his band of outlaws

and then broke into Katharine of Aragon's apartments.&amp;nbsp; The queen,

used to such antics, wisely played along but several of her ladies were

terrified.&amp;nbsp; At the

&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;Primary

Sources&lt;/a&gt; section, you can read about Henry's first meeting with his

fourth wife, Anne of Cleves; he disguised himself at their first meeting,

to the amusement of his nobles and the confusion of the lady.&amp;nbsp; At

times, this love of surprise - of keeping those close to him on an uneven

keel - was downright cruel.&amp;nbsp; He would later allow his councilors to

plan Thomas Cranmer's arrest, only to tell the archbishop their plan in

secret.&amp;nbsp; When the soldiers arrived, they were openly embarrassed and

thwarted when Cranmer revealed his knowledge of the plan and the king's

pardon.&amp;nbsp; And his sixth and final wife, Katharine Parr, was likewise

surprised.&amp;nbsp; Walking in her garden with Henry, she was accosted by

soldiers intending to arrest her.&amp;nbsp; Their warrant had been signed by

Henry himself.&amp;nbsp; But when they attempted to seize the queen, Henry

cursed them, beat several of them about the head and shoulders, and demanded

they beg Katharine's forgiveness.&amp;nbsp; One can imagine the guards' confusion.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; All of these instances serve to illustrate Henry's

desire to remain in control, to hold absolute power in his hands always.&amp;nbsp;

As king, he could give orders but it was also his privilege to immediately

change his mind without bothering to consult anyone.&amp;nbsp; His will was

law.&amp;nbsp; And so he demonstrated his power by doing exactly as he liked,

oftimes choosing the perfect moment to throw everyone off guard and demonstrate

his complete authority.&amp;nbsp; It may have seemed irrational to his contemporaries,

and also to us, but it was quite an effective policy.&amp;nbsp; It meant that

no one ever really knew where they stood with the king.&amp;nbsp; And so, not

knowing his true feelings, they were all the more eager to sycophantically

fawn over him and seek his approval.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; This strain of the king's character was perhaps

a bit more light-hearted in the early years of his reign but, like most

of Henry's good qualities, it soon developed an ugly cast.&amp;nbsp; His mutability

was certainly recognized by Wolsey, and famously by Sir Thomas More, and

later led to the Cardinal's downfall.&amp;nbsp; But in the early years of their

relationship, as Wolsey's genius for administration and diplomacy led him

to amass great titles and wealth, the men got along amazingly well.&amp;nbsp;

This continued for over a dozen years.&amp;nbsp; In 1514, Wolsey was titled

archbishop of York, and in 1515 he became a cardinal and lord chancellor,

and in 1518 he was made papal legate.&amp;nbsp; As archbishop of York, he lived

at York Palace and to most outside observers this was the real seat of

government power.&amp;nbsp; Messengers rode constantly between York and Henry's

palaces.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; For a long while, both Wolsey and Henry were focused

on foreign affairs.&amp;nbsp; Wolsey was a Francophile and desired peace between

the traditional enemies.&amp;nbsp; He used Ferdinand's treacherous behavior

to encourage a marriage between Henry's sister and Louis XII.&amp;nbsp; This

pro-France policy naturally placed him at odds with Katharine of Aragon.&amp;nbsp;

Though she recognized her father's treachery and protected her marriage

by no longer pressing Spanish claims, she was still the daughter of the

Spanish king.&amp;nbsp; Wolsey didn't trust her, which certainly wasn't surprising.&amp;nbsp;

Katharine developed a natural antipathy to the Cardinal as well.&amp;nbsp;

She was a deeply pious woman, growing more so as she aged.&amp;nbsp; She thought

Wolsey far too worldly to be a man of the church.&amp;nbsp; She favored councilors

like &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fmore.html&quot;&gt;Thomas

More&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2ffisher.html&quot;&gt;John

Fisher&lt;/a&gt;, bishop of Rochester, men whose dedication to the church was

as passionate as her own.&amp;nbsp; She was also peeved that her role as Henry's

confidante and advisor was slowly stolen away by Wolsey.&amp;nbsp; Katharine

was jealous of the Cardinal's influence with her husband, particularly

since it meant a subsequent decline in her own influence.&amp;nbsp; The king

no longer brought foreign ambassadors to her rooms and he no longer sought

her opinions.&amp;nbsp; It was as if her father's betrayals implicated her.&amp;nbsp;

Wolsey was the consummate diplomat, skilled at flattering the queen when

they met, but their mutual dislike was open knowledge at court.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; In December 1514, Katharine suffered another miscarriage;

it was her fourth, and the third son.&amp;nbsp; It was particularly galling

for her since earlier that year Henry had taken his first public mistress.&amp;nbsp;

He was not a lecher, and certainly less victimized by lust than his fellow

monarchs, particularly Francis I of France.&amp;nbsp; But kings take mistresses

and around New Years' 1514, Henry's eye was caught by &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2frelative%2ffitzroy.html&quot;&gt;Elizabeth

Blount&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; She was the cousin of Lord Mountjoy and one of Katharine's

ladies-in-waiting.&amp;nbsp; Bessie was pretty and vivacious, and quite happy

to bask in the king's attention.&amp;nbsp; And she had his attention for several

years, which once more proves Henry's monogamous streak.&amp;nbsp; And he did

not neglect his wife.&amp;nbsp; On 18 February 1516, Katharine and Henry's

luck changed.&amp;nbsp; Their only surviving child, a princess called Mary,

was born.&amp;nbsp; She was healthy and survived the difficult early months

of infancy.&amp;nbsp; Henry was proud, if disappointed, and told an ambassador:

'We are both young.&amp;nbsp; If it was a daughter this time, by the grace

of God the sons will follow.'

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; One can easily understand Henry's disappointment.&amp;nbsp;

He was a good father to Mary in those early years, proudly carrying her

about and showing her off to visitors.&amp;nbsp; But he was perhaps aware that

time was running out for a male heir to be born.&amp;nbsp; There are indications

that he explored the idea of divorcing Katharine as early as 1518.&amp;nbsp;

An English courtier had supposedly visited the Vatican on an exploratory

mission earlier that year.&amp;nbsp; And gossip about Katharine's miscarriages

had spread through the English court as early as 1514.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Henry was still affectionate towards Katharine,

and they remained intimate for several years after Mary's birth, as evidenced

by other pregnancies.&amp;nbsp; But perhaps the bloom of the relationship had

gone.&amp;nbsp; His wife looked older than her years, her body worn out by

ceaseless pregnancies and births.&amp;nbsp; She was by nature a reserved and

serious person; her mind dwelt constantly upon the failure of her most

important duty as queen.&amp;nbsp; On 10 November 1518, her last child - another

daughter - was born, and died.&amp;nbsp; Special doctors summoned from Spain

arrived to help the queen conceive again.&amp;nbsp; They were unsuccessful.&amp;nbsp;

Henry publicly vowed to lead a crusade against the&amp;nbsp;&lt;img SRC=&quot;_httpdocimg_/fitzroy.jpg&quot; ALT=&quot;miniature portrait of Henry Fitzroy, Henry VIII's illegitimate son&quot; height=203 width=208 align=LEFT&gt;Turks

if God granted him a son.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; But it was not to be, at least not with Katharine

of Aragon.&amp;nbsp; In 1519, Elizabeth Blount, his young mistress, bore him

a healthy son.&amp;nbsp; Henry was ecstatic.&amp;nbsp; Here at last was proof that

the king could father sons.&amp;nbsp; Henry named the boy after himself, giving

him the last name 'Fitzroy', the traditional surname of royal bastards.&amp;nbsp;

He would soon lavish so many titles upon the boy that Katharine felt it

necessary to remind him that Princess Mary was his heir.&amp;nbsp; Henry publicly

chastised her and, in a fit of spite, sent several of her favorite attendants

back to Spain.

&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Now we come to an important moment in what came

to be called 'the king's great matter' (Henry's attempt to annul his marriage

to Katharine.)&amp;nbsp; Fitzroy's birth proved Henry could have a son, and

no one could deny Katharine's fertility.&amp;nbsp; It is doubtful Henry ever

blamed her for the failure to produce a male heir after witnessing the

endless cycle of pregnancies and prayer.&amp;nbsp; Yet why had he and Katharine

been unable to produce a living son between them?&amp;nbsp; Naturally enough,

the king's mind turned to God.&amp;nbsp; It must be God's will that they had

no male heir.&amp;nbsp; But what had he done to offend God?&amp;nbsp; Henry searched

for an answer and soon found it quite easily.&amp;nbsp; In the Bible, &lt;i&gt;Leviticus

&lt;/i&gt;XVIII,

16 clearly stated 'Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy brother's wife: 
it is thy brother's nakedness'.&amp;nbsp; And, later, in chapter XX, 'If a man shall 
take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother's 
nakedness; they shall be childless'.&amp;nbsp; What could be more clear?&amp;nbsp; The 
Bible itself condemned his marriage to Katharine.&amp;nbsp; The pope's dispensation 
was meaningless.&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; And so began one of the most fascinating decades in English 
history.&lt;p&gt;

&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Top&quot;&gt;TOP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

    &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;hr WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;br&gt;&lt;a NAME=&quot;Five&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;b&gt;1526-1536: Anne Boleyn and the Henrician Reformation&lt;/b&gt;
    &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;This section, along with the remainder of the biography, is

    not available as of March 2004.

&lt;br&gt;I will post its completion soon.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;

&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhenry8.html#Top&quot;&gt;TOP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;br&gt;

    &lt;/p&gt;

&lt;hr WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;

&lt;center&gt;

      &lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html&quot;&gt;Portraits

of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;Primary

Sources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Henry's wives:&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;
      &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fwives.html&quot;&gt;The Six Wives of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;      &lt;b&gt;Henry's children:&lt;br&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fedward6.html&quot;&gt;
      King Edward VI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;
      &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fmary1.html&quot;&gt;Queen Mary I&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz1.html&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
      Queen Elizabeth I&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudor1.html&quot;&gt;Test your knowledge

of Henry VIII's life at Tudor Quizzes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs.html&quot;&gt;to

Tudor Monarchs&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor.html&quot;&gt;to Tudor

England&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;



  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;



&lt;!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --&gt;&lt;!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;JavaScript&quot; src=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fhostingprod.com%2fjs%5fsource%2fgeov2.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;geovisit();&lt;/script&gt;&lt;noscript&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;el=direct&amp;amp;href=http://visit.webhosting.yahoo.com/visit.gif?us1108082557&quot; alt=&quot;setstats&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;1&quot; height=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/noscript&gt;
&lt;IMG SRC=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;el=direct&amp;amp;href=http://geo.yahoo.com/serv?s=76001524&amp;t=1108082557&quot; ALT=1 WIDTH=1 HEIGHT=1&gt;
</Content>
</Section>
</Archive>