Index: cumentation/trunk/tutorial_sample_files/simple_html/aragon.html
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-<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
-<html><head>
-  <meta name="content" content="Katharine Catherine Katherine of Aragon first wife of Henry VIII">
-  <meta name="page_topic" content="Katharine Catherine Katherine of Aragon first wife of Henry VIII mother of Queen Mary I">
-  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
-  <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0">
-  <meta name="ProgId" content="FrontPage.Editor.Document">
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Katharine / Katherine / Catherine of Aragon: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
-  
-  <style fprolloverstyle="">A:hover {color: #0000FF; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold}
-  </style></head>
-
-<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="674" width="100%">
-  <tbody>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="39" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="39" valign="top" width="50%">
-      <p align="center"><font size="4"><br>'In this world I will confess
-myself to be the king's true wife, and in the next they will know how
-unreasonably I am afflicted.'</font><b><font size="4"> </font> <br>
-      </b><i><font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon, 1532</font></i> </p>
-      </td>
-      <td height="39" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="1" width="50%">
-      <p align="center"></p>
-      &nbsp;</td>
-      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
-      <p align="center">
-      <img src="aragon_files/aragoncardinal.gif" alt="Katharine of Aragon" border="0" height="114" width="443"></p>
-      <p align="center"> 
-      <img src="aragon_files/aragonsittow1.jpg" alt="portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Michael Sittow, c1502" border="2" height="541" width="351"></p>
-      <p align="center"> <i><font size="2">portrait of Katharine of Aragon by 
-      Michael Sittow, c1502</font></i></p>
-      <p align="left"> <b><br>The youngest surviving child of
-the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Katharine was born on 16 December 1485,
-the same year that Henry VII established the Tudor dynasty.&nbsp; At
-the age of three, she was betrothed to his infant son, Prince
-Arthur.&nbsp; In 1501, shortly before her sixteenth birthday, Katharine
-sailed to England.&nbsp; But her marriage to Arthur lasted less than
-six months and was supposedly never consummated.&nbsp; Katharine was
-then betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, Prince Henry.&nbsp; When he
-became king in 1509, at the age of eighteen, he promptly married
-Katharine and they lived together happily for many years.&nbsp; But
-their marriage produced just one living child, a daughter called Mary,
-and Henry was desperate for a male heir.&nbsp; He also fell deeply in
-love with another woman.&nbsp; Cast aside, Katharine fought against
-great odds to deny Henry an annulment.&nbsp; But the king would not be
-denied and when the Catholic church would not grant the annulment, he
-declared himself head of a new English church.&nbsp; Katharine was
-banished from court and died on 7 January 1536, broken-hearted but
-still defiant.</b> </p>
-      <p align="left"> &nbsp;</p>
-      <blockquote>
-        <blockquote>
-          <p><a href="#Biography">
-          <font size="4">Read the biography of Katharine of Aragon.</font></a></p>
-        </blockquote>
-        <blockquote>
-          <p><b><br>
-Primary Sources</b> <br>
-Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
-written by Katharine</a> and <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/h8crown.html">an account of her
-coronation</a> at Westminster Abbey.&nbsp; <br>
-          <br>
-          <b>Secondary Sources<br></b>Read JA Froude's 1891 work <i>
-          <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/secondary.html">The Divorce 
-          of Catherine of Aragon</a></i>.</p>
-          <p><br>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor England:
-Images</a> to view portraits of Katharine.<br>
-Visit the <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/mary1.html">Queen
-Mary I site</a> to learn more about Katharine's daughter.</p>
-          <p><font size="2"><b><br>
-Interact<br>
-          </b>Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
-the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<br>
-          <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk
-          </a>&nbsp;This email discussion list is sponsored by
-Tudorhistory.org.<br>
-          <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign of
-the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
-England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
-other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
-        </blockquote>
-        <p align="left"> &nbsp;</p>
-      </blockquote>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-  </tbody>
-</table>
-<blockquote>
-  <blockquote>
-    <blockquote>
-      <blockquote>
-        <p>&nbsp;</p>
-        <p><a name="Biography"><br>
-        </a><font size="4">'My tribulations are so great, my life so
-disturbed by the plans daily invented to further the king's wicked
-intention, the surprises which the king gives me, with certain persons
-of his council, are so mortal, and my treatment is what God knows, that
-it is enough to shorten ten lives, much more mine.'&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><i>
-        <font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon to Charles V, November 1531</font></i></p>
-        <p>&nbsp;</p>
-      </blockquote>
-    </blockquote>
-    <p><b>Biography</b> <br>
-Katharine was born on 16 December 1485 at Alcala de Henares, in the
-archbishop of Toledo's palace.&nbsp; Her early life promised a future
-of splendor and success, if not personal happiness.&nbsp; Her parents,
-Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, were legends throughout
-Europe.&nbsp; Their marriage had united the kingdom of Spain and
-together they had driven the Moors from Granada.&nbsp; Katharine's
-mother was deeply pious and very intelligent.&nbsp; Her children, even
-the daughters, received excellent educations.&nbsp; Katharine's brother
-Juan and sister Joanna were married off into the powerful Hapsburg
-family and two other sisters, Isabella and Maria, would each marry the
-king of Portugal.&nbsp; Katharine was promised to England; the
-betrothal contract was finalized before her fourth birthday.&nbsp; The
-island nation, so long torn between Plantagenet cousins vying for the
-throne, was now ruled by Henry Tudor.&nbsp; He had married the daughter
-of the former Plantagenet king, Edward IV, and in 1486 had a male heir
-and a desire to establish the stability and validity of his new
-dynasty.&nbsp; A match with a Spanish princess would give him
-both.&nbsp; And so Katharine, proud and solemn and accompanied by a
-vast dowry, came to England in 1501.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p> She
-wed Prince Arthur within a few weeks of her arrival.&nbsp; It was a
-grand celebration; all of London rejoiced and there was every
-expectation of a glorious future for both husband and wife.&nbsp; They
-left for Ludlow Castle, the government seat of the Prince of Wales, and
-within six months Arthur was dead.&nbsp; It was the dreaded sweating
-sickness.&nbsp; The news devastated his parents.&nbsp; Katharine
-returned to London but was not sent home.&nbsp; Henry VII was already
-writing to her parents about another marriage.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Katharine was now promised to Arthur's younger brother,
-Henry.&nbsp; Born 28 June 1491, he was almost six years younger than
-Katharine.&nbsp; But he was robust and healthy, and already regarded as
-a precocious intellect.&nbsp; Before his brother's death, he had been
-destined for the church and educated accordingly.&nbsp; But now he was
-the future king and as such he needed a future wife.&nbsp; Henry VII
-betrothed young Henry to his brother's widow, a plan which required a
-papal dispensation.&nbsp; Ferdinand, at odds with France, was anxious
-to please his English ally; Isabella's piety may have ruined the plan
-but she was dying and did not protest.&nbsp; Katharine and her duenna,
-Dona Elvira, both wrote that her marriage to Arthur had never been
-consummated.&nbsp; Pope Julius II granted the dispensation.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>The new betrothal may have been spurred by Henry VII's legendary
-avarice.&nbsp; Katharine had brought half of her dowry with her upon
-marriage to Arthur; if she returned home, her marriage contract
-required that the dowry be returned.&nbsp; Also, her inheritance as
-dowager Princess of Wales was substantial.&nbsp; If she left England,
-so would that steady income.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Katharine herself <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">wrote to her father</a>
-that she had no wish to remain in England but she would obey his
-decision.&nbsp; Perhaps she had already learned enough of Henry VII's
-character to know she would be shabbily treated.&nbsp; Despite her
-royal position, she lived in poverty.&nbsp; The Spanish ambassador was
-forced to buy her necessities and she was unable to pay her
-attendants.&nbsp; And soon enough Henry VII was implying that he would
-break the Spanish betrothal.&nbsp; Katharine spent the next seven years
-in a state of political limbo.&nbsp; And when he turned fourteen, Henry
-VII had his son publicly repudiate the betrothal, claiming that the
-marriage contract was made without his knowledge or consent.&nbsp; Yet
-Katharine remained in England.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>In 1509, the situation was resolved with startling speed.&nbsp;
-Henry VII died and his eighteen year old son became king.&nbsp;
-Handsome, proud, and imbued with the romantic spirit of chivalry, he
-promptly married Katharine.&nbsp; Did he marry her out of a sense of
-obligation?&nbsp; Was it because, as he later claimed, he wished to
-respect his father's last wish?&nbsp; Were political councilors
-encouraging the Spanish alliance?&nbsp; Or did he love the dignified
-and lovely young princess?&nbsp; It is impossible to know.&nbsp; But
-they certainly acted like a loving and affectionate couple, far beyond
-typical royal marriages.&nbsp; There were public displays of affection,
-declarations of love and respect, and for a long while she was also a
-close political adviser.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Henry VIII's court was full of gaiety and celebration.&nbsp; It
-was a welcome change from the austerity of his father's rule.&nbsp;
-Katharine proved herself to be the perfect consort, even when politics
-led her father to humiliate and betray Henry.&nbsp; Katharine
-recognized that she must choose between unwavering support of her
-father and loyalty to her husband.&nbsp; She chose Henry, though his
-Lord Chancellor, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/wolsey.html">Cardinal
-Wolsey</a>, never trusted her and instead favored an Anglo-French
-alliance.&nbsp; His influence, and Henry's own suspicions, led the king
-to disregard her political advice.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Katharine's primary duty was both personal and political - to
-bear children, as many as possible and preferably sons.&nbsp; This was
-especially important in England since Henry VIII was the sole surviving
-son of his father.&nbsp; Katharine was far from barren and did her
-best; in the first nine years of their marriage, she conceived at least
-six times.&nbsp; She miscarried twice, once delivered a stillborn
-daughter, and two sons died within weeks.&nbsp; The only surviving
-child was a daughter, Princess Mary, born in 1516.&nbsp; Katharine's
-last recorded pregnancy was in 1518, when she was thirty-three years
-old.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Henry was not unhappy with the birth of Mary; he assured
-ambassadors that if it were a daughter this time, a son would surely
-follow.&nbsp; But it was soon clear there would be no sons.&nbsp; The
-age difference between he and Katharine was now more noticeable.&nbsp;
-The queen, struggling with frequent pregnancies and constant stress,
-looked older than her years.&nbsp; Henry was a far more prudent king
-than most; he had just two serious affairs during his marriage to
-Katharine.&nbsp; But one of his mistresses, Elizabeth Blount, bore him
-a son.&nbsp; It was clear he could have sons, but the queen could
-not.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>By 1527, the question of the succession was the most pressing
-issue facing the king.&nbsp; Two years before, he had titled his
-illegitimate son the duke of Richmond and granted him vast estates.&nbsp;
-Many, Katharine included, believed this was a preliminary step to
-naming him heir to the throne.&nbsp; This never occurred and Richmond
-would die in 1536, but - until then - it was a possibility.&nbsp; Henry
-sent Princess Mary to Ludlow Castle as Princess of Wales and his
-official heir, but even that did not stop the rumors or her mother's
-concerns.&nbsp; Katharine confronted Henry; he responded angrily and
-dismissed several of her beloved Spanish attendants.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>The king by now had hopes of a legitimate heir.&nbsp; He had
-fallen in love the year previously with a young Englishwoman, <a href="boleyn.html">Anne Boleyn</a>.&nbsp;
-She was the sister of a former mistress and refused to take that
-position herself.&nbsp; Henry, who was also deeply pious and a student
-of theology, now took a closer look at his marriage to Katharine.&nbsp;
-In particular, he looked at the text in Leviticus which seemed to
-directly reference his own life - 'If a man shall take his brother's
-wife it is an unclean thing..... they shall be childless.'(Leviticus,
-XX, 21)&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Of course, they were not childless but a daughter was not the
-heir he needed.&nbsp; No woman had attempted to rule England since the
-disastrous Matilda centuries<img src="aragon_files/aragonhorenbout1.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Lucas Horenbout" align="right" border="0" height="324" width="329"> before.&nbsp; Henry now firmly believed
-that his incestuous marriage had been doomed from the start.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>But how could he annul the marriage?&nbsp; He needed to convince
-the current pope, Clement VII, that the dispensation of his predecessor
-was inadequate.&nbsp; It directly contradicted the Bible and had no
-merit.&nbsp; This should have been a simple enough matter.&nbsp; Royal
-marriages had been annulled for far less.&nbsp; But Katharine's nephew,
-Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor and he had no intention of
-allowing his aunt to be cast off.&nbsp; This was not out of personal
-love or loyalty, but a purely political stance.&nbsp; And after the
-1527 'sack of Rome', Charles controlled the pope.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Henry was soon thwarted, despite extensive work by Wolsey and
-other advisers.&nbsp; For her part, Katharine was kept in the dark for
-as long as the king could manage it.&nbsp; But she was no fool.&nbsp;
-She knew of the romance between her husband and Mistress Boleyn; she
-knew Henry avoided her company, though he was scrupulous about
-attending official functions with her.&nbsp; He had always respected
-her unassailable dignity and eloquence.&nbsp; He did not wish to fight
-Katharine; he wanted an amicable end to their union and he was prepared
-to be generous.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>When news of his intentions became official, she was given
-counsel but only that chosen by the king.&nbsp; She turned to the
-Spanish ambassador and close friends at court for support.&nbsp; Anne
-Boleyn was not popular and Katharine was a respected and beloved
-queen.&nbsp; The king soon came under popular scorn for his
-plans.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>But Henry was as firmly convinced of the righteousness of his
-cause as Katharine was of hers.&nbsp; He had read the Bible; he had
-debated the issue with prominent theologians; he even sponsored
-hearings of the case at European universities.&nbsp; Both king and pope
-knew there was a valid basis for the annulment, and a pressing national
-need for it.&nbsp; Clement could have granted it without troubling his
-conscience.&nbsp; And with the spread of Lutheranism in the German
-states, Clement had no wish to antagonize the loyal and devoted king of
-England.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>But the English king could not be helped at the Holy Roman Emperor's 
-    expense.&nbsp; This was soon made abundantly clear.</p>
-    <p>The pope prevaricated; he could do little else.&nbsp; And for
-several years, the 'King's Great Matter' consumed England and
-fascinated Europe.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Henry inevitably tired of the endless parade of papal legates
-and repetitious hearings.&nbsp; He was growing older and Anne was
-growing impatient.&nbsp; Her youth was being wasted to no purpose, she
-told the king.&nbsp; Meanwhile, Katharine encouraged Mary to be
-obstinate in protecting her rights as princess.&nbsp; Mary lost her
-father's favor and was forbidden to visit her mother.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Finally, in 1533, Henry did the only thing he could to end the
-marriage - he rejected the authority of the Holy See and declared
-himself Supreme Head of a new Church of England.&nbsp; His archbishop
-of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, issued the long-awaited decree of
-nullity.&nbsp; Katharine was no longer queen of England but 'Princess
-dowager of Wales'.&nbsp; Princess Mary was now illegitimate, and rumors
-spread that Anne Boleyn had finally succumbed to the king and was
-pregnant.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p> Katharine was exiled from court and to a
-succession of damp and unpleasant castles.&nbsp; She had but a handful
-of servants for few would call her queen and she refused to be called
-princess.&nbsp; It was a mark of her early education that she was meek,
-deeply pious and believed in obedience to her husband - but she was
-also a proud and intelligent princess of Spain.&nbsp; She would never
-allow her dignity, or that of her daughter, to be destroyed.&nbsp; In
-the end, this stubborn spirit did both her and Mary far more harm than
-good.&nbsp; Katharine was undoubtedly truthful when she declared her
-marriage to Arthur unconsummated but the truth was cold comfort in the
-last years of her life.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>Her final years were lonely and sad; the Spanish ambassador kept
-her informed of outside events and smuggled letters to her daughter,
-but she was often ill and at prayer.&nbsp; The wrongs she had suffered
-from Henry filled her with sadness rather than anger.&nbsp; Perhaps she
-was inspired by her motto, Humble and Loyal, for that is how she
-remained.</p>
-    <p>She died at Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536, three weeks
-after her fiftieth birthday.&nbsp; There were rumors that she had been
-poisoned.&nbsp; But if Henry had been so inclined, he would have
-attempted it years before and spared himself much trouble.&nbsp; A
-lingering illness and the psychological effects of her exile were the
-obvious causes.&nbsp; She was buried at Peterborough Abbey with all the
-ceremony befitting the widow of the prince of Wales.&nbsp; Henry did
-not attend the funeral; we do not know if he read Katharine's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">last letter</a> to
-him.&nbsp; It was a love letter and she signed it 'Katherine the
-Queen'.&nbsp; </p>
-    <p>The tragedy of their annulment was that both he and Katharine
-were equally convinced of their causes.&nbsp; For the modern reader,
-both arguments are persuasive.&nbsp; It is an ironic footnote to her
-life story that Katharine, such a devoted and pious Catholic,
-unintentionally brought the Reformation to England.&nbsp; <br>
-&nbsp;</p>
-  </blockquote>
-  <center>
-  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
-Wives main page</a></font> <br>
-  <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
-Tudor England</a></font></p>
-  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html"> to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
-  </center>
-</blockquote>
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Index: cumentation/trunk/tutorial_sample_files/simple_html/boleyn.html
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-<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
-<html><head>
-  <meta name="page_topic" content="Anne Boleyn queen of England wife of King Henry VIII mother of Queen Elizabeth I The Six Wives of King Henry VIII biography images letters primary sources">
-  <meta name="content" content="Anne Boleyn queen of England mother of Queen Elizabeth I wife of King Henry VIII The Six Wives of King Henry VIII biography images letters primary sources">
-  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
-  <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0">
-  <meta name="ProgId" content="FrontPage.Editor.Document">
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Anne Boleyn: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
-  
-  <style fprolloverstyle="">A:hover {color: #0000FF; font-weight: bold}
-  </style></head>
-
-<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="667" width="100%">
-  <tbody>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="29" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="29" valign="top" width="50%">
-      <p align="center"><font size="4"><br>'[A] woman who is the scandal of 
-      Christendom.'<br>
-      </font><i><font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon describes her
-rival, 1531</font></i></p>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
-      <p align="center"> 
-&nbsp;</p>
-      <p align="center"> 
-<img src="boleyn_files/boleyncardinalbig.gif" alt="Anne Boleyn" border="0" height="90" width="352"></p>
-      <p align="center"> <b> 
-      <img src="boleyn_files/boleynmainjpg.jpg" alt="the most famous portrait of Anne Boleyn; at the NPG, London" border="2" height="357" width="275"></b></p>
-      <p align="center"> <i><font size="2">portrait of Anne Boleyn by an unknown 
-      artist, late 16th century</font></i></p>
-      <p> <b> <br>Anne Boleyn is one of the most famous queens
-in English history, though she ruled for just three years.&nbsp; The
-daughter of an ambitious knight and niece of the duke of Norfolk, Anne
-spent her adolescence in France.&nbsp; When she returned to England,
-her wit and style were her greatest charms.&nbsp; She had a circle of
-admirers and became secretly engaged to Henry Percy.&nbsp; She also
-entered the service of Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; But she soon caught
-the eye of Henry VIII.&nbsp; He ordered Percy from court and tried to
-make Anne his mistress.&nbsp; She refused.&nbsp; Her sister, Mary, had
-been the king's mistress and gained little from it but scandal.&nbsp;
-Her hopes with Percy dashed, Anne demanded that the king marry
-her.&nbsp; She waited nearly seven years for Henry to obtain an
-annulment.&nbsp; It finally took an irrevocable breach with the Holy
-See before they wed in 1533.&nbsp; But she was unable to give Henry the
-son he desperately needed and their marriage ended tragically for
-Anne.&nbsp; She was executed on patently false charges of witchcraft,
-incest and adultery on 19 May 1536.&nbsp; Her daughter, Elizabeth,
-would become England's greatest queen.</b></p>
-      <blockquote>
-        <p><a href="#Biography"><br>
-        <font size="4">Read the biography of Anne Boleyn</font></a><font size="4">.</font></p>
-        <p><b><br>
-Primary Sources</b> <br>
-Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
-written by Anne</a>.&nbsp; <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-percy.html">The
-romance between Anne &amp; Henry Percy,</a> c1523&nbsp; <br>
-Eyewitness accounts of <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne1.html">her coronation in
-1533</a> &amp; <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne2.html">her
-execution in 1536</a>.&nbsp; <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-lastdays.html">An
-account of Anne's last days</a> <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne3.html">Anne's
-last words</a>, 19 May 1536&nbsp; <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/exanne.html">Another
-account of her execution</a></p>
-          <p>
-          <b>Secondary Sources<br></b>Read JA Froude's 1891 work <i>
-          <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/secondary.html">The Divorce 
-          of Catherine of Aragon</a></i>.&nbsp; <font size="2">Understandably, it also 
-          discusses Anne Boleyn as well as Henry VIII's rumored affair with her 
-          sister Mary.</font></p>
-      </blockquote>
-      <blockquote>
-        <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/annedesc.html">Contemporary
-descriptions of Anne</a> <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/lovelett.html">Henry
-VIII's love letters to Anne</a> <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/boleyn-poems.html">Poetry
-about Anne Boleyn</a> </p>
-        <p>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor
-England: Images</a> to view portraits of Anne.&nbsp; <br>
-Visit the <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Queen
-Elizabeth I site</a> to learn more about Anne's daughter.&nbsp; <br>
-Read about Anne's sister, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/boleyn.html">Mary Boleyn</a>.<a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/fiveanne.html"><br>The
-Boleyn-Howard connection</a> <br>
-        <font size="-1">Anne's relationship to Henry VIII's fifth wife</font>
-        </p>
-        <p>Test your knowledge of Anne Boleyn's life at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor1.html">Tudor Quizzes</a>.</p>
-        <p><font size="2"><b><br>Links<br></b>
-        <a href="http://www.geocities.com/boleynfamily/">The Boleyns</a>: A 
-        website dedicated to the entire Boleyn family, with particular emphasis 
-        upon Anne.<br><a href="http://jack-of-all-trades.ca/meandmine/">Me and Mine</a>: 
-        Biography and images of Anne Boleyn.</font></p>
-        <p><font size="2"><b><br>
-        Interact<br>
-        </b> Meet other Anne Boleyn enthusiasts at <a href="http://www.fine-eyes.net/anneboleyn/indextwo.html">Mistress
-Anne: The Official Anne Boleyn Fanlisting</a>.<br>
-Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
-the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/search?query=Anne+Boleyn"><br>
-Anne Boleyn at Yahoo! Groups</a>&nbsp; There are numerous groups
-dedicated to Anne.&nbsp; I think you need a Yahoo! ID to join.<br>
-        <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk </a>&nbsp;This
-email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.&nbsp; It does
-not focus exclusively on Anne.<br>
-        <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign
-of the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
-England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
-other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
-        <p><br>
-        <b>NEWS&nbsp;&nbsp; September 2004<br>The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn: 
-        The Most Happy</b> by Eric Ives has just been published
-        <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0631234799/qid=1096393233/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl/026-3687195-0558069">
-        in the UK</a> and
-        <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0631234799/qid=1096393461/sr=8-1/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl14/002-7093489-7046463?v=glance&amp;s=books&amp;n=507846">
-        US</a>.&nbsp; I will be posting a lengthy review soon.&nbsp;
-        <font size="2">Professor Ives had previously written the definitive 
-        biography of Anne in 1986; this work incorporates new research.</font></p>
-        <p>
-        <b><br>
-        Anne
-Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen</b> by Joanna Denny
-        was published
-        <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/074995017X/qid=1076882496/sr=2-2/ref=sr_2_11_2/026-9295844-3953254">in the UK</a> 
-        in April 2004.</p>
-        <hr>
-        <p><font size="2">The above portrait of Anne Boleyn is a late
-16th copy of a lost original.&nbsp; It can be viewed at the National Portrait
-Gallery, London.</font></p>
-        <hr> </blockquote>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-  </tbody>
-</table>
-<blockquote>
-  <blockquote>
-    <blockquote>
-      <p align="left"><font size="4"><br>
-      <br>
-      </font><a name="Biography"><br>
-      </a><font size="4">'She is of middling stature, with a swarthy
-complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact
-has nothing but the King's great appetite, and her eyes, which are
-black and beautiful - and take great effect on those who served the
-Queen when she was on the throne.&nbsp; She lives like a queen, and the
-King accompanies her to Mass - and everywhere.'&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><i><font size="-1">the Venetian ambassador describes Anne, 1532</font></i> </p>
-    </blockquote>
-    <p align="left">&nbsp;</p>
-  </blockquote>
-  <p> <b>Biography</b><br>
-Anne Boleyn's birthdate is unknown; even the year is widely
-debated.&nbsp; General opinion now favors 1501 or 1502, though some
-historians persuasively argue for 1507.&nbsp; She was probably born at
-Blickling Hall in Norfolk.&nbsp; Her father was Sir Thomas Boleyn, a
-minor courtier with a talent for foreign languages; he was of London
-merchant stock and eager to advance in the world.&nbsp; Like most men,
-he chose to marry well.&nbsp; His bride was Elizabeth Howard, daughter
-of the second duke of Norfolk and sister of the third duke.</p>
-  <p>Anne had two surviving siblings, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/boleyn.html">Mary</a>
-and George.&nbsp; Their birthdates are also unknown, as is the order of their 
-  births.&nbsp; We only know that all three Boleyn siblings were close in age.</p>
-  <p>In 1514, Henry VIII married his youngest sister, Mary, to the aged king of France.&nbsp; Anne
-accompanied the Tudor princess as a very<img alt="miniature portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/boleynsmall.jpg" align="right" border="0" height="232" width="175"> young lady-in-waiting; she remained in France after the French king died and
-  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/brandon.html">Mary Tudor</a>
-returned home.&nbsp; Anne gained the subsequent honor of being educated
-under the watchful eye of the new French queen Claude.&nbsp; This
-education had a uniquely French emphasis upon fashion and flirtation,
-though more intellectual skills were not neglected.&nbsp; Anne became
-an accomplished musician, singer and dancer.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>In 1521 or early 1522, with war between England and France
-imminent, Anne returned home.&nbsp; When she first caught Henry VIII's
-eye is unknown.&nbsp; He was originally attracted to her sister, Mary
-who came to court before Anne.&nbsp; She was the king's mistress in the
-early 1520s and, as a mark of favor, her father was elevated to the
-peerage as viscount Rochfort/Rochford in 1525.&nbsp; Mary herself would leave 
-  court with only a dull marriage, and possibly the king's illegitimate son, as 
-  her reward.&nbsp; Anne learned much from her sister's example.</p>
-  <p>Her first years at court were spent in service to Henry VIII's
-first wife, <a href="aragon.html">Katharine of Aragon</a>.&nbsp; She became quite popular among
-the younger men.&nbsp; She was not considered a great beauty; her
-sister occupied that position in the family, but even Mary was merely
-deemed 'pretty'.&nbsp; Hostile chroniclers <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/annedesc.html">described Anne</a>
-as plain, sallow, and possessing two distinct flaws - a large mole on
-the side of her neck and an extra finger on her left hand.&nbsp; Such
-praise as she received focused on her style, her wit and charm; she was
-quick-tempered and spirited.&nbsp; Her most remarkable physical
-attributes were her large dark eyes and long black hair.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The king's attraction was focused upon her sharp and teasing
-manner, and her oft-stated unavailability.&nbsp; What he couldn't have,
-he pined for all the more.&nbsp; This was especially difficult for a
-king used to having his own way in everything.&nbsp; Anne was also
-seriously involved with <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-percy.html">Henry Percy</a>,
-the son and heir of the earl of Northumberland; there were rumors of an
-engagement and declarations of true love.&nbsp; The king ordered his
-great minister, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/wolsey.html">Cardinal
-Thomas Wolsey</a>, to end the match.&nbsp; Wolsey did so, thus ensuring
-Percy's unhappy marriage to the earl of Shrewsbury's daughter and
-Anne's great enmity.&nbsp; It was safer to blame the Cardinal than his
-king.&nbsp; Also, Henry's jealousy revealed the depth of his feelings,
-and Anne quite naturally thought - if she could not be an earl's wife,
-why not try for the crown of England? </p>
-  <p>When Anne avoided Henry's company, was sullen and evasive to him,
-he sent her from court; he hoped that a few months in the country would
-persuade her of his charms.&nbsp; It did not work.&nbsp; Anne was
-already playing a far more serious game than the king.&nbsp; Later,
-after she had been arrested, Henry would claim he had been 'bewitched'
-and the term wasn't used lightly in the 16th century.&nbsp; But perhaps
-it was simply the contrast between her vivacity and Katharine's
-solemnity; or perhaps the king mistook the inexplicable ardor of true
-love for something more ominous, long after that love had faded.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>It is impossible to fully explain the mystery of attraction
-between two people.&nbsp; How Anne was able to capture and maintain the
-king's attention for such a long while, despite great obstacles and the
-constant presence of malicious gossip, cannot be explained.&nbsp; Henry
-was headstrong and querulous.&nbsp; But for several years, he remained
-faithful to his feelings for Anne - and his attendant desire for a
-legitimate male heir.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p> <img src="boleyn_files/aragon-min.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon" align="left" border="0" height="168" width="166">One cannot separate the king's desire for a
-son, indeed its very necessity, from his personal desire for
-Anne.&nbsp; The two interests merged perfectly in 1527.&nbsp; Henry had
-discovered the <a href="aragon.html">invalidity
-of his marriage</a> to Katharine.&nbsp; Now it was possible to annul
-his marriage and secure his two fondest hopes - Anne's hand in marriage
-and the long-desired heir.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p> Cardinal Wolsey had long advocated an Anglo-French
-alliance.&nbsp; For that reason, he disliked the Spanish
-  <a href="aragon.html">Katharine
-of Aragon</a>.&nbsp; He now set about securing his monarch's annulment
-with the intention of marrying Henry to a French princess.&nbsp; And if
-not a French princess, perhaps a great lady of the English court.&nbsp;
-Wolsey did not like Anne, and she despised him.&nbsp; It was Wolsey who
-had delivered the king's orders to Henry Percy, driving her suitor from
-court.&nbsp; She never forgot that injury to her heart.&nbsp; And while
-she could not revenge herself upon the king, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter8.html">she could work
-against</a> his Lord Chancellor.&nbsp; His protégé and successor <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/cromwell.html">Thomas
-Cromwell</a> became a close ally. </p>
-  <p>But Anne alone did not cause Wolsey's fall from grace, though she
-took the blame for it.&nbsp; Indeed, 'Nan Bullen', as the common people
-derisively called her, became the scapegoat for all the king's
-unpopular decisions.&nbsp; But it is important to remember that no one
-- not Wolsey, not Cromwell, and certainly not Anne Boleyn - ever
-controlled Henry VIII, or made him do other than exactly what he
-wanted.&nbsp; He was a king who thoroughly knew and enjoyed his
-position.&nbsp; <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/more.html">Sir Thomas
-More</a> would aptly point this out to his son-in-law, William Roper -
-'If a lion knew his strength, it were hard for any man to hold
-him.'&nbsp; And later, when Roper commented upon the king's affection
-for More, the philosopher replied that if his head would win the king a
-castle in France, then Henry would not hesitate to chop it off.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>But most people found it easier to hate Anne than to hate their
-monarch.&nbsp; As the king's desire for an annulment became the gossip
-of all Europe, she was roundly criticized and condemned.&nbsp; And she
-was not popular at the English court either.&nbsp; Both her unique
-situation and her oft times abrasive personality offended many.&nbsp;
-And Katharine's solemn piety had impressed the English court for three
-decades; her supporters were numerous, though not inclined to face the
-king's formidable wrath.&nbsp; In truth, Anne was sustained only by the
-king's affection and she knew his mercurial temper.&nbsp; It is
-possible that she was as surprised by his faithfulness as everyone
-else.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>As the struggle for an annulment proceeded and the pope
-prevaricated between Henry and Katharine's nephew, the Holy Roman
-Emperor Charles V, Anne's position at the English court became steadily
-more prominent.&nbsp; There were at first little signs.&nbsp; The king
-would eat alone with her; she received expensive gifts; she began to
-dress in the most fashionable and expensive gowns; the king paid her
-gambling debts since Anne, like most courtiers, enjoyed cards and dice.
-  </p>
-  <p>The king was not too outlandish at first; he had no desire to
-prejudice the pope against his case by flaunting a new love.&nbsp; But
-as the delays mounted, and rumors of his new love spread, Henry
-realized there was no purpose in hiding the truth.&nbsp; By 1530, Anne
-was openly honored by the king at court.&nbsp; She was accorded
-precedence over all other ladies, and she sat with the king at
-banquets and hunts while Katharine was virtually ignored.&nbsp; The
-pretense of his first marriage was allowed to continue; Katharine
-continued to personally mend his shirts and send him gifts and
-notes.&nbsp; But it was an untenable situation.&nbsp; It grated on both
-women.&nbsp; Anne perhaps taxed the king with it.&nbsp; To placate her,
-she was titled marquess of Pembroke on 4 September 1532 at Windsor
-Castle; she wore a beautiful crimson gown and her hair hung
-loose.&nbsp; Now elevated to the peerage in her own right, she had
-wealth and lands of her own.&nbsp; But when she accompanied him to
-France on a state visit a short while later, the ladies of the French
-court refused to meet with her.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>It is believed that her elevation to the peerage marked the
-physical consummation of Anne and Henry's relationship.&nbsp; She would
-give birth to <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>
-just a year later, and there were rumors of a secret marriage in late
-1532.&nbsp; It is possible that she became pregnant after just a few
-months and a second, legitimate wedding became a necessity.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p> 
-  <img src="boleyn_files/boleyn3sepiatinged.jpg" alt="sepia-tinged sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger" align="left" border="0" height="344" width="216">The king had his fondest wish within his
-grasp.&nbsp; Anne was pregnant with his long-awaited son, or so he
-thought, and this son must be legitimate.&nbsp; He could no longer wait
-upon the pope.&nbsp; Henry rejected the authority of the Holy See and
-Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, annulled his marriage to
-Katharine.&nbsp; Henry and Anne married again in January 1533 in a
-small ceremony.&nbsp; But though they were now husband and wife, few
-recognized the fact.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne1.html">Her
-coronation</a> was a lavish affair; the king spared no expense.&nbsp;
-But the people of London were noticeably unimpressed.&nbsp; They cried
-out 'HA! HA!' mockingly as tapestries decorated with Henry and Anne's
-entwined initials passed by.&nbsp; Henry asked, 'How liked you the look
-of the City?'&nbsp; Anne replied, 'Sir, I liked the City well enough -
-but I saw a great many caps on heads, and heard but few tongues.'&nbsp;
-  </p>
-  <p>And so her coronation was yet another reminder of her complete
-dependency upon the king.</p>
-  <p>Anne enjoyed her triumph as much as she could.&nbsp; She ordered
-new blue and purple livery for her servants and set about replacing
-Katharine's badge of pomegranates with her own falcon symbol.&nbsp; She
-chose as her motto, 'The Most Happy', in stark contrast to her
-predecessor.&nbsp; Katharine had been 'Humble and Loyal'; Henry's
-mother, Elizabeth of York had chosen 'Humble and Reverent'.&nbsp; But
-humility was not a marked characteristic of Anne Boleyn.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>She was pious, though not as rigid and inflexible as Katharine of
-Aragon.&nbsp; Anne's sympathies naturally lay with the progressive
-thought now challenging Catholic orthodoxy; with Henry's rejection of the papacy and his
-creation of a new Church of England, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/faq.html#Eleven-b">the
-Reformation</a> had come to England.&nbsp; It was not as revolutionary
-as Luther's movement in Germany.&nbsp; Henry actually remained a devout
-Catholic, only denying what he now regarded as the illegitimate
-authority of the papacy.&nbsp; Anne knew that her marriage and future
-children would never be recognized as legitimate by Catholic
-Europe.&nbsp; She had to support the new church, otherwise she was no more than 
-  the king's mistress.</p>
-  <p>And this new emphasis upon debating even the most esoteric bits of
-theology appealed to her nature.&nbsp; She was always curious and open
-to new ideas; she never blindly accepted<img alt="The above portrait is of Anne Boleyn, painted by Lucas Horenbout; dated 1525-27.  Sir Roy Strong identified the portrait.  Anne wears a necklace with her falcon badge." src="boleyn_files/boleynstrong.jpg" align="right" height="175" width="175"> anything.&nbsp; But this is not to deny her
-deep faith.&nbsp; As queen, she was close friends with Thomas Cranmer
-and she also sponsored various religious books.&nbsp; She had none of
-the hard-fought pragmatism of her daughter, 
-  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>.&nbsp; Religious faith was a
-vital part of Anne's life, as it was for every person in the 16th
-century.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>She entered confinement for the birth of her first child on 26
-August 1533.&nbsp; The child was born on 7 September 1533.&nbsp; The
-physicians and astrologers had been mistaken; it was not a
-prince.&nbsp; But the healthy baby girl called Elizabeth was not the
-disappointment most assumed, nor did she immediately cause her mother's
-downfall.&nbsp; The birth had been very easy and quick.&nbsp; 'There
-was good speed in the deliverance and bringing forth,' Anne wrote to
-Lord Cobham that very day.&nbsp; The queen recovered quickly.&nbsp;
-Henry had every reason to believe that strong princes would
-follow.&nbsp; It was only when Anne miscarried two sons that he began
-to question the validity of his second marriage.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Elizabeth's christening was a grand affair, though the king did
-not attend.&nbsp; This fact was much remarked-upon, but Henry
-confounded all by his continuing affection for Anne.&nbsp; He also
-promptly declared Elizabeth his heir, thus according her precedence
-over her 17 year old half-sister, 
-  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/mary1.html">Princess Mary</a>.&nbsp; Anne could
-breathe a sigh of relief, recover, and become pregnant again.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Immediately after Elizabeth's christening, Henry wrote to Mary and
-demanded that she relinquish her title of Princess of Wales.&nbsp; The
-title belonged to his heiress.&nbsp; He also demanded that she
-acknowledge the validity of his new marriage and legitimacy of her
-half-sister.&nbsp; But Mary could be as obstinate as her mother; she refused.&nbsp; Enraged, Henry evicted Mary from her
-home, the manor Beaulieu, so he could give it to Anne's brother, George.&nbsp; In December, 
-  she was moved into Elizabeth's household
-under the care of Lady Anne Shelton, a sister of Anne's father.&nbsp;
-It was an understandably miserable time for Mary.&nbsp; When told to pay her
-respects to the baby Princess, she said that she knew of no Princess of
-England but herself and burst into tears.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Henry was infuriated and Anne encouraged the estrangement.&nbsp;
-Her daughter's status depended upon Mary remaining out of favor.&nbsp;
-In the two and a half years she lived after Elizabeth's birth, Anne
-proved herself a devoted mother.&nbsp; Soon after the birth, Elizabeth
-had to be moved from London, for purposes of health; London was rife
-with a variety of illnesses - sweating sickness, smallpox, and
-plague.&nbsp; Elizabeth and Mary were sent to Hatfield.&nbsp; Both
-Henry and Anne visited their daughter often, occasionally taking her
-back with them to Greenwich or the palace at Eltham.&nbsp; During these
-visits, Mary was kept alone in her room.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p> <img alt="portrait of Henry VIII" src="boleyn_files/henry8boleyn.jpg" align="left" border="2" height="186" width="150">There are account books and
-letters which reveal certain facts about Elizabeth's early
-childhood:&nbsp; bills for an orange satin gown and russet velvet
-kirtle, for the king's heir had to be fashionably dressed; a letter in
-late 1535, after her second birthday, from the wet nurse asking
-permission to wean her; a plan of study in classical languages, for
-Anne was determined her daughter would be as educated as Mary.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The conflict with Mary dominated a great deal of Henry and Anne's
-thoughts.&nbsp; In January 1534, the king's new chief minister, Thomas
-Cromwell, went to visit Mary at Hatfield.&nbsp; He urged her to
-renounce her title and warned her that her behavior would lead to her
-ruin.&nbsp; Mary replied that she simply wanted her father's blessing
-and the honor of kissing his hand.&nbsp; When Cromwell chastised her,
-she left the room.&nbsp; Mary, and indeed most of England, believed
-Anne to be the cause of Henry's disgust with his eldest child.&nbsp; In
-truth, Henry had far more to do with it than Anne; this was proven
-after Anne's execution.&nbsp; Mary believed that she would regain her
-favor with the wicked stepmother out of the way but she was proven
-terribly wrong.&nbsp; Eventually, under threat of her life, she <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">wrote the letter</a>
-her father had long desired.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>He and Anne also tried a gentler course with Mary; their goal was
-to show that she had brought Henry's displeasure upon herself and that
-he and Anne were quite willing - under reasonable conditions - to
-receive her.&nbsp; At their next visit to Hatfield, Anne arranged to
-see her stepdaughter.&nbsp; She invited Mary to come to court and
-'visit me as Queen.'&nbsp; Mary responded with a cruel insult - 'I know
-no Queen in England but my mother.&nbsp; But if you, Madam, as my
-father's mistress, will intercede for me with him, I should be
-grateful.'&nbsp; Anne did not lose her temper; she pointed out the
-absurdity of the request and repeated her offer.&nbsp; Mary then
-refused to answer and Anne left in a rage.&nbsp; From then on, she made
-no attempts to gain Mary's friendship.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The problem with Mary highlights the untenable positions Anne and
-Elizabeth occupied in English politics.&nbsp; Many of Henry's subjects
-did not know who to call Princess, who was the rightful heir, and who
-was the true wife.&nbsp; Katharine of Aragon lived on, still calling
-herself Queen, and Mary, encouraged by the spiteful Imperial ambassador
-Eustace Chapuys, still called herself Princess.&nbsp; Furthermore,
-Chapuys, who openly despised Anne, told Mary that Anne was planning to
-have her murdered.&nbsp; It was a terrible lie but one that Mary, in
-her hysterical state, was inclined to believe.&nbsp; When word came
-that she and Elizabeth's household was moving from Hatfield to The
-More, she refused to go.&nbsp; She believed she would be moved and
-quietly murdered.&nbsp; Guards had to actually seize her and throw her
-into her litter.&nbsp; Her distress naturally made her ill.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Elizabeth, meanwhile, was too young to notice any of this.&nbsp;
-But such events helped cement the lifelong hatred Mary would have for
-her half-sister.&nbsp; Her Spanish friends continued to spread rumors
-about Anne and Elizabeth, saying the infant princess was physically
-deformed and monstrous in appearance.&nbsp; To dispel this, in April
-1534, Henry showed the naked infant to several continental
-ambassadors.&nbsp; In that same month, Anne announced she was once
-again pregnant.&nbsp; Nothing could have pleased Henry more.&nbsp; She
-may have had a miscarriage in February for there were rumors she was
-pregnant in January but nothing came of it; given the heightened
-circumstances, it is unlikely she could have hidden her
-condition.&nbsp; Even a suspicion of pregnancy was sure to become
-gossip.&nbsp; But the main source of this miscarriage is Chapuys,
-hardly an impartial observer.&nbsp; At any rate, she was definitely
-pregnant again in April 1534.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The elated king took his wife to the medieval palace at Eltham;
-there, they sent for the princess Elizabeth.&nbsp; Henry was often seen
-carrying her about and playing with her.&nbsp; The king<img src="boleyn_files/boleynsketch2.jpg" alt="sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger" align="right" border="0" height="206" width="165"> and queen soon returned to Greenwich and
-then Henry left on a progress, leaving Anne at the palace.&nbsp; This
-was probably out of concern for her health and lends some credence to
-the belief she miscarried in February.&nbsp; If she had, Henry would
-show special concern for her health, and this he did.&nbsp; He was
-supposed to meet Francis I of France in June at Calais to sign a treaty
-but decided not to, writing that Katharine and Mary, 'bearing no small
-grudge against his most entirely beloved Queen Anne, might perchance in
-his absence take occasion to practice matters of no small peril to his
-royal person, realm, and subjects.'&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>His extra attention to Anne did not help her health.&nbsp; In
-September 1534, she miscarried a six-month-old fetus; it was old enough
-for features to be discerned - it was a boy.&nbsp; Henry was bitterly
-disappointed.&nbsp; Anne was likewise.&nbsp; She was also angry for
-Henry had begun a casual affair that summer.&nbsp; She reproached him
-and Henry replied, 'You have good reason to be content with what I have
-done for you - and I would not do it again, if the thing were to
-begin.&nbsp; Consider from what you have come.'&nbsp; The scene was
-furious and overheard by her attendants.&nbsp; But it was a passing
-storm.&nbsp; Henry was already tired of his new mistress and, within
-days, Chapuys was sadly writing to Charles V of Henry's continued
-affection.&nbsp; But there were signs that things were not progressing
-smoothly.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>&nbsp;For example, Henry had hoped to cement his relationship with
-Francis I by betrothing Elizabeth to Francis's son, the Duc
-d'Angouleme.&nbsp; After Anne suffered two miscarriages, as the French
-ambassador reported to Francis, the French king grew wary of such a
-betrothal.&nbsp; To him, it must have seemed that Anne's position was
-weakening; after all, Henry had dismissed one wife because she had no
-sons - would he do the same to Anne?&nbsp; And, if he did, then what
-good was a marriage to Elizabeth?&nbsp; Of course, it was in France's
-interests to promote Anne for Katharine of Aragon and her daughter were
-Charles V's pawns.&nbsp; But his doubts highlight the
-instability of Anne's position.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>This undoubtedly affected her mental and physical health.&nbsp;
-Henry was never the mercenary adulterer of legend.&nbsp; In fact, he
-was remarkably conventional in his sexual appetites, unlike his French
-rival.&nbsp; Any affairs would have been widely reported and yet,
-during his long marriage to Katharine of Aragon, there were just a
-handful of mistresses.&nbsp; He enjoyed being around attractive
-women.&nbsp; He was flirtatious and would joke with them, compliment
-them, but only rarely did he enter into a physical relationship.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>But for Anne, any occasional fling was devastating, especially if
-it followed upon her miscarriage.&nbsp; Such behavior was said to
-indicate his displeasure with her; this she could not afford.&nbsp;
-They were occasionally estranged and the effect was to increase her
-already-noticeable anxiety.&nbsp; In late 1534 Anne, accompanied by the
-duke of Suffolk, her uncle Norfolk, and other courtiers, visited
-Richmond Palace, where both Elizabeth and Mary resided.&nbsp; Anne
-entered her daughter's rooms only to realize that the two dukes had
-left her.&nbsp; They were paying court to Mary and remained with her
-until Anne had left.&nbsp; Still, this slight could be forgotten when
-the Treason Act was passed in November.&nbsp; It was now a capital
-crime to deny the legitimacy of her marriage or children.&nbsp; By
-December, she and Henry had made up yet again.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>A scandal occurred shortly thereafter which added further damage to Anne's 
-  reputation.&nbsp; Her sister, Mary, who had been Henry's mistress years 
-  before, married Sir William Stafford without her family or the king's 
-  permission.&nbsp; Because Stafford was poor, Mary's father was angry and cut 
-  off her allowance.&nbsp; She appealed to the king and Anne but they would not 
-  help.&nbsp; (Mary did not attend court during Anne's reign, since her presence 
-  would have been an embarrassment for the king and queen.)</p>
-  <p> <img alt="portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/anne2.jpg" align="left" border="0" height="194" width="139">Always fascinated with rumors surrounding his
-English 'brother', Francis I decided to hedge his bets in the mercurial
-Tudor court.&nbsp; In other words, he would remain friendly with Anne
-and also with Mary Tudor.&nbsp; And so he instructed his new
-ambassador, Admiral Chabot, to ignore Anne when he arrived at
-court.&nbsp; Chabot was received by Henry and two days passed without
-any mention of the queen.&nbsp; Henry asked if Chabot wanted to visit
-her.&nbsp; The ambassador replied, 'As it pleases Your Highness' and
-then asked permission to visit Mary.&nbsp; Henry refused, but Chabot
-made certain everyone knew of his request.&nbsp; He also told courtiers
-that Francis wanted to marry the Dauphin to Mary; when Henry reminded
-him of the union with Elizabeth, the ambassador said nothing.&nbsp;
-Still, Francis did enrage Charles V by acknowledging Elizabeth's
-legitimacy.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>It was a tedious and frightening dance for Anne.&nbsp; During the
-two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth, she was rarely secure,
-certain of her position and the king's affections.&nbsp; Her little
-daughter received every favor she could bestow; Anne insisted Henry
-favor Elizabeth because it strengthened her position.&nbsp; But she was
-surrounded by fair-weather friends who, at the slightest sign of
-Henry's disfavor, ignored her.&nbsp; She only trusted her brother,
-George, whose wife, Jane Rochford, was a viper in their nest.&nbsp;
-Meanwhile, Henry was again flirting openly with another woman.&nbsp;
-This time it was Anne's cousin and lady-in-waiting, Madge
-Shelton.&nbsp; Anne still had influence over her husband, but knew only
-one way to make his favor permanent.&nbsp; She must bear a son.&nbsp;
-Henry would never dismiss the mother of his long-awaited heir.&nbsp;
-Her enemies would at last be silenced.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Meanwhile, Henry's health had begun to worsen.&nbsp; The first
-signs of the illness which would kill him appeared (occluded sinus on
-his leg).&nbsp; Headaches became frequent and severe.&nbsp; The king
-was a hypochondriac.&nbsp; Now unable to indulge his love of sports, he
-instead indulged his fear of pain and illness.&nbsp; And he was
-frequently impotent.&nbsp; He was in his mid-forties and increasingly
-obese; this, combined with his other ailments, made his continued
-virility questionable.&nbsp; Certainly his 'mistresses' did not
-conceive.&nbsp; But the continued lack of an heir and Anne's
-miscarriages must have reminded him of Katharine.&nbsp; How could it
-not?&nbsp; Like most of his contemporaries, the king blamed his wife
-when she did not conceive or carry to term.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>And, like Francis I, Thomas Cromwell - that influential and
-brilliant man - was keeping his options open as well.&nbsp; He visited
-Mary and was rumored to promise support for her reinstatement.&nbsp;
-Anne was terrified at this loss of her one-time supporter who was also
-the king's most trusted advisor.&nbsp; But Anne had one last chance,
-and in June 1535, became pregnant again.&nbsp; She lost that child as
-well, in January 1536; she was reported to have said, 'I have
-miscarried of my savior.'&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>When her destruction came, it was rapid and unbelievable.&nbsp;
-Henry had always been one to plot against people while he pretended
-affection.&nbsp; Anne suffered the same fate as Katharine.&nbsp; She
-knew he was dissatisfied with her but he maintained their lifestyle
-together.&nbsp; And all the while, he was seeking the best way to
-destroy her.&nbsp; Katharine of Aragon died in January as well, just a
-few days before Anne's miscarriage.&nbsp; These events, taken together,
-pushed Henry into action.&nbsp; While Katharine had lived, most of
-Europe, and many Englishmen, had regarded her as his rightful wife, not
-Anne.&nbsp; Now he was rid of Katharine; if he were to rid himself of
-Anne, he could marry again - and this third marriage would never be
-tainted by the specter of bigamy.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Henry's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne2.html">decision
-to thoroughly destroy Anne</a> baffled even her enemies.&nbsp; There
-was a possible way out which would spare Anne's life.&nbsp; Henry had
-admitted an affair with her sister,<img alt="an 18th century portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/anne3.jpg" align="right" border="2" height="194" width="144"> Mary.&nbsp; He could have argued that was as
-damning as Katharine's marriage to his brother.&nbsp; But he chose a
-more direct route.&nbsp; He had her arrested, charged with adultery,
-witchcraft, and incest; the charges were ludicrous even to her
-enemies.&nbsp; Her brother George was arrested as well.&nbsp; His
-despised wife, Jane Rochford, testified about an incestuous love
-affair.&nbsp; Whether anyone believed her was irrelevant.&nbsp; Henry
-VIII wanted Anne convicted and killed.&nbsp; George would also lose his
-life, as did three of their friends.&nbsp; Only one had confessed to
-the charge, and that was under torture; it was still enough to convict
-them all.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>As queen of England, Anne was tried by her peers; the main charge
-was adultery, and this was an act of treason for a queen.&nbsp; No
-member of the nobility would help her; her craven uncle Norfolk
-pronounced the death sentence.&nbsp; Poor Henry Percy, her first love,
-swooned during the trial and had to be carried from the room.&nbsp; As
-a concession to her former position, she was not beheaded by a clumsy
-axe.&nbsp; A skilled swordsman was brought over from France.&nbsp; She
-was assured that there would be little pain; she replied, with typical
-spirit, 'I have heard that the executioner is very good.&nbsp; And I
-have a little neck.'</p>
-  <p>&nbsp;</p>
-  <blockquote>
-    <blockquote>
-      <p><font size="4">'You have chosen me from low estate to be your
-queen and companion, far beyond my desert or desire; if, then, you
-found me worthy of such honor, good your grace, let not any light fancy
-or bad counsel of my enemies withdraw your princely favor from me;
-neither let that stain - that unworthy stain - of a disloyal heart
-towards your good grace ever cast so foul a blot on me, and on the
-infant princess your daughter.' </font><b>&nbsp; </b><i><font size="-1">from Anne Boleyn's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter10.html">last letter</a>
-to King Henry VIII, 1536</font></i>;<i><font size="2"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter10.html">its authenticity
-is debated</a>.</font></i></p>
-    </blockquote>
-  </blockquote>
-  <p>&nbsp;</p>
-  <p>She had prayed for exile, to end her days in a nunnery, but now
-faced a more tragic fate.&nbsp; She met it with bravery and wit.&nbsp;
-She was brought to the scaffold at 8 o'clock in the morning on 19 May
-1536.&nbsp; It was a heretofore unknown spectacle, the first public
-execution of an English queen.&nbsp; Anne, who had defended herself so
-ably at her trial, chose her last words carefully:&nbsp; 'Good
-Christian people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law,
-and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing
-against it.&nbsp; I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak
-anything of that, whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray
-God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler
-nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a
-good, a gentle and sovereign lord.&nbsp; And if any person will meddle
-of my cause, I require them to judge the best.&nbsp; And thus I take my
-leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to
-pray for me.&nbsp; O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my
-soul.'&nbsp; She was then blindfolded and knelt at the block.&nbsp; She
-repeated several times, 'To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord Jesu
-receive my soul.'&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>It was a sardonic message to the king.&nbsp; Even now he waited
-impatiently to hear the Tower cannon mark Anne's death.&nbsp; He wished
-to marry Anne's lady-in-waiting, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/seymour.html">Jane
-Seymour</a>.&nbsp; They wed ten days after the execution.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Elizabeth was just three and a half when her mother died.&nbsp;
-She was a precocious child, though; when her governess visited her just
-days after the execution, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>
-asked, 'Why, Governor, how hap it yesterday Lady Princess, and today
-but Lady Elizabeth?'&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Anne was buried in an old arrow box since no coffin was
-provided.&nbsp; But the box was too short; her head was tucked beside
-her.&nbsp; The remains were taken to St Peter ad Vincula, the church of
-the Tower of London.&nbsp; It was later rumored that her few remaining
-friends smuggled her body to a more suitable grave and she is buried
-under a plain slab in a Norfolk church.&nbsp; The church is said to be
-haunted.</p>
-  <p align="center">&nbsp;</p>
-  <p align="center"><font size="4">'And if any person will meddle of my
-cause, I require them to judge the best.'&nbsp; <br>
-  </font><i><font size="-1">from Anne Boleyn's speech at her execution</font></i>
-  </p>
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>&nbsp;</p>
-    <center>
-    <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
-Wives main page</a></font> <br>
-    <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
-Tudor England</a></font></p>
-    <p><font size="-1"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
-    </center>
-  </blockquote>
-</blockquote>
-<p align="center"><font size="2">This page receives 15,000+ unique visitors per 
-month.</font></p>
-<!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --><!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --><script language="JavaScript" src="boleyn_files/geov2.js"></script><script language="javascript">geovisit();</script><img src="boleyn_files/visit.gif" border="0">
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Index: cumentation/trunk/tutorial_sample_files/simple_html/cleves.html
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-<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
-<html><head>
-  <meta name="page_topic" content="Anne of Cleves fourth wife of King Henry VIII">
-  <meta name="content" content="Anne of Cleves fourth wife of King Henry VIII">
-  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
-  <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0">
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-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
-  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Anne of Cleves: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
-  
-  <style fprolloverstyle="">A:hover {color: #0000FF; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold}
-  </style></head>
-
-<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
-<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="634" width="100%">
-  <tbody>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="1" valign="top" width="50%"></td>
-      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="3" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="3" width="50%">
-      <p align="center"><font size="4">'My Lord, if it were not to
-satisfy the world, and My Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
-for none earthly thing.' </font> <br>
-      <i><font size="-1">Henry VIII to Cromwell on his wedding day to
-Anne of Cleves</font></i> <br>
-&nbsp; </p>
-      </td>
-      <td height="3" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-    <tr>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
-      <p align="center">&nbsp;</p>
-      <p align="center">
-      <img src="cleves_files/clevescardinal.gif" border="0" height="95" width="352"></p>
-      <p align="center">
-      <img src="cleves_files/clevesholbein2.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger" border="0" height="325" width="331"></p>
-      <p align="center"><i><font size="2">miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves 
-      by Hans Holbein the Younger</font></i></p>
-      <p align="left"> <b><br>Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of King
-Henry VIII; it was a very brief marriage, to the astonishment of all
-observers but the relief of both spouses.&nbsp; Henry infamously
-referred to his bride as a 'Flanders mare' and told courtiers and
-ambassadors that he could not perform his husbandly duties because of
-Anne's appearance.&nbsp; Anne's reaction to Henry's physical charms was
-not recorded, but she agreed to an annulment very quickly and remained
-in England for the rest of her life.&nbsp; Henry was grateful for her
-cooperation and granted her a generous income and several homes,
-including Hever Castle.&nbsp; Anne enjoyed an independent lifestyle
-denied most women, often visiting Henry's court as an honored
-guest.&nbsp; Her fondness for English ale and gambling were her only
-vices.&nbsp; Along with her successor as Henry's wife, Catherine
-Howard, Anne remains a mysterious figure about whom too little is
-known.&nbsp; Had she and Henry remained married and had children, the
-course of English history might have changed dramatically.&nbsp; But
-the mysteries of physical attraction denied Anne her place on the
-throne, ended the brilliant career of Thomas Cromwell, and thrust the
-king into the arms of his ill-fated fifth queen, Catherine Howard.</b> </p>
-      <p align="left">&nbsp;</p>
-      <blockquote>
-        <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/cleves.html#Biography">
-        <font size="4">Read the biography of Anne of Cleves.</font></a></p>
-        <p><b><br>
-Primary Sources</b> <br>
-Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
-written by Anne</a>. <br>
-        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/pricleve.html">Anne of
-Cleves meets Henry VIII for the first time</a>, 1540</p>
-      </blockquote>
-      <blockquote>
-        <p>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor
-England: Images</a> to view portraits of Anne. </p>
-        <p>Test your knowledge of Anne's life at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor1.html">Tudor Quizzes</a>.</p>
-        <p><br>
-        </p>
-        <p><font size="2"><b>Interact<br>
-        </b>Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
-the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<br>
-        <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk </a>&nbsp;This
-email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.<br>
-        <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign
-of the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
-England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
-other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
-      </blockquote>
-      </td>
-      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
-      </td>
-    </tr>
-  </tbody>
-</table>
-<blockquote>
-  <blockquote>
-    <blockquote>
-      <p><font size="4"><br>
-&nbsp;</font></p>
-      <p><a name="Biography"></a><font size="4">'So she came to
-Greenwich that night, and was received as queen.&nbsp; And the next
-day, being Sunday, the king's grace kept a great court at Greenwich,
-where his grace with the queen offered at mass, richly dressed.&nbsp;
-And on Twelfth Night, which was Tuesday, the king's majesty was married
-to the said queen Anne solemnly, in her closet at Greenwich, and his
-grace and she went publicly in procession that day, she having a rich
-coronet of stone and pearls set with rosemary on her hair, and a gown
-of rich cloth of silver, richly hung with stones and pearls, with all
-her ladies and gentlewomen following her, which was a goodly sight to
-behold.' </font>&nbsp;<i><font size="2"> Anne of Cleves marries King
-Henry VIII, 1540</font></i><br>
-&nbsp;</p>
-    </blockquote>
-  </blockquote>
-  <p>&nbsp;</p>
-  <p><b>Biography</b> <br>
-Anne of Cleves was Henry VIII's fourth wife, though not his first
-choice for the role by far.&nbsp; His ambassadors searched out all the
-eligible heiresses of Europe and discovered their king had a very nasty
-marital reputation.&nbsp; The beautiful Christina of Milan was told of
-the king's interest and wittily replied that if she had two heads she
-would risk it, but she had only one; Marie de Guise, who would later
-wed his nephew the King of Scots, replied much the same.&nbsp; The
-tragic tale of his second queen, Anne Boleyn, had kept European gossips
-busy for three years now.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The king's poor and disrespectful treatment of his first wife (he
-was rumored to have bullied Katharine of Aragon to an unhappy death)
-and the quick end of his third (in his desperation for a healthy male
-heir, the king was rumored to have ordered Jane Seymour cut open,
-mangled and killed) only contributed to his low reputation. </p>
-  <p>One wouldn't think a king would have too difficult a time finding
-a wife, but Henry VIII - who defied his contemporaries in so many other
-ways - did so in this respect as well. </p>
-  <p>In the end, it was religion which brought Anne of Cleves to
-England.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Henry had sought out Catholic princesses like Marie de Guise and
-his fifth wife would be a Catholic as well.&nbsp; Despite the Henrician
-'reformation', England and its monarch remained a Catholic nation,
-albeit one in which supreme authority resided within the king rather
-than the pope.&nbsp; But Henry's influential advisor, Thomas Cromwell,
-wanted England to ally herself with a Protestant nation that also
-rejected papal authority.&nbsp; Cromwell recognized the inexorable
-Catholic decline which was only just beginning to occur; the king's
-assumption of supreme authority had merely been the first and most
-spectacular opening shot in a new religious war.&nbsp; Raised to be a
-churchman until his brother's untimely death and deeply interested in
-theological debate, Henry VIII didn't appreciate the Pandora's Box of
-change he had opened.&nbsp; Cromwell, younger and more philosophically
-attuned to the attitudes of the rising middle class, did appreciate
-it.&nbsp; And he approved of it.&nbsp; The marriage to Anne of Cleves
-would openly ally England with a Protestant duchy, thus making the
-'reformation' even more settled. </p>
-  <p>Henry VIII's previous two marriages had been love matches; he had
-been quite independent in choosing women of his own court to
-marry.&nbsp; But this fourth marriage was necessarily a more diplomatic
-endeavor.&nbsp; In this, the king returned to the traditional role of
-kings searching for brides; he also understood that, since the Act of
-Supremacy in 1534, England stood dangerously isolated amongst the
-Catholic powers of Spain and France. </p>
-  <p>There was a gap of over two years between Jane Seymour's death in
-October 1537 and Anne of Cleves's arrival in England in late December
-1539.&nbsp; Romantics believe the king waited such a long while to
-marry again because he loved Jane so much.&nbsp; Whether he loved her
-or not is beside the point, though there is ample evidence that he
-did.&nbsp; Henry actually waited so long (and he did so quite
-impatiently) because marriage negotiations took an unexpectedly long
-time.&nbsp; He actually sent out instructions regarding the search for
-a new wife barely a month after Jane's death. </p>
-  <p>But the French princesses would not assemble for his perusal; they
-also made it clear they preferred other suitors.&nbsp;&nbsp; Likewise,
-other heiresses of Europe, some of which (like Christina of Milan) were
-related through tangled Hapsburg bloodlines to the king's first wife,
-Katharine of Aragon, avoided the English ambassadors.&nbsp; And always,
-busy with his paperwork and contacts throughout Europe, Cromwell sought
-to arrange a Protestant alliance. </p>
-  <p>During all of these negotiations, one must not forget the king's
-own views regarding his future wife.&nbsp; Henry was used to making his
-own decisions about the women in his life; he had high standards for
-female beauty and insisted his next wife be physically
-attractive.&nbsp; To that end, he told his ambassadors that no official
-overtures be made to certain ladies until he had approved of their
-looks.&nbsp; 'The thing touches me too near,' said the king, which was
-true enough but not the sort of thing kings were supposed to say.&nbsp;
-After all, he was not merely a man but a monarch; he was not supposed
-to marry for himself alone. </p>
-  <p>The ambassadors were often placed in embarrassing positions,
-commissioning portraits and sending back detailed descriptions of pock
-marks and hairstyles.&nbsp; Finally, the choices were narrowed down to
-four serious contenders - Marie de Guise, the widow of the duc de
-Longueville, was tall, beautiful and already proven in
-childbirth.&nbsp; As mentioned earlier, she chose the Scottish king
-James V.&nbsp; Henry then looked to her younger sister, but she also
-became otherwise engaged.&nbsp; Then there was the beautiful and
-intelligent Christina of Milan, just sixteen and one of the most
-sought-after heiresses of her generation.&nbsp; But the king of England
-was three times her age, fat and with a cruel reputation; she allowed
-herself to be painted by Holbein but did nothing to solve the problem
-of her being a great-niece of Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; This
-impediment of affinity was a nice way to avoid the king of England. </p>
-  <p>The year of 1538 passed with no alliance.&nbsp; Henry had intended
-to use his fourth marriage as a balance between France and the Hapsburg
-empire.&nbsp; But it now seemed as if those two enemies might join
-forces against him in defense of the papal supremacy. </p>
-  <p>Suddenly Cromwell's moment had arrived.&nbsp; The fourth serious
-contender was the sister of the duke of Cleves.&nbsp; The duke was not
-a Protestant himself but was allied through marriage with Saxony and
-the league of Lutheran princes; he was also at odds with the Hapsburg
-emperor Charles V over the duchy of Gelderland.&nbsp; The duchy of
-Cleves might one day rival the Netherlands in terms of trade and
-strategic advantage.&nbsp; The king was persuaded to send his favorite
-court painter, Hans Holbein the Younger, to the German duchy.&nbsp;
-There he painted both Anne and her sister Amelia.&nbsp; Henry, who by
-this time was wearying of the endless rounds of negotiations (and whom
-Cromwell feared would soon turn to another English noblewoman), was
-interested in Anne.&nbsp; Negotiations began in earnest. </p>
-  <p>Anne was 24 years old, and had spent most of her life at the ducal
-court of Dusseldorf.&nbsp; She was well-educated in domestic skills but
-she was neither intellectual or flirtatious, both qualities the king
-admired.&nbsp; She had no musical skills, and music was one of Henry's
-passions, and no interest in books.&nbsp; On the trip to England, her
-escort (perhaps sensing disaster ahead) tried to teach her the king's
-favorite card games but Anne found them hopeless.&nbsp; It was not her
-fault, nor that of Henry VIII, but she was raised in a different
-country and, as things turned out, was not given time to acclimatize
-herself before the king rejected her.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>
-  <img alt="Holbein's betrothal portrait of Anne of Cleves" src="cleves_files/cleves-bio1.jpg" align="left" border="2" height="280" width="190">The issue of the betrothal portrait is the most fascinating part
-of this story.&nbsp; Holbein was a man of vast talent; his best
-portraits are simply astounding, beautifully composed and possessing
-great psychological insight.&nbsp; Look at the infamous portrait of
-Anne of Cleves to the left; it is clear that Holbein was more
-fascinated with the embroidery of her gown than with Anne's
-personality.&nbsp; Her eyes are downcast and her features lost beneath the ornate
-trappings of her dress and hood. </p>
-  <p>There has long been a rumor that Henry was so enraged with the
-work, believing that Holbein had deliberately duped him with a false
-portrait, that he fired the painter.&nbsp; But that is not true.&nbsp;
-At the time, there were a few remarks that she did not look as well as
-the portrait asserted, but this was not unlikely - she had arrived in
-England after a long journey, perhaps the sea air did not agree with
-her skin?&nbsp; Or perhaps nervousness over the impending marriage
-caused a change in her complexion.&nbsp; We cannot know.&nbsp; But we
-do know that Henry's ambassadors, only too aware of their master's
-wishes, allowed the portrait to be sent as a fair likeness of
-Anne.&nbsp; Would they have dared to mislead their monarch in such a
-way?&nbsp; It's not likely.&nbsp; Even Henry himself did not make much
-of the supposed difference between the painted and real Anne, aside
-from a comment to Cromwell that she was 'nothing so fair as she had
-been reported.'&nbsp; Often expectations can be idealistic, and that
-was possibly the case with Henry.&nbsp; Holbein continued to receive
-commissions from the English aristocracy before dying of plague in
-London in 1543. </p>
-  <p>What actually happened to drive Anne and Henry apart was a simple
-matter of attraction.&nbsp; Almost five hundred years later, we still
-don't understand why certain people are physically attracted to each
-other; it simply happens.&nbsp; And it didn't happen with Anne and
-Henry; in fact, quite the opposite occurred and the king was repulsed
-by her.&nbsp; Anne's feelings on the matter are not known but Henry was
-no longer the strong, athletic king of years past; various injuries had
-reduced his exercise but not his appetite.&nbsp; He was increasingly
-obese and subject to its attendant problems. </p>
-  <p>There were other reasons for the king to look askance at this new
-bride.&nbsp; The foreign crisis which had caused Cromwell to seek an
-alliance with the Protestant duchy had passed; France and Spain had
-returned to their old enmity.&nbsp; England was no longer threatened by
-the Catholic powers.&nbsp; Also, the dispute over Gelderland had become
-more serious and Henry was not eager to fight the suddenly genial
-Spanish in defense of Anne's brother.&nbsp; These issues were clear in
-mid-autumn 1539 but the marriage negotiations continued.&nbsp; By that
-point, they had a momentum of their own.&nbsp; A proxy marriage
-occurred and Anne left her home in late November.&nbsp; She reached
-Calais on 11 December; during the journey, she was addressed as Queen
-of England and treated accordingly.&nbsp; For a fortnight she waited at
-Calais until the weather settled.&nbsp; On 27 December she set out for
-Deal; it was a stormy crossing.&nbsp; It was on the first day of 1540
-that the king, so impatient to see his new bride, entered her rooms in
-disguise.&nbsp; The scene was recorded by the Imperial ambassador,
-Eustace Chapuys: </p>
-  <blockquote>
-    <p>And on New Years Day in the afternoon the king's grace with five
-of his privy chamber, being disguised with mottled cloaks with hoods so
-that they should not be recognized, came secretly to Rochester, and so
-went up into the chamber where the said Lady Anne was looking out of a
-window to see the bull-baiting which was going on in the courtyard, and
-suddenly he embraced and kissed her, and showed here a token which the
-king had sent her for New Year's gift, and she being abashed and not
-knowing who it was thanked him, and so he spoke with her.&nbsp; But she
-regarded him little, but always looked out the window.... and when the
-king saw that she took so little notice of his coming he went into
-another chamber and took off his cloak and came in again in a coat of
-purple velvet.&nbsp; And when the lords and knights saw his grace they
-did him reverence.... and then her grace humbled herself lowly to the
-king's majesty, and his grace saluted her again, and they talked
-together lovingly, and afterwards he took her by the hand and led her
-to another chamber where their graces amused themselves that night and
-on Friday until the afternoon.</p>
-  </blockquote>
-  <p><font size="-1">You can read the entire account at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/pricleve.html">Primary Sources</a>.</font>
-  <br>
-  <br>
-Henry had so far managed to conceal his dislike of Anne.&nbsp; There is
-reason to believe it was not an immediate revulsion; it was only after
-their wedding night, which the king declared he could not consummate,
-that word spread of his physical distaste.&nbsp; When Cromwell asked
-him the next morning, 'How liked you the Queen?', Henry replied, 'I
-liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse.' </p>
-  <p>On Twelfth Night (6 January), they were married in the 'Queen's
-Closet' at Greenwich Palace, where Henry had also married his last
-bride.&nbsp; But the king was already looking for ways out.&nbsp; The
-very day of the ceremony, he told Cromwell, 'My Lord, if it were not to
-satisfy the world, and my Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
-for none earthly thing.'&nbsp; These were ominous words. </p>
-  <p>It is also possible that around this time, the king met <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/howard.html">Catherine
-Howard</a>, cousin of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, and now destined to
-be lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves when her Flemish attendants were
-dismissed.&nbsp; There is no doubt he felt an instant attraction to the
-lively, curvaceous Catherine.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Henry's nobility, which had long chafed against the power and
-influence of <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/cromwell.html">Cromwell</a>
-(much as they had against Wolsey), welcomed this opportunity to
-discredit him.&nbsp; The minister had pushed the king into the Cleves
-marriage, they reminded Henry gleefully.&nbsp; The king's wrath turned
-against his former friend and Cromwell was executed on 28 July 1540, a
-decision Henry almost instantly regretted.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>And so four things pushed Henry towards an annulment - his dislike
-of Anne, foreign policy changes, his attraction to Catherine Howard,
-and his courtiers' hatred of Cromwell. </p>
-  <p>In the few days between the first meeting and the wedding,
-Cromwell and the king had found a potential way out, though the
-ceremony continued as planned.&nbsp; In the mid-1530s, Anne had briefly
-been engaged to Francis, duke of Lorraine.&nbsp; The English had not
-explored the issue too much, merely asking the government of Cleves if
-negotiations had ended.&nbsp; Now they looked more closely, with the
-king waiting impatiently for the right response.&nbsp; They suddenly
-discovered there was no dispensation from the precontract; Anne was
-still officially betrothed to Francis.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>The ambassadors from Cleves were not unaware of Henry's
-intent.&nbsp; They struggled to find the right documents but, on 26
-February 1540, all they could produce was a report in their archives
-which stated that negotiations with Lorraine 'were not going to take
-their natural course.'&nbsp; No actual papers of dispensation could be
-produced since they did not exist.&nbsp; Thus Henry's marriage to Anne
-of Cleves was legally invalid from the start.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>This is one of the more ironic moments in Henry's checkered
-marital career.&nbsp; For once, his decision to end a marriage was
-legally valid and acceptable to all. </p>
-  <p>Meanwhile, the king made certain comments regarding Anne's body
-and virtue which reveal him in a less than gentlemanly light.&nbsp; He
-told Anthony Denny, a member of the Privy Chamber, that she had
-'breasts so slack and other parts of body in such sort that [he]
-somewhat suspected her virginity.'&nbsp; He further told his court
-physicians of the 'hanging of her breasts and looseness of her
-flesh.'&nbsp; Clearly, consummation of the marriage would not
-occur.&nbsp; The king bravely slept in the same bed at least every
-other night, yet he reported a month later that Anne 'was still as good
-a Maid.... as ever her Mother bare her.'&nbsp; This contradiction - she
-was not a virgin, yet was - was never mentioned. </p>
-  <p>What did Anne think of all this controversy?&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>Luckily for her, she had only a small knowledge of English and
-even less knowledge of the physical relationship between a man and
-wife.&nbsp; Her English ladies were astounded by her innocence.&nbsp;
-'When he [Henry] comes to bed, he kisses me and taketh me by the hand,
-and biddeth me 'Goodnight, sweetheart,' and in the morning, kisses me,
-and biddeth me, 'Farewell, darling.'&nbsp; Is this not enough?' asked
-Anne.&nbsp; No, she was told emphatically, it most certainly was not. </p>
-  <p>Anne's ignorance casts a bad light on her mother, Duchess Maria,
-but it served to protect her feelings in England.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>In the end, she ruled as queen for just four months; her last
-official appearance as the royal consort was during the May Day
-celebrations.&nbsp; She was never crowned, though even if the king had
-wished it, he could not have afforded such a ceremony.&nbsp; During
-those months, the Catholic nobility pushed their advantage against the
-Protestant Cromwell.&nbsp; The minister was too Lutheran for the king's
-taste.&nbsp; Likewise, the Catholics encouraged the flirtations of
-young Catherine Howard, also a Catholic and the duke of Norfolk's
-niece.&nbsp; Too young and ill-educated to be aware of how others used
-her as a pawn, she happily danced before the king and accepted his
-gifts.&nbsp; She was granted lands in April and the next month received
-rich gifts of fabric and jewelry.&nbsp; There is every possibility
-Catherine consummated her relationship with the king in May.&nbsp; How
-else can we explain the sudden race to rid himself of Anne? </p>
-  <p>The investigation into her precontract with Lorraine had been
-hastily done in January and February but for two months afterwards, the
-king merely lamented his fate.&nbsp; Parliament even confirmed Anne's
-dowry in April.&nbsp; But suddenly in May there was a fierce new
-determination to annul the marriage; the king was no longer content to
-complain.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>It is possible, and was rumored, that Henry had slept with
-Catherine and consequently there was a chance she was pregnant.&nbsp;
-Another male heir was never far from Henry's mind.&nbsp; He was also
-deeply in love with his 'Rose without a Thorn', a somewhat pathetic
-attraction between an elderly (the king was almost 49 years old) man
-and a very young woman.&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>And so Anne had to go.&nbsp; She succumbed to the inevitable with
-surprising grace.&nbsp; Perhaps she was leery of the royal temper, or<img alt="engraving of Anne of Cleves, after Holbein" src="cleves_files/cleves-bio2.jpg" align="right" border="2" height="218" width="154"> remembered the king's marital
-history, or she simply didn't care.&nbsp; Henry was very
-grateful.&nbsp; If she had not cooperated....&nbsp; He knew, from the
-example of Katharine of Aragon, what could happen if a queen fought an
-annulment.&nbsp; He had no desire to alienate Cleves or engage in
-another lengthy legal and theological dispute.&nbsp; The king declared
-the marriage had not been consummated and, in any case, it was invalid
-from the start.&nbsp; Would Anne agree? </p>
-  <p>She did agree, most readily.&nbsp; She was shocked at first by the
-news; the king's representatives visited her at Richmond Palace, where
-she had gone to escape the threat of plague.&nbsp; They brought an
-interpreter so there would be no misunderstanding.&nbsp; For her part,
-Anne quickly grasped the situation.&nbsp; She had no advisers and the
-king had already executed one wife and harassed another to death.&nbsp;
-Certainly she enjoyed the role of queen, was more fluent in English and
-had taken a liking to her new country; even the people cheered her on
-the occasional public ride between palaces.&nbsp; But did she dare
-fight Henry?&nbsp; Of course not. </p>
-  <p>The king's servants wrote that she was 'content always with your
-Majesty', thus accepting Henry's judgment, and in her <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter12.html">letter of</a><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter12.html"> submission</a>
-she signed herself 'daughter of Cleves', not 'queen of England'.&nbsp;
-She agreed the marriage had never been consummated and signed all
-necessary documents.&nbsp; For his part, Henry was now prepared to be
-generous.&nbsp; Anne was to enjoy precedence over all the ladies in
-England, except the Queen and the king's daughters.&nbsp; She was to be
-known as the king's 'good sister' and received a very nice settlement
-of manors and estates, some of which belonged to Cromwell.&nbsp; This
-guaranteed her an income of 3000 pds a year, making her one of the
-wealthiest women in England.&nbsp; All this depended upon her remaining
-in England, and this Anne was more than willing to do.&nbsp; 'The
-King's highness whom I cannot have as a husband is nevertheless a most
-kind, loving and friendly father and brother,' she wrote to her
-brother.&nbsp; Why should she return home in ignominy, dependent upon
-her brother's generosity, when she could remain in England and live a
-comfortable, independent life? </p>
-  <p>Anne was perhaps as content with the arrangement as Henry.&nbsp;
-She grew to enjoy English ale and gambling; she spent large sums on
-gowns; she visited with the king's children and occasionally the king
-himself.&nbsp; She was heard to remark that she was more attractive
-than Katharine Parr, to whom the king's attention turned in 1543.&nbsp;
-In fact, upon Catherine Howard's execution in 1542, rumors circulated
-that perhaps the king would take back his former bride.&nbsp; The
-French ambassador was suitably impressed with Anne's handling of a
-delicate situation, observing that 'all her affairs could never make
-her utter a word by which one might suppose that she was
-discontented.'&nbsp; </p>
-  <p>These rumors were understandable enough; Anne occupied a nebulous
-place in English society, unmarried but wealthy and independent.&nbsp;
-She was not an heiress but still honored as a royal.&nbsp; She answered
-to no male authority but that of the king, and he did not choose to
-trouble her.&nbsp; For the rest of her life, rumors spread about her
-lifestyle.&nbsp; For Anne's part, she was content and happy and had
-little reason to be otherwise. </p>
-  <p>She made her last public appearance at Mary Tudor's coronation in
-1553, riding alongside the Princess Elizabeth.&nbsp; She died in 1557
-of a 'declining illness' and was buried with appropriate honor at
-Westminster Abbey.&nbsp; Her will is perhaps most representative of her
-kindly character.&nbsp; In it, she remembered gifts to everyone who had
-ever served her, no matter how humble or long ago. </p>
-  <p>Anne had chosen as her motto 'God send me well to keep' and it
-proved apt, though in a way few could have predicted.</p>
-  <p>&nbsp;</p>
-  <center>
-  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
-Wives main page</a></font> <br>
-  <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
-Tudor England</a></font></p>
-  <p><font size="-1"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
-  </center>
-</blockquote>
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html><head>
+  <meta name="content" content="Katharine Catherine Katherine of Aragon first wife of Henry VIII">
+  <meta name="page_topic" content="Katharine Catherine Katherine of Aragon first wife of Henry VIII mother of Queen Mary I">
+  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
+  <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0">
+  <meta name="ProgId" content="FrontPage.Editor.Document">
+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Katharine / Katherine / Catherine of Aragon: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
+  
+  <style fprolloverstyle="">A:hover {color: #0000FF; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold}
+  </style></head>
+
+<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="674" width="100%">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="39" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="39" valign="top" width="50%">
+      <p align="center"><font size="4"><br>'In this world I will confess
+myself to be the king's true wife, and in the next they will know how
+unreasonably I am afflicted.'</font><b><font size="4"> </font> <br>
+      </b><i><font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon, 1532</font></i> </p>
+      </td>
+      <td height="39" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="1" width="50%">
+      <p align="center"></p>
+      &nbsp;</td>
+      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
+      <p align="center">
+      <img src="aragon_files/aragoncardinal.gif" alt="Katharine of Aragon" border="0" height="114" width="443"></p>
+      <p align="center"> 
+      <img src="aragon_files/aragonsittow1.jpg" alt="portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Michael Sittow, c1502" border="2" height="541" width="351"></p>
+      <p align="center"> <i><font size="2">portrait of Katharine of Aragon by 
+      Michael Sittow, c1502</font></i></p>
+      <p align="left"> <b><br>The youngest surviving child of
+the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Katharine was born on 16 December 1485,
+the same year that Henry VII established the Tudor dynasty.&nbsp; At
+the age of three, she was betrothed to his infant son, Prince
+Arthur.&nbsp; In 1501, shortly before her sixteenth birthday, Katharine
+sailed to England.&nbsp; But her marriage to Arthur lasted less than
+six months and was supposedly never consummated.&nbsp; Katharine was
+then betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, Prince Henry.&nbsp; When he
+became king in 1509, at the age of eighteen, he promptly married
+Katharine and they lived together happily for many years.&nbsp; But
+their marriage produced just one living child, a daughter called Mary,
+and Henry was desperate for a male heir.&nbsp; He also fell deeply in
+love with another woman.&nbsp; Cast aside, Katharine fought against
+great odds to deny Henry an annulment.&nbsp; But the king would not be
+denied and when the Catholic church would not grant the annulment, he
+declared himself head of a new English church.&nbsp; Katharine was
+banished from court and died on 7 January 1536, broken-hearted but
+still defiant.</b> </p>
+      <p align="left"> &nbsp;</p>
+      <blockquote>
+        <blockquote>
+          <p><a href="#Biography">
+          <font size="4">Read the biography of Katharine of Aragon.</font></a></p>
+        </blockquote>
+        <blockquote>
+          <p><b><br>
+Primary Sources</b> <br>
+Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
+written by Katharine</a> and <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/h8crown.html">an account of her
+coronation</a> at Westminster Abbey.&nbsp; <br>
+          <br>
+          <b>Secondary Sources<br></b>Read JA Froude's 1891 work <i>
+          <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/secondary.html">The Divorce 
+          of Catherine of Aragon</a></i>.</p>
+          <p><br>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor England:
+Images</a> to view portraits of Katharine.<br>
+Visit the <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/mary1.html">Queen
+Mary I site</a> to learn more about Katharine's daughter.</p>
+          <p><font size="2"><b><br>
+Interact<br>
+          </b>Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<br>
+          <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk
+          </a>&nbsp;This email discussion list is sponsored by
+Tudorhistory.org.<br>
+          <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign of
+the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
+        </blockquote>
+        <p align="left"> &nbsp;</p>
+      </blockquote>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+  <blockquote>
+    <blockquote>
+      <blockquote>
+        <p>&nbsp;</p>
+        <p><a name="Biography"><br>
+        </a><font size="4">'My tribulations are so great, my life so
+disturbed by the plans daily invented to further the king's wicked
+intention, the surprises which the king gives me, with certain persons
+of his council, are so mortal, and my treatment is what God knows, that
+it is enough to shorten ten lives, much more mine.'&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><i>
+        <font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon to Charles V, November 1531</font></i></p>
+        <p>&nbsp;</p>
+      </blockquote>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p><b>Biography</b> <br>
+Katharine was born on 16 December 1485 at Alcala de Henares, in the
+archbishop of Toledo's palace.&nbsp; Her early life promised a future
+of splendor and success, if not personal happiness.&nbsp; Her parents,
+Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, were legends throughout
+Europe.&nbsp; Their marriage had united the kingdom of Spain and
+together they had driven the Moors from Granada.&nbsp; Katharine's
+mother was deeply pious and very intelligent.&nbsp; Her children, even
+the daughters, received excellent educations.&nbsp; Katharine's brother
+Juan and sister Joanna were married off into the powerful Hapsburg
+family and two other sisters, Isabella and Maria, would each marry the
+king of Portugal.&nbsp; Katharine was promised to England; the
+betrothal contract was finalized before her fourth birthday.&nbsp; The
+island nation, so long torn between Plantagenet cousins vying for the
+throne, was now ruled by Henry Tudor.&nbsp; He had married the daughter
+of the former Plantagenet king, Edward IV, and in 1486 had a male heir
+and a desire to establish the stability and validity of his new
+dynasty.&nbsp; A match with a Spanish princess would give him
+both.&nbsp; And so Katharine, proud and solemn and accompanied by a
+vast dowry, came to England in 1501.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p> She
+wed Prince Arthur within a few weeks of her arrival.&nbsp; It was a
+grand celebration; all of London rejoiced and there was every
+expectation of a glorious future for both husband and wife.&nbsp; They
+left for Ludlow Castle, the government seat of the Prince of Wales, and
+within six months Arthur was dead.&nbsp; It was the dreaded sweating
+sickness.&nbsp; The news devastated his parents.&nbsp; Katharine
+returned to London but was not sent home.&nbsp; Henry VII was already
+writing to her parents about another marriage.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Katharine was now promised to Arthur's younger brother,
+Henry.&nbsp; Born 28 June 1491, he was almost six years younger than
+Katharine.&nbsp; But he was robust and healthy, and already regarded as
+a precocious intellect.&nbsp; Before his brother's death, he had been
+destined for the church and educated accordingly.&nbsp; But now he was
+the future king and as such he needed a future wife.&nbsp; Henry VII
+betrothed young Henry to his brother's widow, a plan which required a
+papal dispensation.&nbsp; Ferdinand, at odds with France, was anxious
+to please his English ally; Isabella's piety may have ruined the plan
+but she was dying and did not protest.&nbsp; Katharine and her duenna,
+Dona Elvira, both wrote that her marriage to Arthur had never been
+consummated.&nbsp; Pope Julius II granted the dispensation.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>The new betrothal may have been spurred by Henry VII's legendary
+avarice.&nbsp; Katharine had brought half of her dowry with her upon
+marriage to Arthur; if she returned home, her marriage contract
+required that the dowry be returned.&nbsp; Also, her inheritance as
+dowager Princess of Wales was substantial.&nbsp; If she left England,
+so would that steady income.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Katharine herself <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">wrote to her father</a>
+that she had no wish to remain in England but she would obey his
+decision.&nbsp; Perhaps she had already learned enough of Henry VII's
+character to know she would be shabbily treated.&nbsp; Despite her
+royal position, she lived in poverty.&nbsp; The Spanish ambassador was
+forced to buy her necessities and she was unable to pay her
+attendants.&nbsp; And soon enough Henry VII was implying that he would
+break the Spanish betrothal.&nbsp; Katharine spent the next seven years
+in a state of political limbo.&nbsp; And when he turned fourteen, Henry
+VII had his son publicly repudiate the betrothal, claiming that the
+marriage contract was made without his knowledge or consent.&nbsp; Yet
+Katharine remained in England.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>In 1509, the situation was resolved with startling speed.&nbsp;
+Henry VII died and his eighteen year old son became king.&nbsp;
+Handsome, proud, and imbued with the romantic spirit of chivalry, he
+promptly married Katharine.&nbsp; Did he marry her out of a sense of
+obligation?&nbsp; Was it because, as he later claimed, he wished to
+respect his father's last wish?&nbsp; Were political councilors
+encouraging the Spanish alliance?&nbsp; Or did he love the dignified
+and lovely young princess?&nbsp; It is impossible to know.&nbsp; But
+they certainly acted like a loving and affectionate couple, far beyond
+typical royal marriages.&nbsp; There were public displays of affection,
+declarations of love and respect, and for a long while she was also a
+close political adviser.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Henry VIII's court was full of gaiety and celebration.&nbsp; It
+was a welcome change from the austerity of his father's rule.&nbsp;
+Katharine proved herself to be the perfect consort, even when politics
+led her father to humiliate and betray Henry.&nbsp; Katharine
+recognized that she must choose between unwavering support of her
+father and loyalty to her husband.&nbsp; She chose Henry, though his
+Lord Chancellor, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/wolsey.html">Cardinal
+Wolsey</a>, never trusted her and instead favored an Anglo-French
+alliance.&nbsp; His influence, and Henry's own suspicions, led the king
+to disregard her political advice.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Katharine's primary duty was both personal and political - to
+bear children, as many as possible and preferably sons.&nbsp; This was
+especially important in England since Henry VIII was the sole surviving
+son of his father.&nbsp; Katharine was far from barren and did her
+best; in the first nine years of their marriage, she conceived at least
+six times.&nbsp; She miscarried twice, once delivered a stillborn
+daughter, and two sons died within weeks.&nbsp; The only surviving
+child was a daughter, Princess Mary, born in 1516.&nbsp; Katharine's
+last recorded pregnancy was in 1518, when she was thirty-three years
+old.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Henry was not unhappy with the birth of Mary; he assured
+ambassadors that if it were a daughter this time, a son would surely
+follow.&nbsp; But it was soon clear there would be no sons.&nbsp; The
+age difference between he and Katharine was now more noticeable.&nbsp;
+The queen, struggling with frequent pregnancies and constant stress,
+looked older than her years.&nbsp; Henry was a far more prudent king
+than most; he had just two serious affairs during his marriage to
+Katharine.&nbsp; But one of his mistresses, Elizabeth Blount, bore him
+a son.&nbsp; It was clear he could have sons, but the queen could
+not.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>By 1527, the question of the succession was the most pressing
+issue facing the king.&nbsp; Two years before, he had titled his
+illegitimate son the duke of Richmond and granted him vast estates.&nbsp;
+Many, Katharine included, believed this was a preliminary step to
+naming him heir to the throne.&nbsp; This never occurred and Richmond
+would die in 1536, but - until then - it was a possibility.&nbsp; Henry
+sent Princess Mary to Ludlow Castle as Princess of Wales and his
+official heir, but even that did not stop the rumors or her mother's
+concerns.&nbsp; Katharine confronted Henry; he responded angrily and
+dismissed several of her beloved Spanish attendants.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>The king by now had hopes of a legitimate heir.&nbsp; He had
+fallen in love the year previously with a young Englishwoman, <a href="boleyn.html">Anne Boleyn</a>.&nbsp;
+She was the sister of a former mistress and refused to take that
+position herself.&nbsp; Henry, who was also deeply pious and a student
+of theology, now took a closer look at his marriage to Katharine.&nbsp;
+In particular, he looked at the text in Leviticus which seemed to
+directly reference his own life - 'If a man shall take his brother's
+wife it is an unclean thing..... they shall be childless.'(Leviticus,
+XX, 21)&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Of course, they were not childless but a daughter was not the
+heir he needed.&nbsp; No woman had attempted to rule England since the
+disastrous Matilda centuries<img src="aragon_files/aragonhorenbout1.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Lucas Horenbout" align="right" border="0" height="324" width="329"> before.&nbsp; Henry now firmly believed
+that his incestuous marriage had been doomed from the start.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>But how could he annul the marriage?&nbsp; He needed to convince
+the current pope, Clement VII, that the dispensation of his predecessor
+was inadequate.&nbsp; It directly contradicted the Bible and had no
+merit.&nbsp; This should have been a simple enough matter.&nbsp; Royal
+marriages had been annulled for far less.&nbsp; But Katharine's nephew,
+Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor and he had no intention of
+allowing his aunt to be cast off.&nbsp; This was not out of personal
+love or loyalty, but a purely political stance.&nbsp; And after the
+1527 'sack of Rome', Charles controlled the pope.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Henry was soon thwarted, despite extensive work by Wolsey and
+other advisers.&nbsp; For her part, Katharine was kept in the dark for
+as long as the king could manage it.&nbsp; But she was no fool.&nbsp;
+She knew of the romance between her husband and Mistress Boleyn; she
+knew Henry avoided her company, though he was scrupulous about
+attending official functions with her.&nbsp; He had always respected
+her unassailable dignity and eloquence.&nbsp; He did not wish to fight
+Katharine; he wanted an amicable end to their union and he was prepared
+to be generous.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>When news of his intentions became official, she was given
+counsel but only that chosen by the king.&nbsp; She turned to the
+Spanish ambassador and close friends at court for support.&nbsp; Anne
+Boleyn was not popular and Katharine was a respected and beloved
+queen.&nbsp; The king soon came under popular scorn for his
+plans.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>But Henry was as firmly convinced of the righteousness of his
+cause as Katharine was of hers.&nbsp; He had read the Bible; he had
+debated the issue with prominent theologians; he even sponsored
+hearings of the case at European universities.&nbsp; Both king and pope
+knew there was a valid basis for the annulment, and a pressing national
+need for it.&nbsp; Clement could have granted it without troubling his
+conscience.&nbsp; And with the spread of Lutheranism in the German
+states, Clement had no wish to antagonize the loyal and devoted king of
+England.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>But the English king could not be helped at the Holy Roman Emperor's 
+    expense.&nbsp; This was soon made abundantly clear.</p>
+    <p>The pope prevaricated; he could do little else.&nbsp; And for
+several years, the 'King's Great Matter' consumed England and
+fascinated Europe.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Henry inevitably tired of the endless parade of papal legates
+and repetitious hearings.&nbsp; He was growing older and Anne was
+growing impatient.&nbsp; Her youth was being wasted to no purpose, she
+told the king.&nbsp; Meanwhile, Katharine encouraged Mary to be
+obstinate in protecting her rights as princess.&nbsp; Mary lost her
+father's favor and was forbidden to visit her mother.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Finally, in 1533, Henry did the only thing he could to end the
+marriage - he rejected the authority of the Holy See and declared
+himself Supreme Head of a new Church of England.&nbsp; His archbishop
+of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, issued the long-awaited decree of
+nullity.&nbsp; Katharine was no longer queen of England but 'Princess
+dowager of Wales'.&nbsp; Princess Mary was now illegitimate, and rumors
+spread that Anne Boleyn had finally succumbed to the king and was
+pregnant.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p> Katharine was exiled from court and to a
+succession of damp and unpleasant castles.&nbsp; She had but a handful
+of servants for few would call her queen and she refused to be called
+princess.&nbsp; It was a mark of her early education that she was meek,
+deeply pious and believed in obedience to her husband - but she was
+also a proud and intelligent princess of Spain.&nbsp; She would never
+allow her dignity, or that of her daughter, to be destroyed.&nbsp; In
+the end, this stubborn spirit did both her and Mary far more harm than
+good.&nbsp; Katharine was undoubtedly truthful when she declared her
+marriage to Arthur unconsummated but the truth was cold comfort in the
+last years of her life.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>Her final years were lonely and sad; the Spanish ambassador kept
+her informed of outside events and smuggled letters to her daughter,
+but she was often ill and at prayer.&nbsp; The wrongs she had suffered
+from Henry filled her with sadness rather than anger.&nbsp; Perhaps she
+was inspired by her motto, Humble and Loyal, for that is how she
+remained.</p>
+    <p>She died at Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536, three weeks
+after her fiftieth birthday.&nbsp; There were rumors that she had been
+poisoned.&nbsp; But if Henry had been so inclined, he would have
+attempted it years before and spared himself much trouble.&nbsp; A
+lingering illness and the psychological effects of her exile were the
+obvious causes.&nbsp; She was buried at Peterborough Abbey with all the
+ceremony befitting the widow of the prince of Wales.&nbsp; Henry did
+not attend the funeral; we do not know if he read Katharine's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">last letter</a> to
+him.&nbsp; It was a love letter and she signed it 'Katherine the
+Queen'.&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>The tragedy of their annulment was that both he and Katharine
+were equally convinced of their causes.&nbsp; For the modern reader,
+both arguments are persuasive.&nbsp; It is an ironic footnote to her
+life story that Katharine, such a devoted and pious Catholic,
+unintentionally brought the Reformation to England.&nbsp; <br>
+&nbsp;</p>
+  </blockquote>
+  <center>
+  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
+Wives main page</a></font> <br>
+  <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
+Tudor England</a></font></p>
+  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html"> to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
+  </center>
+</blockquote>
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
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+  <meta name="page_topic" content="Anne Boleyn queen of England wife of King Henry VIII mother of Queen Elizabeth I The Six Wives of King Henry VIII biography images letters primary sources">
+  <meta name="content" content="Anne Boleyn queen of England mother of Queen Elizabeth I wife of King Henry VIII The Six Wives of King Henry VIII biography images letters primary sources">
+  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
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+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Anne Boleyn: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
+  
+  <style fprolloverstyle="">A:hover {color: #0000FF; font-weight: bold}
+  </style></head>
+
+<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="667" width="100%">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="29" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="29" valign="top" width="50%">
+      <p align="center"><font size="4"><br>'[A] woman who is the scandal of 
+      Christendom.'<br>
+      </font><i><font size="-1">Katharine of Aragon describes her
+rival, 1531</font></i></p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
+      <p align="center"> 
+&nbsp;</p>
+      <p align="center"> 
+<img src="boleyn_files/boleyncardinalbig.gif" alt="Anne Boleyn" border="0" height="90" width="352"></p>
+      <p align="center"> <b> 
+      <img src="boleyn_files/boleynmainjpg.jpg" alt="the most famous portrait of Anne Boleyn; at the NPG, London" border="2" height="357" width="275"></b></p>
+      <p align="center"> <i><font size="2">portrait of Anne Boleyn by an unknown 
+      artist, late 16th century</font></i></p>
+      <p> <b> <br>Anne Boleyn is one of the most famous queens
+in English history, though she ruled for just three years.&nbsp; The
+daughter of an ambitious knight and niece of the duke of Norfolk, Anne
+spent her adolescence in France.&nbsp; When she returned to England,
+her wit and style were her greatest charms.&nbsp; She had a circle of
+admirers and became secretly engaged to Henry Percy.&nbsp; She also
+entered the service of Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; But she soon caught
+the eye of Henry VIII.&nbsp; He ordered Percy from court and tried to
+make Anne his mistress.&nbsp; She refused.&nbsp; Her sister, Mary, had
+been the king's mistress and gained little from it but scandal.&nbsp;
+Her hopes with Percy dashed, Anne demanded that the king marry
+her.&nbsp; She waited nearly seven years for Henry to obtain an
+annulment.&nbsp; It finally took an irrevocable breach with the Holy
+See before they wed in 1533.&nbsp; But she was unable to give Henry the
+son he desperately needed and their marriage ended tragically for
+Anne.&nbsp; She was executed on patently false charges of witchcraft,
+incest and adultery on 19 May 1536.&nbsp; Her daughter, Elizabeth,
+would become England's greatest queen.</b></p>
+      <blockquote>
+        <p><a href="#Biography"><br>
+        <font size="4">Read the biography of Anne Boleyn</font></a><font size="4">.</font></p>
+        <p><b><br>
+Primary Sources</b> <br>
+Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
+written by Anne</a>.&nbsp; <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-percy.html">The
+romance between Anne &amp; Henry Percy,</a> c1523&nbsp; <br>
+Eyewitness accounts of <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne1.html">her coronation in
+1533</a> &amp; <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne2.html">her
+execution in 1536</a>.&nbsp; <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-lastdays.html">An
+account of Anne's last days</a> <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne3.html">Anne's
+last words</a>, 19 May 1536&nbsp; <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/exanne.html">Another
+account of her execution</a></p>
+          <p>
+          <b>Secondary Sources<br></b>Read JA Froude's 1891 work <i>
+          <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/secondary.html">The Divorce 
+          of Catherine of Aragon</a></i>.&nbsp; <font size="2">Understandably, it also 
+          discusses Anne Boleyn as well as Henry VIII's rumored affair with her 
+          sister Mary.</font></p>
+      </blockquote>
+      <blockquote>
+        <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/annedesc.html">Contemporary
+descriptions of Anne</a> <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/lovelett.html">Henry
+VIII's love letters to Anne</a> <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/boleyn-poems.html">Poetry
+about Anne Boleyn</a> </p>
+        <p>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor
+England: Images</a> to view portraits of Anne.&nbsp; <br>
+Visit the <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Queen
+Elizabeth I site</a> to learn more about Anne's daughter.&nbsp; <br>
+Read about Anne's sister, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/boleyn.html">Mary Boleyn</a>.<a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/fiveanne.html"><br>The
+Boleyn-Howard connection</a> <br>
+        <font size="-1">Anne's relationship to Henry VIII's fifth wife</font>
+        </p>
+        <p>Test your knowledge of Anne Boleyn's life at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor1.html">Tudor Quizzes</a>.</p>
+        <p><font size="2"><b><br>Links<br></b>
+        <a href="http://www.geocities.com/boleynfamily/">The Boleyns</a>: A 
+        website dedicated to the entire Boleyn family, with particular emphasis 
+        upon Anne.<br><a href="http://jack-of-all-trades.ca/meandmine/">Me and Mine</a>: 
+        Biography and images of Anne Boleyn.</font></p>
+        <p><font size="2"><b><br>
+        Interact<br>
+        </b> Meet other Anne Boleyn enthusiasts at <a href="http://www.fine-eyes.net/anneboleyn/indextwo.html">Mistress
+Anne: The Official Anne Boleyn Fanlisting</a>.<br>
+Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/search?query=Anne+Boleyn"><br>
+Anne Boleyn at Yahoo! Groups</a>&nbsp; There are numerous groups
+dedicated to Anne.&nbsp; I think you need a Yahoo! ID to join.<br>
+        <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk </a>&nbsp;This
+email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.&nbsp; It does
+not focus exclusively on Anne.<br>
+        <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign
+of the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
+        <p><br>
+        <b>NEWS&nbsp;&nbsp; September 2004<br>The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn: 
+        The Most Happy</b> by Eric Ives has just been published
+        <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0631234799/qid=1096393233/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl/026-3687195-0558069">
+        in the UK</a> and
+        <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0631234799/qid=1096393461/sr=8-1/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl14/002-7093489-7046463?v=glance&amp;s=books&amp;n=507846">
+        US</a>.&nbsp; I will be posting a lengthy review soon.&nbsp;
+        <font size="2">Professor Ives had previously written the definitive 
+        biography of Anne in 1986; this work incorporates new research.</font></p>
+        <p>
+        <b><br>
+        Anne
+Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen</b> by Joanna Denny
+        was published
+        <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/074995017X/qid=1076882496/sr=2-2/ref=sr_2_11_2/026-9295844-3953254">in the UK</a> 
+        in April 2004.</p>
+        <hr>
+        <p><font size="2">The above portrait of Anne Boleyn is a late
+16th copy of a lost original.&nbsp; It can be viewed at the National Portrait
+Gallery, London.</font></p>
+        <hr> </blockquote>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+  <blockquote>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p align="left"><font size="4"><br>
+      <br>
+      </font><a name="Biography"><br>
+      </a><font size="4">'She is of middling stature, with a swarthy
+complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact
+has nothing but the King's great appetite, and her eyes, which are
+black and beautiful - and take great effect on those who served the
+Queen when she was on the throne.&nbsp; She lives like a queen, and the
+King accompanies her to Mass - and everywhere.'&nbsp;&nbsp; </font><i><font size="-1">the Venetian ambassador describes Anne, 1532</font></i> </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p align="left">&nbsp;</p>
+  </blockquote>
+  <p> <b>Biography</b><br>
+Anne Boleyn's birthdate is unknown; even the year is widely
+debated.&nbsp; General opinion now favors 1501 or 1502, though some
+historians persuasively argue for 1507.&nbsp; She was probably born at
+Blickling Hall in Norfolk.&nbsp; Her father was Sir Thomas Boleyn, a
+minor courtier with a talent for foreign languages; he was of London
+merchant stock and eager to advance in the world.&nbsp; Like most men,
+he chose to marry well.&nbsp; His bride was Elizabeth Howard, daughter
+of the second duke of Norfolk and sister of the third duke.</p>
+  <p>Anne had two surviving siblings, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/boleyn.html">Mary</a>
+and George.&nbsp; Their birthdates are also unknown, as is the order of their 
+  births.&nbsp; We only know that all three Boleyn siblings were close in age.</p>
+  <p>In 1514, Henry VIII married his youngest sister, Mary, to the aged king of France.&nbsp; Anne
+accompanied the Tudor princess as a very<img alt="miniature portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/boleynsmall.jpg" align="right" border="0" height="232" width="175"> young lady-in-waiting; she remained in France after the French king died and
+  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/brandon.html">Mary Tudor</a>
+returned home.&nbsp; Anne gained the subsequent honor of being educated
+under the watchful eye of the new French queen Claude.&nbsp; This
+education had a uniquely French emphasis upon fashion and flirtation,
+though more intellectual skills were not neglected.&nbsp; Anne became
+an accomplished musician, singer and dancer.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>In 1521 or early 1522, with war between England and France
+imminent, Anne returned home.&nbsp; When she first caught Henry VIII's
+eye is unknown.&nbsp; He was originally attracted to her sister, Mary
+who came to court before Anne.&nbsp; She was the king's mistress in the
+early 1520s and, as a mark of favor, her father was elevated to the
+peerage as viscount Rochfort/Rochford in 1525.&nbsp; Mary herself would leave 
+  court with only a dull marriage, and possibly the king's illegitimate son, as 
+  her reward.&nbsp; Anne learned much from her sister's example.</p>
+  <p>Her first years at court were spent in service to Henry VIII's
+first wife, <a href="aragon.html">Katharine of Aragon</a>.&nbsp; She became quite popular among
+the younger men.&nbsp; She was not considered a great beauty; her
+sister occupied that position in the family, but even Mary was merely
+deemed 'pretty'.&nbsp; Hostile chroniclers <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/annedesc.html">described Anne</a>
+as plain, sallow, and possessing two distinct flaws - a large mole on
+the side of her neck and an extra finger on her left hand.&nbsp; Such
+praise as she received focused on her style, her wit and charm; she was
+quick-tempered and spirited.&nbsp; Her most remarkable physical
+attributes were her large dark eyes and long black hair.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The king's attraction was focused upon her sharp and teasing
+manner, and her oft-stated unavailability.&nbsp; What he couldn't have,
+he pined for all the more.&nbsp; This was especially difficult for a
+king used to having his own way in everything.&nbsp; Anne was also
+seriously involved with <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/ab-percy.html">Henry Percy</a>,
+the son and heir of the earl of Northumberland; there were rumors of an
+engagement and declarations of true love.&nbsp; The king ordered his
+great minister, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/wolsey.html">Cardinal
+Thomas Wolsey</a>, to end the match.&nbsp; Wolsey did so, thus ensuring
+Percy's unhappy marriage to the earl of Shrewsbury's daughter and
+Anne's great enmity.&nbsp; It was safer to blame the Cardinal than his
+king.&nbsp; Also, Henry's jealousy revealed the depth of his feelings,
+and Anne quite naturally thought - if she could not be an earl's wife,
+why not try for the crown of England? </p>
+  <p>When Anne avoided Henry's company, was sullen and evasive to him,
+he sent her from court; he hoped that a few months in the country would
+persuade her of his charms.&nbsp; It did not work.&nbsp; Anne was
+already playing a far more serious game than the king.&nbsp; Later,
+after she had been arrested, Henry would claim he had been 'bewitched'
+and the term wasn't used lightly in the 16th century.&nbsp; But perhaps
+it was simply the contrast between her vivacity and Katharine's
+solemnity; or perhaps the king mistook the inexplicable ardor of true
+love for something more ominous, long after that love had faded.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>It is impossible to fully explain the mystery of attraction
+between two people.&nbsp; How Anne was able to capture and maintain the
+king's attention for such a long while, despite great obstacles and the
+constant presence of malicious gossip, cannot be explained.&nbsp; Henry
+was headstrong and querulous.&nbsp; But for several years, he remained
+faithful to his feelings for Anne - and his attendant desire for a
+legitimate male heir.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p> <img src="boleyn_files/aragon-min.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon" align="left" border="0" height="168" width="166">One cannot separate the king's desire for a
+son, indeed its very necessity, from his personal desire for
+Anne.&nbsp; The two interests merged perfectly in 1527.&nbsp; Henry had
+discovered the <a href="aragon.html">invalidity
+of his marriage</a> to Katharine.&nbsp; Now it was possible to annul
+his marriage and secure his two fondest hopes - Anne's hand in marriage
+and the long-desired heir.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p> Cardinal Wolsey had long advocated an Anglo-French
+alliance.&nbsp; For that reason, he disliked the Spanish
+  <a href="aragon.html">Katharine
+of Aragon</a>.&nbsp; He now set about securing his monarch's annulment
+with the intention of marrying Henry to a French princess.&nbsp; And if
+not a French princess, perhaps a great lady of the English court.&nbsp;
+Wolsey did not like Anne, and she despised him.&nbsp; It was Wolsey who
+had delivered the king's orders to Henry Percy, driving her suitor from
+court.&nbsp; She never forgot that injury to her heart.&nbsp; And while
+she could not revenge herself upon the king, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter8.html">she could work
+against</a> his Lord Chancellor.&nbsp; His protégé and successor <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/cromwell.html">Thomas
+Cromwell</a> became a close ally. </p>
+  <p>But Anne alone did not cause Wolsey's fall from grace, though she
+took the blame for it.&nbsp; Indeed, 'Nan Bullen', as the common people
+derisively called her, became the scapegoat for all the king's
+unpopular decisions.&nbsp; But it is important to remember that no one
+- not Wolsey, not Cromwell, and certainly not Anne Boleyn - ever
+controlled Henry VIII, or made him do other than exactly what he
+wanted.&nbsp; He was a king who thoroughly knew and enjoyed his
+position.&nbsp; <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/more.html">Sir Thomas
+More</a> would aptly point this out to his son-in-law, William Roper -
+'If a lion knew his strength, it were hard for any man to hold
+him.'&nbsp; And later, when Roper commented upon the king's affection
+for More, the philosopher replied that if his head would win the king a
+castle in France, then Henry would not hesitate to chop it off.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>But most people found it easier to hate Anne than to hate their
+monarch.&nbsp; As the king's desire for an annulment became the gossip
+of all Europe, she was roundly criticized and condemned.&nbsp; And she
+was not popular at the English court either.&nbsp; Both her unique
+situation and her oft times abrasive personality offended many.&nbsp;
+And Katharine's solemn piety had impressed the English court for three
+decades; her supporters were numerous, though not inclined to face the
+king's formidable wrath.&nbsp; In truth, Anne was sustained only by the
+king's affection and she knew his mercurial temper.&nbsp; It is
+possible that she was as surprised by his faithfulness as everyone
+else.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>As the struggle for an annulment proceeded and the pope
+prevaricated between Henry and Katharine's nephew, the Holy Roman
+Emperor Charles V, Anne's position at the English court became steadily
+more prominent.&nbsp; There were at first little signs.&nbsp; The king
+would eat alone with her; she received expensive gifts; she began to
+dress in the most fashionable and expensive gowns; the king paid her
+gambling debts since Anne, like most courtiers, enjoyed cards and dice.
+  </p>
+  <p>The king was not too outlandish at first; he had no desire to
+prejudice the pope against his case by flaunting a new love.&nbsp; But
+as the delays mounted, and rumors of his new love spread, Henry
+realized there was no purpose in hiding the truth.&nbsp; By 1530, Anne
+was openly honored by the king at court.&nbsp; She was accorded
+precedence over all other ladies, and she sat with the king at
+banquets and hunts while Katharine was virtually ignored.&nbsp; The
+pretense of his first marriage was allowed to continue; Katharine
+continued to personally mend his shirts and send him gifts and
+notes.&nbsp; But it was an untenable situation.&nbsp; It grated on both
+women.&nbsp; Anne perhaps taxed the king with it.&nbsp; To placate her,
+she was titled marquess of Pembroke on 4 September 1532 at Windsor
+Castle; she wore a beautiful crimson gown and her hair hung
+loose.&nbsp; Now elevated to the peerage in her own right, she had
+wealth and lands of her own.&nbsp; But when she accompanied him to
+France on a state visit a short while later, the ladies of the French
+court refused to meet with her.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>It is believed that her elevation to the peerage marked the
+physical consummation of Anne and Henry's relationship.&nbsp; She would
+give birth to <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>
+just a year later, and there were rumors of a secret marriage in late
+1532.&nbsp; It is possible that she became pregnant after just a few
+months and a second, legitimate wedding became a necessity.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p> 
+  <img src="boleyn_files/boleyn3sepiatinged.jpg" alt="sepia-tinged sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger" align="left" border="0" height="344" width="216">The king had his fondest wish within his
+grasp.&nbsp; Anne was pregnant with his long-awaited son, or so he
+thought, and this son must be legitimate.&nbsp; He could no longer wait
+upon the pope.&nbsp; Henry rejected the authority of the Holy See and
+Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, annulled his marriage to
+Katharine.&nbsp; Henry and Anne married again in January 1533 in a
+small ceremony.&nbsp; But though they were now husband and wife, few
+recognized the fact.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne1.html">Her
+coronation</a> was a lavish affair; the king spared no expense.&nbsp;
+But the people of London were noticeably unimpressed.&nbsp; They cried
+out 'HA! HA!' mockingly as tapestries decorated with Henry and Anne's
+entwined initials passed by.&nbsp; Henry asked, 'How liked you the look
+of the City?'&nbsp; Anne replied, 'Sir, I liked the City well enough -
+but I saw a great many caps on heads, and heard but few tongues.'&nbsp;
+  </p>
+  <p>And so her coronation was yet another reminder of her complete
+dependency upon the king.</p>
+  <p>Anne enjoyed her triumph as much as she could.&nbsp; She ordered
+new blue and purple livery for her servants and set about replacing
+Katharine's badge of pomegranates with her own falcon symbol.&nbsp; She
+chose as her motto, 'The Most Happy', in stark contrast to her
+predecessor.&nbsp; Katharine had been 'Humble and Loyal'; Henry's
+mother, Elizabeth of York had chosen 'Humble and Reverent'.&nbsp; But
+humility was not a marked characteristic of Anne Boleyn.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>She was pious, though not as rigid and inflexible as Katharine of
+Aragon.&nbsp; Anne's sympathies naturally lay with the progressive
+thought now challenging Catholic orthodoxy; with Henry's rejection of the papacy and his
+creation of a new Church of England, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/faq.html#Eleven-b">the
+Reformation</a> had come to England.&nbsp; It was not as revolutionary
+as Luther's movement in Germany.&nbsp; Henry actually remained a devout
+Catholic, only denying what he now regarded as the illegitimate
+authority of the papacy.&nbsp; Anne knew that her marriage and future
+children would never be recognized as legitimate by Catholic
+Europe.&nbsp; She had to support the new church, otherwise she was no more than 
+  the king's mistress.</p>
+  <p>And this new emphasis upon debating even the most esoteric bits of
+theology appealed to her nature.&nbsp; She was always curious and open
+to new ideas; she never blindly accepted<img alt="The above portrait is of Anne Boleyn, painted by Lucas Horenbout; dated 1525-27.  Sir Roy Strong identified the portrait.  Anne wears a necklace with her falcon badge." src="boleyn_files/boleynstrong.jpg" align="right" height="175" width="175"> anything.&nbsp; But this is not to deny her
+deep faith.&nbsp; As queen, she was close friends with Thomas Cranmer
+and she also sponsored various religious books.&nbsp; She had none of
+the hard-fought pragmatism of her daughter, 
+  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>.&nbsp; Religious faith was a
+vital part of Anne's life, as it was for every person in the 16th
+century.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>She entered confinement for the birth of her first child on 26
+August 1533.&nbsp; The child was born on 7 September 1533.&nbsp; The
+physicians and astrologers had been mistaken; it was not a
+prince.&nbsp; But the healthy baby girl called Elizabeth was not the
+disappointment most assumed, nor did she immediately cause her mother's
+downfall.&nbsp; The birth had been very easy and quick.&nbsp; 'There
+was good speed in the deliverance and bringing forth,' Anne wrote to
+Lord Cobham that very day.&nbsp; The queen recovered quickly.&nbsp;
+Henry had every reason to believe that strong princes would
+follow.&nbsp; It was only when Anne miscarried two sons that he began
+to question the validity of his second marriage.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Elizabeth's christening was a grand affair, though the king did
+not attend.&nbsp; This fact was much remarked-upon, but Henry
+confounded all by his continuing affection for Anne.&nbsp; He also
+promptly declared Elizabeth his heir, thus according her precedence
+over her 17 year old half-sister, 
+  <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/mary1.html">Princess Mary</a>.&nbsp; Anne could
+breathe a sigh of relief, recover, and become pregnant again.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Immediately after Elizabeth's christening, Henry wrote to Mary and
+demanded that she relinquish her title of Princess of Wales.&nbsp; The
+title belonged to his heiress.&nbsp; He also demanded that she
+acknowledge the validity of his new marriage and legitimacy of her
+half-sister.&nbsp; But Mary could be as obstinate as her mother; she refused.&nbsp; Enraged, Henry evicted Mary from her
+home, the manor Beaulieu, so he could give it to Anne's brother, George.&nbsp; In December, 
+  she was moved into Elizabeth's household
+under the care of Lady Anne Shelton, a sister of Anne's father.&nbsp;
+It was an understandably miserable time for Mary.&nbsp; When told to pay her
+respects to the baby Princess, she said that she knew of no Princess of
+England but herself and burst into tears.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Henry was infuriated and Anne encouraged the estrangement.&nbsp;
+Her daughter's status depended upon Mary remaining out of favor.&nbsp;
+In the two and a half years she lived after Elizabeth's birth, Anne
+proved herself a devoted mother.&nbsp; Soon after the birth, Elizabeth
+had to be moved from London, for purposes of health; London was rife
+with a variety of illnesses - sweating sickness, smallpox, and
+plague.&nbsp; Elizabeth and Mary were sent to Hatfield.&nbsp; Both
+Henry and Anne visited their daughter often, occasionally taking her
+back with them to Greenwich or the palace at Eltham.&nbsp; During these
+visits, Mary was kept alone in her room.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p> <img alt="portrait of Henry VIII" src="boleyn_files/henry8boleyn.jpg" align="left" border="2" height="186" width="150">There are account books and
+letters which reveal certain facts about Elizabeth's early
+childhood:&nbsp; bills for an orange satin gown and russet velvet
+kirtle, for the king's heir had to be fashionably dressed; a letter in
+late 1535, after her second birthday, from the wet nurse asking
+permission to wean her; a plan of study in classical languages, for
+Anne was determined her daughter would be as educated as Mary.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The conflict with Mary dominated a great deal of Henry and Anne's
+thoughts.&nbsp; In January 1534, the king's new chief minister, Thomas
+Cromwell, went to visit Mary at Hatfield.&nbsp; He urged her to
+renounce her title and warned her that her behavior would lead to her
+ruin.&nbsp; Mary replied that she simply wanted her father's blessing
+and the honor of kissing his hand.&nbsp; When Cromwell chastised her,
+she left the room.&nbsp; Mary, and indeed most of England, believed
+Anne to be the cause of Henry's disgust with his eldest child.&nbsp; In
+truth, Henry had far more to do with it than Anne; this was proven
+after Anne's execution.&nbsp; Mary believed that she would regain her
+favor with the wicked stepmother out of the way but she was proven
+terribly wrong.&nbsp; Eventually, under threat of her life, she <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">wrote the letter</a>
+her father had long desired.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>He and Anne also tried a gentler course with Mary; their goal was
+to show that she had brought Henry's displeasure upon herself and that
+he and Anne were quite willing - under reasonable conditions - to
+receive her.&nbsp; At their next visit to Hatfield, Anne arranged to
+see her stepdaughter.&nbsp; She invited Mary to come to court and
+'visit me as Queen.'&nbsp; Mary responded with a cruel insult - 'I know
+no Queen in England but my mother.&nbsp; But if you, Madam, as my
+father's mistress, will intercede for me with him, I should be
+grateful.'&nbsp; Anne did not lose her temper; she pointed out the
+absurdity of the request and repeated her offer.&nbsp; Mary then
+refused to answer and Anne left in a rage.&nbsp; From then on, she made
+no attempts to gain Mary's friendship.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The problem with Mary highlights the untenable positions Anne and
+Elizabeth occupied in English politics.&nbsp; Many of Henry's subjects
+did not know who to call Princess, who was the rightful heir, and who
+was the true wife.&nbsp; Katharine of Aragon lived on, still calling
+herself Queen, and Mary, encouraged by the spiteful Imperial ambassador
+Eustace Chapuys, still called herself Princess.&nbsp; Furthermore,
+Chapuys, who openly despised Anne, told Mary that Anne was planning to
+have her murdered.&nbsp; It was a terrible lie but one that Mary, in
+her hysterical state, was inclined to believe.&nbsp; When word came
+that she and Elizabeth's household was moving from Hatfield to The
+More, she refused to go.&nbsp; She believed she would be moved and
+quietly murdered.&nbsp; Guards had to actually seize her and throw her
+into her litter.&nbsp; Her distress naturally made her ill.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Elizabeth, meanwhile, was too young to notice any of this.&nbsp;
+But such events helped cement the lifelong hatred Mary would have for
+her half-sister.&nbsp; Her Spanish friends continued to spread rumors
+about Anne and Elizabeth, saying the infant princess was physically
+deformed and monstrous in appearance.&nbsp; To dispel this, in April
+1534, Henry showed the naked infant to several continental
+ambassadors.&nbsp; In that same month, Anne announced she was once
+again pregnant.&nbsp; Nothing could have pleased Henry more.&nbsp; She
+may have had a miscarriage in February for there were rumors she was
+pregnant in January but nothing came of it; given the heightened
+circumstances, it is unlikely she could have hidden her
+condition.&nbsp; Even a suspicion of pregnancy was sure to become
+gossip.&nbsp; But the main source of this miscarriage is Chapuys,
+hardly an impartial observer.&nbsp; At any rate, she was definitely
+pregnant again in April 1534.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The elated king took his wife to the medieval palace at Eltham;
+there, they sent for the princess Elizabeth.&nbsp; Henry was often seen
+carrying her about and playing with her.&nbsp; The king<img src="boleyn_files/boleynsketch2.jpg" alt="sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger" align="right" border="0" height="206" width="165"> and queen soon returned to Greenwich and
+then Henry left on a progress, leaving Anne at the palace.&nbsp; This
+was probably out of concern for her health and lends some credence to
+the belief she miscarried in February.&nbsp; If she had, Henry would
+show special concern for her health, and this he did.&nbsp; He was
+supposed to meet Francis I of France in June at Calais to sign a treaty
+but decided not to, writing that Katharine and Mary, 'bearing no small
+grudge against his most entirely beloved Queen Anne, might perchance in
+his absence take occasion to practice matters of no small peril to his
+royal person, realm, and subjects.'&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>His extra attention to Anne did not help her health.&nbsp; In
+September 1534, she miscarried a six-month-old fetus; it was old enough
+for features to be discerned - it was a boy.&nbsp; Henry was bitterly
+disappointed.&nbsp; Anne was likewise.&nbsp; She was also angry for
+Henry had begun a casual affair that summer.&nbsp; She reproached him
+and Henry replied, 'You have good reason to be content with what I have
+done for you - and I would not do it again, if the thing were to
+begin.&nbsp; Consider from what you have come.'&nbsp; The scene was
+furious and overheard by her attendants.&nbsp; But it was a passing
+storm.&nbsp; Henry was already tired of his new mistress and, within
+days, Chapuys was sadly writing to Charles V of Henry's continued
+affection.&nbsp; But there were signs that things were not progressing
+smoothly.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>&nbsp;For example, Henry had hoped to cement his relationship with
+Francis I by betrothing Elizabeth to Francis's son, the Duc
+d'Angouleme.&nbsp; After Anne suffered two miscarriages, as the French
+ambassador reported to Francis, the French king grew wary of such a
+betrothal.&nbsp; To him, it must have seemed that Anne's position was
+weakening; after all, Henry had dismissed one wife because she had no
+sons - would he do the same to Anne?&nbsp; And, if he did, then what
+good was a marriage to Elizabeth?&nbsp; Of course, it was in France's
+interests to promote Anne for Katharine of Aragon and her daughter were
+Charles V's pawns.&nbsp; But his doubts highlight the
+instability of Anne's position.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>This undoubtedly affected her mental and physical health.&nbsp;
+Henry was never the mercenary adulterer of legend.&nbsp; In fact, he
+was remarkably conventional in his sexual appetites, unlike his French
+rival.&nbsp; Any affairs would have been widely reported and yet,
+during his long marriage to Katharine of Aragon, there were just a
+handful of mistresses.&nbsp; He enjoyed being around attractive
+women.&nbsp; He was flirtatious and would joke with them, compliment
+them, but only rarely did he enter into a physical relationship.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>But for Anne, any occasional fling was devastating, especially if
+it followed upon her miscarriage.&nbsp; Such behavior was said to
+indicate his displeasure with her; this she could not afford.&nbsp;
+They were occasionally estranged and the effect was to increase her
+already-noticeable anxiety.&nbsp; In late 1534 Anne, accompanied by the
+duke of Suffolk, her uncle Norfolk, and other courtiers, visited
+Richmond Palace, where both Elizabeth and Mary resided.&nbsp; Anne
+entered her daughter's rooms only to realize that the two dukes had
+left her.&nbsp; They were paying court to Mary and remained with her
+until Anne had left.&nbsp; Still, this slight could be forgotten when
+the Treason Act was passed in November.&nbsp; It was now a capital
+crime to deny the legitimacy of her marriage or children.&nbsp; By
+December, she and Henry had made up yet again.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>A scandal occurred shortly thereafter which added further damage to Anne's 
+  reputation.&nbsp; Her sister, Mary, who had been Henry's mistress years 
+  before, married Sir William Stafford without her family or the king's 
+  permission.&nbsp; Because Stafford was poor, Mary's father was angry and cut 
+  off her allowance.&nbsp; She appealed to the king and Anne but they would not 
+  help.&nbsp; (Mary did not attend court during Anne's reign, since her presence 
+  would have been an embarrassment for the king and queen.)</p>
+  <p> <img alt="portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/anne2.jpg" align="left" border="0" height="194" width="139">Always fascinated with rumors surrounding his
+English 'brother', Francis I decided to hedge his bets in the mercurial
+Tudor court.&nbsp; In other words, he would remain friendly with Anne
+and also with Mary Tudor.&nbsp; And so he instructed his new
+ambassador, Admiral Chabot, to ignore Anne when he arrived at
+court.&nbsp; Chabot was received by Henry and two days passed without
+any mention of the queen.&nbsp; Henry asked if Chabot wanted to visit
+her.&nbsp; The ambassador replied, 'As it pleases Your Highness' and
+then asked permission to visit Mary.&nbsp; Henry refused, but Chabot
+made certain everyone knew of his request.&nbsp; He also told courtiers
+that Francis wanted to marry the Dauphin to Mary; when Henry reminded
+him of the union with Elizabeth, the ambassador said nothing.&nbsp;
+Still, Francis did enrage Charles V by acknowledging Elizabeth's
+legitimacy.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>It was a tedious and frightening dance for Anne.&nbsp; During the
+two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth, she was rarely secure,
+certain of her position and the king's affections.&nbsp; Her little
+daughter received every favor she could bestow; Anne insisted Henry
+favor Elizabeth because it strengthened her position.&nbsp; But she was
+surrounded by fair-weather friends who, at the slightest sign of
+Henry's disfavor, ignored her.&nbsp; She only trusted her brother,
+George, whose wife, Jane Rochford, was a viper in their nest.&nbsp;
+Meanwhile, Henry was again flirting openly with another woman.&nbsp;
+This time it was Anne's cousin and lady-in-waiting, Madge
+Shelton.&nbsp; Anne still had influence over her husband, but knew only
+one way to make his favor permanent.&nbsp; She must bear a son.&nbsp;
+Henry would never dismiss the mother of his long-awaited heir.&nbsp;
+Her enemies would at last be silenced.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Meanwhile, Henry's health had begun to worsen.&nbsp; The first
+signs of the illness which would kill him appeared (occluded sinus on
+his leg).&nbsp; Headaches became frequent and severe.&nbsp; The king
+was a hypochondriac.&nbsp; Now unable to indulge his love of sports, he
+instead indulged his fear of pain and illness.&nbsp; And he was
+frequently impotent.&nbsp; He was in his mid-forties and increasingly
+obese; this, combined with his other ailments, made his continued
+virility questionable.&nbsp; Certainly his 'mistresses' did not
+conceive.&nbsp; But the continued lack of an heir and Anne's
+miscarriages must have reminded him of Katharine.&nbsp; How could it
+not?&nbsp; Like most of his contemporaries, the king blamed his wife
+when she did not conceive or carry to term.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>And, like Francis I, Thomas Cromwell - that influential and
+brilliant man - was keeping his options open as well.&nbsp; He visited
+Mary and was rumored to promise support for her reinstatement.&nbsp;
+Anne was terrified at this loss of her one-time supporter who was also
+the king's most trusted advisor.&nbsp; But Anne had one last chance,
+and in June 1535, became pregnant again.&nbsp; She lost that child as
+well, in January 1536; she was reported to have said, 'I have
+miscarried of my savior.'&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>When her destruction came, it was rapid and unbelievable.&nbsp;
+Henry had always been one to plot against people while he pretended
+affection.&nbsp; Anne suffered the same fate as Katharine.&nbsp; She
+knew he was dissatisfied with her but he maintained their lifestyle
+together.&nbsp; And all the while, he was seeking the best way to
+destroy her.&nbsp; Katharine of Aragon died in January as well, just a
+few days before Anne's miscarriage.&nbsp; These events, taken together,
+pushed Henry into action.&nbsp; While Katharine had lived, most of
+Europe, and many Englishmen, had regarded her as his rightful wife, not
+Anne.&nbsp; Now he was rid of Katharine; if he were to rid himself of
+Anne, he could marry again - and this third marriage would never be
+tainted by the specter of bigamy.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Henry's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/prianne2.html">decision
+to thoroughly destroy Anne</a> baffled even her enemies.&nbsp; There
+was a possible way out which would spare Anne's life.&nbsp; Henry had
+admitted an affair with her sister,<img alt="an 18th century portrait of Anne Boleyn" src="boleyn_files/anne3.jpg" align="right" border="2" height="194" width="144"> Mary.&nbsp; He could have argued that was as
+damning as Katharine's marriage to his brother.&nbsp; But he chose a
+more direct route.&nbsp; He had her arrested, charged with adultery,
+witchcraft, and incest; the charges were ludicrous even to her
+enemies.&nbsp; Her brother George was arrested as well.&nbsp; His
+despised wife, Jane Rochford, testified about an incestuous love
+affair.&nbsp; Whether anyone believed her was irrelevant.&nbsp; Henry
+VIII wanted Anne convicted and killed.&nbsp; George would also lose his
+life, as did three of their friends.&nbsp; Only one had confessed to
+the charge, and that was under torture; it was still enough to convict
+them all.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>As queen of England, Anne was tried by her peers; the main charge
+was adultery, and this was an act of treason for a queen.&nbsp; No
+member of the nobility would help her; her craven uncle Norfolk
+pronounced the death sentence.&nbsp; Poor Henry Percy, her first love,
+swooned during the trial and had to be carried from the room.&nbsp; As
+a concession to her former position, she was not beheaded by a clumsy
+axe.&nbsp; A skilled swordsman was brought over from France.&nbsp; She
+was assured that there would be little pain; she replied, with typical
+spirit, 'I have heard that the executioner is very good.&nbsp; And I
+have a little neck.'</p>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <blockquote>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p><font size="4">'You have chosen me from low estate to be your
+queen and companion, far beyond my desert or desire; if, then, you
+found me worthy of such honor, good your grace, let not any light fancy
+or bad counsel of my enemies withdraw your princely favor from me;
+neither let that stain - that unworthy stain - of a disloyal heart
+towards your good grace ever cast so foul a blot on me, and on the
+infant princess your daughter.' </font><b>&nbsp; </b><i><font size="-1">from Anne Boleyn's <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter10.html">last letter</a>
+to King Henry VIII, 1536</font></i>;<i><font size="2"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter10.html">its authenticity
+is debated</a>.</font></i></p>
+    </blockquote>
+  </blockquote>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <p>She had prayed for exile, to end her days in a nunnery, but now
+faced a more tragic fate.&nbsp; She met it with bravery and wit.&nbsp;
+She was brought to the scaffold at 8 o'clock in the morning on 19 May
+1536.&nbsp; It was a heretofore unknown spectacle, the first public
+execution of an English queen.&nbsp; Anne, who had defended herself so
+ably at her trial, chose her last words carefully:&nbsp; 'Good
+Christian people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law,
+and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing
+against it.&nbsp; I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak
+anything of that, whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray
+God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler
+nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a
+good, a gentle and sovereign lord.&nbsp; And if any person will meddle
+of my cause, I require them to judge the best.&nbsp; And thus I take my
+leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to
+pray for me.&nbsp; O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my
+soul.'&nbsp; She was then blindfolded and knelt at the block.&nbsp; She
+repeated several times, 'To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord Jesu
+receive my soul.'&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>It was a sardonic message to the king.&nbsp; Even now he waited
+impatiently to hear the Tower cannon mark Anne's death.&nbsp; He wished
+to marry Anne's lady-in-waiting, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/seymour.html">Jane
+Seymour</a>.&nbsp; They wed ten days after the execution.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Elizabeth was just three and a half when her mother died.&nbsp;
+She was a precocious child, though; when her governess visited her just
+days after the execution, <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/eliz.html">Elizabeth</a>
+asked, 'Why, Governor, how hap it yesterday Lady Princess, and today
+but Lady Elizabeth?'&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Anne was buried in an old arrow box since no coffin was
+provided.&nbsp; But the box was too short; her head was tucked beside
+her.&nbsp; The remains were taken to St Peter ad Vincula, the church of
+the Tower of London.&nbsp; It was later rumored that her few remaining
+friends smuggled her body to a more suitable grave and she is buried
+under a plain slab in a Norfolk church.&nbsp; The church is said to be
+haunted.</p>
+  <p align="center">&nbsp;</p>
+  <p align="center"><font size="4">'And if any person will meddle of my
+cause, I require them to judge the best.'&nbsp; <br>
+  </font><i><font size="-1">from Anne Boleyn's speech at her execution</font></i>
+  </p>
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+    <center>
+    <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
+Wives main page</a></font> <br>
+    <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
+Tudor England</a></font></p>
+    <p><font size="-1"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
+    </center>
+  </blockquote>
+</blockquote>
+<p align="center"><font size="2">This page receives 15,000+ unique visitors per 
+month.</font></p>
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+  <meta name="page_topic" content="Anne of Cleves fourth wife of King Henry VIII">
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+  <meta name="author" content="Marilee Mongello">
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+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-us"><title>Anne of Cleves: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</title>
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+
+<body alink="#0000ff" link="#0000ff" vlink="#0000ff">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" height="634" width="100%">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="1" valign="top" width="50%"></td>
+      <td height="1" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="3" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="3" width="50%">
+      <p align="center"><font size="4">'My Lord, if it were not to
+satisfy the world, and My Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
+for none earthly thing.' </font> <br>
+      <i><font size="-1">Henry VIII to Cromwell on his wedding day to
+Anne of Cleves</font></i> <br>
+&nbsp; </p>
+      </td>
+      <td height="3" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" valign="top" width="50%">
+      <p align="center">&nbsp;</p>
+      <p align="center">
+      <img src="cleves_files/clevescardinal.gif" border="0" height="95" width="352"></p>
+      <p align="center">
+      <img src="cleves_files/clevesholbein2.jpg" alt="miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger" border="0" height="325" width="331"></p>
+      <p align="center"><i><font size="2">miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves 
+      by Hans Holbein the Younger</font></i></p>
+      <p align="left"> <b><br>Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of King
+Henry VIII; it was a very brief marriage, to the astonishment of all
+observers but the relief of both spouses.&nbsp; Henry infamously
+referred to his bride as a 'Flanders mare' and told courtiers and
+ambassadors that he could not perform his husbandly duties because of
+Anne's appearance.&nbsp; Anne's reaction to Henry's physical charms was
+not recorded, but she agreed to an annulment very quickly and remained
+in England for the rest of her life.&nbsp; Henry was grateful for her
+cooperation and granted her a generous income and several homes,
+including Hever Castle.&nbsp; Anne enjoyed an independent lifestyle
+denied most women, often visiting Henry's court as an honored
+guest.&nbsp; Her fondness for English ale and gambling were her only
+vices.&nbsp; Along with her successor as Henry's wife, Catherine
+Howard, Anne remains a mysterious figure about whom too little is
+known.&nbsp; Had she and Henry remained married and had children, the
+course of English history might have changed dramatically.&nbsp; But
+the mysteries of physical attraction denied Anne her place on the
+throne, ended the brilliant career of Thomas Cromwell, and thrust the
+king into the arms of his ill-fated fifth queen, Catherine Howard.</b> </p>
+      <p align="left">&nbsp;</p>
+      <blockquote>
+        <p><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/cleves.html#Biography">
+        <font size="4">Read the biography of Anne of Cleves.</font></a></p>
+        <p><b><br>
+Primary Sources</b> <br>
+Read <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letters.html">letters
+written by Anne</a>. <br>
+        <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/pricleve.html">Anne of
+Cleves meets Henry VIII for the first time</a>, 1540</p>
+      </blockquote>
+      <blockquote>
+        <p>Visit <a href="http://www.marileecody.com/images.html">Tudor
+England: Images</a> to view portraits of Anne. </p>
+        <p>Test your knowledge of Anne's life at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor1.html">Tudor Quizzes</a>.</p>
+        <p><br>
+        </p>
+        <p><font size="2"><b>Interact<br>
+        </b>Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at <a href="http://ladiesallfanlist.cjb.net/">Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII</a>.<br>
+        <a href="http://tudorhistory.org/lists/list.html"> Tudor Talk </a>&nbsp;This
+email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.<br>
+        <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Reign_of_the_Tudors_rpg/">Reign
+of the Tudors</a>&nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.</font></p>
+      </blockquote>
+      </td>
+      <td height="610" width="25%"><br>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+  <blockquote>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p><font size="4"><br>
+&nbsp;</font></p>
+      <p><a name="Biography"></a><font size="4">'So she came to
+Greenwich that night, and was received as queen.&nbsp; And the next
+day, being Sunday, the king's grace kept a great court at Greenwich,
+where his grace with the queen offered at mass, richly dressed.&nbsp;
+And on Twelfth Night, which was Tuesday, the king's majesty was married
+to the said queen Anne solemnly, in her closet at Greenwich, and his
+grace and she went publicly in procession that day, she having a rich
+coronet of stone and pearls set with rosemary on her hair, and a gown
+of rich cloth of silver, richly hung with stones and pearls, with all
+her ladies and gentlewomen following her, which was a goodly sight to
+behold.' </font>&nbsp;<i><font size="2"> Anne of Cleves marries King
+Henry VIII, 1540</font></i><br>
+&nbsp;</p>
+    </blockquote>
+  </blockquote>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <p><b>Biography</b> <br>
+Anne of Cleves was Henry VIII's fourth wife, though not his first
+choice for the role by far.&nbsp; His ambassadors searched out all the
+eligible heiresses of Europe and discovered their king had a very nasty
+marital reputation.&nbsp; The beautiful Christina of Milan was told of
+the king's interest and wittily replied that if she had two heads she
+would risk it, but she had only one; Marie de Guise, who would later
+wed his nephew the King of Scots, replied much the same.&nbsp; The
+tragic tale of his second queen, Anne Boleyn, had kept European gossips
+busy for three years now.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The king's poor and disrespectful treatment of his first wife (he
+was rumored to have bullied Katharine of Aragon to an unhappy death)
+and the quick end of his third (in his desperation for a healthy male
+heir, the king was rumored to have ordered Jane Seymour cut open,
+mangled and killed) only contributed to his low reputation. </p>
+  <p>One wouldn't think a king would have too difficult a time finding
+a wife, but Henry VIII - who defied his contemporaries in so many other
+ways - did so in this respect as well. </p>
+  <p>In the end, it was religion which brought Anne of Cleves to
+England.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Henry had sought out Catholic princesses like Marie de Guise and
+his fifth wife would be a Catholic as well.&nbsp; Despite the Henrician
+'reformation', England and its monarch remained a Catholic nation,
+albeit one in which supreme authority resided within the king rather
+than the pope.&nbsp; But Henry's influential advisor, Thomas Cromwell,
+wanted England to ally herself with a Protestant nation that also
+rejected papal authority.&nbsp; Cromwell recognized the inexorable
+Catholic decline which was only just beginning to occur; the king's
+assumption of supreme authority had merely been the first and most
+spectacular opening shot in a new religious war.&nbsp; Raised to be a
+churchman until his brother's untimely death and deeply interested in
+theological debate, Henry VIII didn't appreciate the Pandora's Box of
+change he had opened.&nbsp; Cromwell, younger and more philosophically
+attuned to the attitudes of the rising middle class, did appreciate
+it.&nbsp; And he approved of it.&nbsp; The marriage to Anne of Cleves
+would openly ally England with a Protestant duchy, thus making the
+'reformation' even more settled. </p>
+  <p>Henry VIII's previous two marriages had been love matches; he had
+been quite independent in choosing women of his own court to
+marry.&nbsp; But this fourth marriage was necessarily a more diplomatic
+endeavor.&nbsp; In this, the king returned to the traditional role of
+kings searching for brides; he also understood that, since the Act of
+Supremacy in 1534, England stood dangerously isolated amongst the
+Catholic powers of Spain and France. </p>
+  <p>There was a gap of over two years between Jane Seymour's death in
+October 1537 and Anne of Cleves's arrival in England in late December
+1539.&nbsp; Romantics believe the king waited such a long while to
+marry again because he loved Jane so much.&nbsp; Whether he loved her
+or not is beside the point, though there is ample evidence that he
+did.&nbsp; Henry actually waited so long (and he did so quite
+impatiently) because marriage negotiations took an unexpectedly long
+time.&nbsp; He actually sent out instructions regarding the search for
+a new wife barely a month after Jane's death. </p>
+  <p>But the French princesses would not assemble for his perusal; they
+also made it clear they preferred other suitors.&nbsp;&nbsp; Likewise,
+other heiresses of Europe, some of which (like Christina of Milan) were
+related through tangled Hapsburg bloodlines to the king's first wife,
+Katharine of Aragon, avoided the English ambassadors.&nbsp; And always,
+busy with his paperwork and contacts throughout Europe, Cromwell sought
+to arrange a Protestant alliance. </p>
+  <p>During all of these negotiations, one must not forget the king's
+own views regarding his future wife.&nbsp; Henry was used to making his
+own decisions about the women in his life; he had high standards for
+female beauty and insisted his next wife be physically
+attractive.&nbsp; To that end, he told his ambassadors that no official
+overtures be made to certain ladies until he had approved of their
+looks.&nbsp; 'The thing touches me too near,' said the king, which was
+true enough but not the sort of thing kings were supposed to say.&nbsp;
+After all, he was not merely a man but a monarch; he was not supposed
+to marry for himself alone. </p>
+  <p>The ambassadors were often placed in embarrassing positions,
+commissioning portraits and sending back detailed descriptions of pock
+marks and hairstyles.&nbsp; Finally, the choices were narrowed down to
+four serious contenders - Marie de Guise, the widow of the duc de
+Longueville, was tall, beautiful and already proven in
+childbirth.&nbsp; As mentioned earlier, she chose the Scottish king
+James V.&nbsp; Henry then looked to her younger sister, but she also
+became otherwise engaged.&nbsp; Then there was the beautiful and
+intelligent Christina of Milan, just sixteen and one of the most
+sought-after heiresses of her generation.&nbsp; But the king of England
+was three times her age, fat and with a cruel reputation; she allowed
+herself to be painted by Holbein but did nothing to solve the problem
+of her being a great-niece of Katharine of Aragon.&nbsp; This
+impediment of affinity was a nice way to avoid the king of England. </p>
+  <p>The year of 1538 passed with no alliance.&nbsp; Henry had intended
+to use his fourth marriage as a balance between France and the Hapsburg
+empire.&nbsp; But it now seemed as if those two enemies might join
+forces against him in defense of the papal supremacy. </p>
+  <p>Suddenly Cromwell's moment had arrived.&nbsp; The fourth serious
+contender was the sister of the duke of Cleves.&nbsp; The duke was not
+a Protestant himself but was allied through marriage with Saxony and
+the league of Lutheran princes; he was also at odds with the Hapsburg
+emperor Charles V over the duchy of Gelderland.&nbsp; The duchy of
+Cleves might one day rival the Netherlands in terms of trade and
+strategic advantage.&nbsp; The king was persuaded to send his favorite
+court painter, Hans Holbein the Younger, to the German duchy.&nbsp;
+There he painted both Anne and her sister Amelia.&nbsp; Henry, who by
+this time was wearying of the endless rounds of negotiations (and whom
+Cromwell feared would soon turn to another English noblewoman), was
+interested in Anne.&nbsp; Negotiations began in earnest. </p>
+  <p>Anne was 24 years old, and had spent most of her life at the ducal
+court of Dusseldorf.&nbsp; She was well-educated in domestic skills but
+she was neither intellectual or flirtatious, both qualities the king
+admired.&nbsp; She had no musical skills, and music was one of Henry's
+passions, and no interest in books.&nbsp; On the trip to England, her
+escort (perhaps sensing disaster ahead) tried to teach her the king's
+favorite card games but Anne found them hopeless.&nbsp; It was not her
+fault, nor that of Henry VIII, but she was raised in a different
+country and, as things turned out, was not given time to acclimatize
+herself before the king rejected her.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>
+  <img alt="Holbein's betrothal portrait of Anne of Cleves" src="cleves_files/cleves-bio1.jpg" align="left" border="2" height="280" width="190">The issue of the betrothal portrait is the most fascinating part
+of this story.&nbsp; Holbein was a man of vast talent; his best
+portraits are simply astounding, beautifully composed and possessing
+great psychological insight.&nbsp; Look at the infamous portrait of
+Anne of Cleves to the left; it is clear that Holbein was more
+fascinated with the embroidery of her gown than with Anne's
+personality.&nbsp; Her eyes are downcast and her features lost beneath the ornate
+trappings of her dress and hood. </p>
+  <p>There has long been a rumor that Henry was so enraged with the
+work, believing that Holbein had deliberately duped him with a false
+portrait, that he fired the painter.&nbsp; But that is not true.&nbsp;
+At the time, there were a few remarks that she did not look as well as
+the portrait asserted, but this was not unlikely - she had arrived in
+England after a long journey, perhaps the sea air did not agree with
+her skin?&nbsp; Or perhaps nervousness over the impending marriage
+caused a change in her complexion.&nbsp; We cannot know.&nbsp; But we
+do know that Henry's ambassadors, only too aware of their master's
+wishes, allowed the portrait to be sent as a fair likeness of
+Anne.&nbsp; Would they have dared to mislead their monarch in such a
+way?&nbsp; It's not likely.&nbsp; Even Henry himself did not make much
+of the supposed difference between the painted and real Anne, aside
+from a comment to Cromwell that she was 'nothing so fair as she had
+been reported.'&nbsp; Often expectations can be idealistic, and that
+was possibly the case with Henry.&nbsp; Holbein continued to receive
+commissions from the English aristocracy before dying of plague in
+London in 1543. </p>
+  <p>What actually happened to drive Anne and Henry apart was a simple
+matter of attraction.&nbsp; Almost five hundred years later, we still
+don't understand why certain people are physically attracted to each
+other; it simply happens.&nbsp; And it didn't happen with Anne and
+Henry; in fact, quite the opposite occurred and the king was repulsed
+by her.&nbsp; Anne's feelings on the matter are not known but Henry was
+no longer the strong, athletic king of years past; various injuries had
+reduced his exercise but not his appetite.&nbsp; He was increasingly
+obese and subject to its attendant problems. </p>
+  <p>There were other reasons for the king to look askance at this new
+bride.&nbsp; The foreign crisis which had caused Cromwell to seek an
+alliance with the Protestant duchy had passed; France and Spain had
+returned to their old enmity.&nbsp; England was no longer threatened by
+the Catholic powers.&nbsp; Also, the dispute over Gelderland had become
+more serious and Henry was not eager to fight the suddenly genial
+Spanish in defense of Anne's brother.&nbsp; These issues were clear in
+mid-autumn 1539 but the marriage negotiations continued.&nbsp; By that
+point, they had a momentum of their own.&nbsp; A proxy marriage
+occurred and Anne left her home in late November.&nbsp; She reached
+Calais on 11 December; during the journey, she was addressed as Queen
+of England and treated accordingly.&nbsp; For a fortnight she waited at
+Calais until the weather settled.&nbsp; On 27 December she set out for
+Deal; it was a stormy crossing.&nbsp; It was on the first day of 1540
+that the king, so impatient to see his new bride, entered her rooms in
+disguise.&nbsp; The scene was recorded by the Imperial ambassador,
+Eustace Chapuys: </p>
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>And on New Years Day in the afternoon the king's grace with five
+of his privy chamber, being disguised with mottled cloaks with hoods so
+that they should not be recognized, came secretly to Rochester, and so
+went up into the chamber where the said Lady Anne was looking out of a
+window to see the bull-baiting which was going on in the courtyard, and
+suddenly he embraced and kissed her, and showed here a token which the
+king had sent her for New Year's gift, and she being abashed and not
+knowing who it was thanked him, and so he spoke with her.&nbsp; But she
+regarded him little, but always looked out the window.... and when the
+king saw that she took so little notice of his coming he went into
+another chamber and took off his cloak and came in again in a coat of
+purple velvet.&nbsp; And when the lords and knights saw his grace they
+did him reverence.... and then her grace humbled herself lowly to the
+king's majesty, and his grace saluted her again, and they talked
+together lovingly, and afterwards he took her by the hand and led her
+to another chamber where their graces amused themselves that night and
+on Friday until the afternoon.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+  <p><font size="-1">You can read the entire account at <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/pricleve.html">Primary Sources</a>.</font>
+  <br>
+  <br>
+Henry had so far managed to conceal his dislike of Anne.&nbsp; There is
+reason to believe it was not an immediate revulsion; it was only after
+their wedding night, which the king declared he could not consummate,
+that word spread of his physical distaste.&nbsp; When Cromwell asked
+him the next morning, 'How liked you the Queen?', Henry replied, 'I
+liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse.' </p>
+  <p>On Twelfth Night (6 January), they were married in the 'Queen's
+Closet' at Greenwich Palace, where Henry had also married his last
+bride.&nbsp; But the king was already looking for ways out.&nbsp; The
+very day of the ceremony, he told Cromwell, 'My Lord, if it were not to
+satisfy the world, and my Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
+for none earthly thing.'&nbsp; These were ominous words. </p>
+  <p>It is also possible that around this time, the king met <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/howard.html">Catherine
+Howard</a>, cousin of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, and now destined to
+be lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves when her Flemish attendants were
+dismissed.&nbsp; There is no doubt he felt an instant attraction to the
+lively, curvaceous Catherine.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Henry's nobility, which had long chafed against the power and
+influence of <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/citizens/cromwell.html">Cromwell</a>
+(much as they had against Wolsey), welcomed this opportunity to
+discredit him.&nbsp; The minister had pushed the king into the Cleves
+marriage, they reminded Henry gleefully.&nbsp; The king's wrath turned
+against his former friend and Cromwell was executed on 28 July 1540, a
+decision Henry almost instantly regretted.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>And so four things pushed Henry towards an annulment - his dislike
+of Anne, foreign policy changes, his attraction to Catherine Howard,
+and his courtiers' hatred of Cromwell. </p>
+  <p>In the few days between the first meeting and the wedding,
+Cromwell and the king had found a potential way out, though the
+ceremony continued as planned.&nbsp; In the mid-1530s, Anne had briefly
+been engaged to Francis, duke of Lorraine.&nbsp; The English had not
+explored the issue too much, merely asking the government of Cleves if
+negotiations had ended.&nbsp; Now they looked more closely, with the
+king waiting impatiently for the right response.&nbsp; They suddenly
+discovered there was no dispensation from the precontract; Anne was
+still officially betrothed to Francis.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>The ambassadors from Cleves were not unaware of Henry's
+intent.&nbsp; They struggled to find the right documents but, on 26
+February 1540, all they could produce was a report in their archives
+which stated that negotiations with Lorraine 'were not going to take
+their natural course.'&nbsp; No actual papers of dispensation could be
+produced since they did not exist.&nbsp; Thus Henry's marriage to Anne
+of Cleves was legally invalid from the start.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>This is one of the more ironic moments in Henry's checkered
+marital career.&nbsp; For once, his decision to end a marriage was
+legally valid and acceptable to all. </p>
+  <p>Meanwhile, the king made certain comments regarding Anne's body
+and virtue which reveal him in a less than gentlemanly light.&nbsp; He
+told Anthony Denny, a member of the Privy Chamber, that she had
+'breasts so slack and other parts of body in such sort that [he]
+somewhat suspected her virginity.'&nbsp; He further told his court
+physicians of the 'hanging of her breasts and looseness of her
+flesh.'&nbsp; Clearly, consummation of the marriage would not
+occur.&nbsp; The king bravely slept in the same bed at least every
+other night, yet he reported a month later that Anne 'was still as good
+a Maid.... as ever her Mother bare her.'&nbsp; This contradiction - she
+was not a virgin, yet was - was never mentioned. </p>
+  <p>What did Anne think of all this controversy?&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>Luckily for her, she had only a small knowledge of English and
+even less knowledge of the physical relationship between a man and
+wife.&nbsp; Her English ladies were astounded by her innocence.&nbsp;
+'When he [Henry] comes to bed, he kisses me and taketh me by the hand,
+and biddeth me 'Goodnight, sweetheart,' and in the morning, kisses me,
+and biddeth me, 'Farewell, darling.'&nbsp; Is this not enough?' asked
+Anne.&nbsp; No, she was told emphatically, it most certainly was not. </p>
+  <p>Anne's ignorance casts a bad light on her mother, Duchess Maria,
+but it served to protect her feelings in England.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>In the end, she ruled as queen for just four months; her last
+official appearance as the royal consort was during the May Day
+celebrations.&nbsp; She was never crowned, though even if the king had
+wished it, he could not have afforded such a ceremony.&nbsp; During
+those months, the Catholic nobility pushed their advantage against the
+Protestant Cromwell.&nbsp; The minister was too Lutheran for the king's
+taste.&nbsp; Likewise, the Catholics encouraged the flirtations of
+young Catherine Howard, also a Catholic and the duke of Norfolk's
+niece.&nbsp; Too young and ill-educated to be aware of how others used
+her as a pawn, she happily danced before the king and accepted his
+gifts.&nbsp; She was granted lands in April and the next month received
+rich gifts of fabric and jewelry.&nbsp; There is every possibility
+Catherine consummated her relationship with the king in May.&nbsp; How
+else can we explain the sudden race to rid himself of Anne? </p>
+  <p>The investigation into her precontract with Lorraine had been
+hastily done in January and February but for two months afterwards, the
+king merely lamented his fate.&nbsp; Parliament even confirmed Anne's
+dowry in April.&nbsp; But suddenly in May there was a fierce new
+determination to annul the marriage; the king was no longer content to
+complain.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>It is possible, and was rumored, that Henry had slept with
+Catherine and consequently there was a chance she was pregnant.&nbsp;
+Another male heir was never far from Henry's mind.&nbsp; He was also
+deeply in love with his 'Rose without a Thorn', a somewhat pathetic
+attraction between an elderly (the king was almost 49 years old) man
+and a very young woman.&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>And so Anne had to go.&nbsp; She succumbed to the inevitable with
+surprising grace.&nbsp; Perhaps she was leery of the royal temper, or<img alt="engraving of Anne of Cleves, after Holbein" src="cleves_files/cleves-bio2.jpg" align="right" border="2" height="218" width="154"> remembered the king's marital
+history, or she simply didn't care.&nbsp; Henry was very
+grateful.&nbsp; If she had not cooperated....&nbsp; He knew, from the
+example of Katharine of Aragon, what could happen if a queen fought an
+annulment.&nbsp; He had no desire to alienate Cleves or engage in
+another lengthy legal and theological dispute.&nbsp; The king declared
+the marriage had not been consummated and, in any case, it was invalid
+from the start.&nbsp; Would Anne agree? </p>
+  <p>She did agree, most readily.&nbsp; She was shocked at first by the
+news; the king's representatives visited her at Richmond Palace, where
+she had gone to escape the threat of plague.&nbsp; They brought an
+interpreter so there would be no misunderstanding.&nbsp; For her part,
+Anne quickly grasped the situation.&nbsp; She had no advisers and the
+king had already executed one wife and harassed another to death.&nbsp;
+Certainly she enjoyed the role of queen, was more fluent in English and
+had taken a liking to her new country; even the people cheered her on
+the occasional public ride between palaces.&nbsp; But did she dare
+fight Henry?&nbsp; Of course not. </p>
+  <p>The king's servants wrote that she was 'content always with your
+Majesty', thus accepting Henry's judgment, and in her <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter12.html">letter of</a><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter12.html"> submission</a>
+she signed herself 'daughter of Cleves', not 'queen of England'.&nbsp;
+She agreed the marriage had never been consummated and signed all
+necessary documents.&nbsp; For his part, Henry was now prepared to be
+generous.&nbsp; Anne was to enjoy precedence over all the ladies in
+England, except the Queen and the king's daughters.&nbsp; She was to be
+known as the king's 'good sister' and received a very nice settlement
+of manors and estates, some of which belonged to Cromwell.&nbsp; This
+guaranteed her an income of 3000 pds a year, making her one of the
+wealthiest women in England.&nbsp; All this depended upon her remaining
+in England, and this Anne was more than willing to do.&nbsp; 'The
+King's highness whom I cannot have as a husband is nevertheless a most
+kind, loving and friendly father and brother,' she wrote to her
+brother.&nbsp; Why should she return home in ignominy, dependent upon
+her brother's generosity, when she could remain in England and live a
+comfortable, independent life? </p>
+  <p>Anne was perhaps as content with the arrangement as Henry.&nbsp;
+She grew to enjoy English ale and gambling; she spent large sums on
+gowns; she visited with the king's children and occasionally the king
+himself.&nbsp; She was heard to remark that she was more attractive
+than Katharine Parr, to whom the king's attention turned in 1543.&nbsp;
+In fact, upon Catherine Howard's execution in 1542, rumors circulated
+that perhaps the king would take back his former bride.&nbsp; The
+French ambassador was suitably impressed with Anne's handling of a
+delicate situation, observing that 'all her affairs could never make
+her utter a word by which one might suppose that she was
+discontented.'&nbsp; </p>
+  <p>These rumors were understandable enough; Anne occupied a nebulous
+place in English society, unmarried but wealthy and independent.&nbsp;
+She was not an heiress but still honored as a royal.&nbsp; She answered
+to no male authority but that of the king, and he did not choose to
+trouble her.&nbsp; For the rest of her life, rumors spread about her
+lifestyle.&nbsp; For Anne's part, she was content and happy and had
+little reason to be otherwise. </p>
+  <p>She made her last public appearance at Mary Tudor's coronation in
+1553, riding alongside the Princess Elizabeth.&nbsp; She died in 1557
+of a 'declining illness' and was buried with appropriate honor at
+Westminster Abbey.&nbsp; Her will is perhaps most representative of her
+kindly character.&nbsp; In it, she remembered gifts to everyone who had
+ever served her, no matter how humble or long ago. </p>
+  <p>Anne had chosen as her motto 'God send me well to keep' and it
+proved apt, though in a way few could have predicted.</p>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <center>
+  <p><font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/wives.html">to the Six
+Wives main page</a></font> <br>
+  <font size="-1"><a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor.html">to
+Tudor England</a></font></p>
+  <p><font size="-1"> <a href="http://englishhistory.net/tudor/primary.html">to Primary Sources</a></font></p>
+  </center>
+</blockquote>
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