Ignore:
Timestamp:
2011-05-11T15:53:06+12:00 (13 years ago)
Author:
sjm84
Message:

Removed a lot of unnecessary stuff from the source files in the demo collection

Location:
main/trunk/greenstone2/collect/demo/import
Files:
11 edited

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  • main/trunk/greenstone2/collect/demo/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm

    r2814 r24011  
    1414  </Description>
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    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    17 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    25 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    2625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Tecnology for International Development </P>
    2726<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
    28 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     27
    2928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
    30 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     29
    3130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
    32 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     31
    3332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
    34 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     33
    3534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.</P>
    36 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     35
    3736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Their is president of the Institute of Medicine.</P>
    3837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.</P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     38
    4039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies.</P>
    41 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     40
    4241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Staff support was funded by the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN-5538-G-SS-1023-00. </P>
    43 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     42
    4443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL ON MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
    45 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     44
    4645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Deputy Director General (Retired), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Chairman </P>
    4746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Senior Advisor to the President, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.</P>
    … …  
    6968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS, Professor and Curator, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    7069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL, Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA </P>
    71 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     70
    7271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
    73 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     72
    7473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Microlivestock Study Director and Scientific Editor </P>
    75 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     74
    7675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF</P>
    7776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
    … …  
    8079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH MOUZON, Senior Secretary</P>
    8180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN VREYENS, MUCIA Intern</P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     81
    8382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTRIBUTORS</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     83
    8584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals have made general contributions to the development of this book. All of the persons listed as research contacts in Appendix B also contributed - usually on one or two species that are their scientific specialty.</P>
    86 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     85
    8786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHIQ AHMAD, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan</P>
    8887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGEL C. ALCALA, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines</P>
    … …  
    227226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</P>
    228227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida, USA </P>
    229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    231 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     228
     229<B>
    232230<!--
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    237235  </Description>
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    239 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     237</B>
    240238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this report is to raise awareness of the potential of small livestock species and to stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development programs. It is geared particularly towards benefiting developing nations.</P>
    241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     239
    242240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Microlivestock" is a term we have coined for species that are inherently small, such as rabbits and poultry, as well as for breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs that are less than about half the size of the most common breeds. These miniature animals are seldom considered in the broad picture of livestock development, but they seem to have a promising future. Wherever land is scarce it seems reasonable to assume that, things being equal, small animals would be more attractive than large ones. And land for livestock is becoming increasingly scarce.</P>
    243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     241
    244242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this report we have emphasized multipurpose species with promise for small  holders. In some species, the promise is immediate; in others, it is long term, and much research must be undertaken before that promise can be realized or even understood.</P>
    245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     243
    246244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have included wild species that seem to have potential as future livestock. Some are threatened with extinction but are described here because their economic merits may be the key to acquiring support for their protection. Also we have highlighted rare breeds of domesticated species because the current tendency has been to concentrate on a small number of large breeds, and many potentially valuable breeds are becoming extinct through neglect.</P>
    247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     245
    248246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book was prepared after an intensive survey of more than 300 animal scientists in 80 countries. They suggested more than 150 species for inclusion. The staff then drafted chapters on about 40 species and these drafts were reviewed by more than 400 researchers worldwide. The thousands of resulting comments, corrections, and additions were integrated into the drafts. The panel then met to review the product, to select the most promising species, and to rework the chapters based on their own experiences and joint conclusions. The result is the current 35 chapters. Most of the case studies and accounts of innovations highlighted in the various sidebars were developed by the staff study director. </P>
    249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     247
    250248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, this study covers many species, but it by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included aquatic life. These decisions were arbitrary; perhaps invertebrates and aquatic species can be included in future volumes.</P>
    251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     249
    252250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is addressed to government administrators, technical assistance personnel, and researchers in agriculture, nutrition, and related disciplines who are concerned with helping developing countries achieve a more efficient and balanced exploitation of their biological resources. Hence, we deal with the animals in a general way and do not cover details of biology, husbandry, or economics. A selection of readings that contains such technical information is cited in Appendix A.</P>
    253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     251
    254252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further goal of this project has been to explore the common ground between the disparate arms of animal science: to show that specialists in wildlife, zoology, and livestock science have much to learn from one another's field of expertise; to show that "fanciers" of pigeons, pheasants, chinchillas, iguanas, and other species may have much to offer livestock breeders - including germplasm; and that those who raise "obsolete" breeds are not only playing a vital role in the protection of rare genes but can offer the benefit of their experience to commercial livestock producers.</P>
    255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     253
    256254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout this report, the scientific names of mammals follow those in: Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1982. J.H. Honacki, K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl, editors. Published by Allen Press, Inc.; and the Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. All dollar figures are in U.S. dollars; all ton figures are in metric tons.</P>
    257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     255
    258256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been produced under the auspices of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. ACTI was mandated to assess innovative scientific and technological advances, with particular emphasis on those appropriate for developing countries. In this spirit, therefore, the current report includes some extremely unusual species. Whether these will eventually prove practical for widespread use is uncertain, but we present them here for researchers and others who look forward to challenges and enjoy the satisfaction of successful pioneering. The domestication of new poultry, as well as the management of rodents, iguanas, and small deer and antelope, should be viewed in this spirit.</P>
    259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     257
    260258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current titles in the ACTI series on managing tropical animal resources are: </P>
    261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     259
    262260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal</P>
    263261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future</P>
    264262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</P>
    265263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea.</P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     264
    268265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the Office of the Science Advisor of the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), which also made this report possible.</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     266
    270267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARNING</P>
    271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     268
    273269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If misunderstood, this book is potentially dangerous. Because of the severity of the food crisis, the panel has selected some animals - mainly in the rodent section - that are highly adaptable and grow quickly. These seem appropriate for raising only in areas where they already exist, which are clearly identified in those chapters. Such potentially invasive animals should not be introduced to other environments because they could become serious pests. In any trials, local species should always be given priority.</P>
    274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     270
    275271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to cite this report:</P>
    276272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1991. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. </P>
    … …  
    279275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
    280276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
    281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    284 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     277
     278<B>
    285279<!--
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    290284  </Description>
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    292 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286</B>
    293287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g001a.png"></center><br>
    294288 FIGURE</P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     289
    296290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "mainframes," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people; they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock."'</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     291
    298292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely small forms of conventional livestock - such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small— poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     293
    300294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or eggs - the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries, even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of mankind's most serious imbalances - and most pressing problems.</P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     295
    302296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are summarized here.</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     297
    304298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contribution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals deserve much greater recognition.</P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     299
    306300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "miniBrahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as 11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     301
    308302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only source of meat during much of a lifetime. </P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     303
    310304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising, species, including:</P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     305
    312306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats. </P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     307
    314308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing, and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised commercially in very small space. </P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     309
    316310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries. Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere. </P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     311
    318312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds, this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe - notably France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional. </P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     313
    320314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant. </P>
    321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    322316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects have begun in many developing nations.</P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    324318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown apartment buildings - often in boxes under the bed. </P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    326320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and woodlands - agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha. Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa: the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)</P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    328322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alternative to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.</P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    330324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized to feed the average family at one meal.</P>
    331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     325
    332326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Several species of tiny deer - smaller than many dogs - might make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock, but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.</P>
    333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     327
    334328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials in the animal kingdom - more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in European perfumes. </P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     329
    336330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curacao, and Argentina have developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species. </P>
    337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     331
    338332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisticated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the many crops that require pollination.</P>
    339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     333
    340334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES</P>
    341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     335
    342336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, smallness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.</P>
    343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     337
    344338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic</P>
    345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     339
    346340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk, cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.</P>
    347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     341
    348342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species than from large because of several factors:</P>
    349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     343
    351344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The animals are less expensive to buy.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     345
    353346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)</P>
    354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     347
    355348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)</P>
    356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     349
    357350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating needs for cash or food.) </P>
    358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     351
    359352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide a steadier source of income.</P>
    360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     353
    361354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)</P>
    362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     355
    363356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow passengers?)</P>
    364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     357
    365358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.</P>
    366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     359
    367360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also a number of other benefits to small species.</P>
    368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     361
    369362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package" of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one day to minimize the risk of spoilage.</P>
    370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     363
    371364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important with respect to feed production.</P>
    372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     365
    373366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for microlivestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap material or both.</P>
    374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     367
    375368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.</P>
    376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369
    377370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling nutrients. Some - for example bees, ducks, and geese - can feed themselves by scavenging.</P>
    378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    379372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such byproducts creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for the village.</P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     373
    381374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RATIONALE FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION</P>
    382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     375
    383376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many have argued that livestock raising should be discouraged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses, grow more grains," these people cry. Their arguments can be valid where the land has high potential for permanent cultivation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into that category, and it is in these areas and for those people who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for livestock can most easily tee mace. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*</P>
    384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     377
    385378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desirable food products, many of high protein, mineral and vitamin content and including some of high caloric value. </P>
    386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     379
    387380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately 40 percent of total land available in developing countries can be used only for some form of forage production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with some potential for the production of forage. Some 12 percent of the world's total population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on the products obtained from ruminant livestock. </P>
    388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     381
    389382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-products. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabilizer but also a fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder consumed in its production. Other byproducts, especially hides and wool form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide significant incomes to the poorest members of society. </P>
    390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     383
    391384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Animal plant and human life are ecologically interdependent. The establishment of agricultural systems in which livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture is essential for the improvement of overall productivity. </P>
    392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     385
    393386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat, eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese. </P>
    394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     387
    395388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed</P>
    396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     389
    397390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that otherwise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers that may be miles away.</P>
    398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     391
    399392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.</P>
    400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    401394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal (or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements, so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.</P>
    402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     395
    403396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small animals generally require proportionately higher inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
    404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    405398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
    406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     399
    407400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth. They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals, and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus, meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly throughout the year.</P>
    408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     401
    409402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or more; a chicken, more than 100.</P>
    410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     403
    411404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptability and Hardiness</P>
    412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     405
    413406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations, aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and sometimes no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.</P>
    414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     407
    416408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conventional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and floods cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of malnutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conventional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.</P>
    417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     409
    418410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more chickens than people.</P>
    419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411
    420412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p9a.png"></center><br>
    421413 Food utilization versus body size</P>
    422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     414
    423415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS</P>
    424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     416
    425417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties. Some likely problems are noted here.</P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     418
    427419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Energy Requirements</P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     420
    429421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological constraints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy requirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore, for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonruminants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
    430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     422
    431423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increased Labor Requirements</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     424
    433425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility, and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.</P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     426
    435427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     428
    437429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration. However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coccidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.</P>
    438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     430
    439431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exaggerated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.</P>
    440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     432
    441433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predation</P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     434
    443435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.</P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436
    445437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Research</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    447439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques, as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas) may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of diseases, nutrition, and management.</P>
    448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     440
    449441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complex Logistics</P>
    450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     442
    451443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are often ill-trained and illiterate.</P>
    452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     444
    453445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative Restrictions</P>
    454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     446
    455447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary laws that work against the development of species other than cattle. Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.</P>
    456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     448
    457449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Markets</P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     450
    459451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public demand was developed.</P>
    460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     452
    461453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance to New Species</P>
    462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     454
    463455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.</P>
    464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     456
    465457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opposition to Smallness</P>
    466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     458
    467459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example, because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     460
    469461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     462
    471463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases, and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for raising conventional livestock. </P>
    472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     464
    473465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Compared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to assess or improve their farm productivity.</P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    475467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.</P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    477469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock production should be integrated into most ruraldevelopment projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared with those of programs for large animals.2</P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    479471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote methods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.</P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     472
    481473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large livestock on pastures.</P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474
    483475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage, or utilize a large animal.</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    485477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all. </P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    487479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes men to look after cattle). Even sheep and goats are not accorded the same stature as cattle.</P>
    488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    489481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe</P>
    490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    491483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus haste become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in future generations of mankind.</P>
    492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    493485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous</P>
    494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     486
    495487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g002a.png"></center><br>
    496488 FIGURE</P>
    497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    498 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     489
     490<B>
    499491<!--
    500492</Section>
    … …  
    504496  </Description>
    505497-->
    506 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     498</B>
    507499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g003a.png"></center><br>
    508500 FIGURE</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     501
    510502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs supply millions of people around the world with the bulk of their cash and animal products. Yet scores of breeds - especially in the tropics - are left out of livestock development projects merely because they are considered too small. These "microbreeds"' have sometimes been considered genetic dead ends because they appear undersized and puny. Many of these traditional animals - some in local use for thousands of years - are disappearing, and even the small ancestors of large modern breeds are becoming extinct.</P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     503
    512504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These small breeds deserve to be studied and developed in their own right. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, these usually hardy animals are especially adapted to traditional husbandry practices and harsh local conditions. Some have remarkable qualities and are well adapted to resist hostile weather, ravaging pestilence, and poor diets. In remote places and in areas of extreme climate, they are often vitally important for basic subsistence.</P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505
    514506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, because of stress or disease, or insufficient forage, land, or money, microbreeds may be the only practical livestock in many settings. Their individual output may be low, but it can be efficient considering the lack of care and poor feeds they are given. Their availability and the growing number of small-sized farms in the developing world make them increasingly worthy of consideration.</P>
    515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    516508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following chapters in this section describe microcattle, microgoats, microsheep, and micropigs. </P>
    517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     509
    519510<B><P></P>
    520511<!--
    … …  
    524515  </Description>
    525516-->
    526 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     517</B>
    527518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g004a.png"></center><br>
    528519 FIGURE</P>
    529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     520
    530521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this report, "microcattle" are considered to be small breeds of cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) with a mature weight of about 300 kg or less. In many areas of the developing world, these are actually the animals most widely held by farmers and pastoralists. They are often treasured because of their resilience and simple requirements. Many survive and produce under harsh conditions, grow rapidly, calve easily, show good maternal ability, yield lean meat, or have other advantages.</P>
    531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     522
    532523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle have generally been ignored in the push towards larger animals, but they seem inherently suitable for traditional and small-farm husbandry. As rural people in developing countries improve their own productivity, as they become more aware of nutritional needs, and as they depend more upon cash economies, microcattle could become vital means for improving personal, dietary, and economic status.</P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     524
    534525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    536527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    538529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    540531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle have been classified in many ways, but they are generally designated as humped or humpless types. However, clear distinctions among them are sometimes difficult or impossible to make because they have intermingled for thousands of years. Representative microcattle types are listed at the end of the chapter. </P>
    541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    542533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    544535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than two-thirds of the world's 1.3 billion cattle are found in the developing world; one-third is in the tropics. As noted, a considerable number of these could be called "microcattle."</P>
    545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    546537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538
    548539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many strains of microcattle are threatened with extinction because of replacement or crossbreeding with larger types. This is in some respects shortsighted because promoting just a few breeds contributes to narrowing of the genetic base, and valuable traits may be lost when selection is done to conform to any preconceived standard, including large size.</P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    550541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     542
    552543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Many types thrive - even with little or no attention - in climates that are hot, humid, arid, or beset by diseases and parasites.</P>
    553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    554545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     546
    556547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are ruminants and digest fiber well, although they are selective foragers and prefer tender grasses and low-growing legumes.</P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     548
    558549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with other tropical cattle, microbreeds generally reach physical and sexual maturity in 2 or 3 years. Many can breed year-round when conditions are favorable (gestation lasts about 9 months). Cows may remain fertile 10 years or more, and can live more than 20 years.</P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     550
    560551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     552
    562553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle usually graze from as few as four hours to as many as eight hours a day. If feed is of poor quality, they must forage (and ruminate) longer to receive adequate nutrition. </P>
    563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     554
    564555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are commonly docile and undemanding animals, and many small breeds are surprisingly responsive to humans.</P>
    565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     556
    566557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     558
    568559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like conventional breeds, microcattle produce the same well-known products: meat, milk, manure, hides, horn, blood, and bone. They are also used for traction.</P>
    569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     560
    570561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle often produce only modest amounts of milk and meat per animal. However, given higher stocking rates, a herd of microcattle is often able to outyield larger, genetically improved animals on a per hectare basis, especially under stressful conditions. When their ability to survive adversity and poor management is taken into account, they may often be far and away the most efficient cattle for traditional husbandry.</P>
    571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     562
    572563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, there is a place even for small draft animals. They tend to be active, thrifty (efficient), and more maneuverable in tight spaces, and so are adapted for use in the small fields, terraces, and paddies that are becoming increasingly common. The small hill cattle of Nepal, for instance, are valued because they can negotiate steep slopes and narrow terraces on Himalayan mountainsides. </P>
    573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     564
    574565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     566
    576567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are handled like their larger counterparts, but herding, tethering, fencing, and hobbling are generally easier.</P>
    577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     568
    578569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     570
    580571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are familiar animals that are accepted in nearly all cultures; their meat, milk, manure, and leather are in demand almost everywhere. In many societies, beef is preferred over other meats, even by those who can rarely afford it.</P>
    581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     572
    582573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas, organized breeding, production, and marketing associations are already in place. Microcattle can also integrate well into traditional forms of husbandry, whether in pastoral herds of hundreds or as solitary backyard milk cows.</P>
    583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    584575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under humid and hot conditions, microcattle probably suffer less than larger breeds because their greater ratio of skin area to body mass enhances their ability to shed heat.</P>
    585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    586577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of cattle that can be kept on a given parcel of land may be increased, sometimes even doubled, with smaller animals. Microcattle can also be penned and fed cut-and-carry forage more easily than can larger cattle, and more of them can be maintained on the same amount of feed. This permits more continuous production and less financial hardship when an animal perishes.</P>
    587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    588579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle may require less labor because they are generally easier to handle, herd, confine, and transport. They usually have few problems with calving, and as a rule require little or no assistance.</P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     580
    590581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microcattle have unusual tolerances to disease. In Africa, for instance, there are breeds that tolerate or resist trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease that makes large areas of that continent uninhabitable for most other cattle breeds. Others seem more tolerant of internal or external parasites, theileriosis (east coast fever), rinderpest, or other afflictions.</P>
    591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     582
    592583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     584
    594585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle often lack the prestige of larger breeds.</P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     586
    596587<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When given quality forage and supplemental feeding, small unimproved cattle may not match the overall productivity of the large, highly developed breeds. Their greatest potential may prove to be for traditional husbandry and for grazing marginal areas where survival is more important than feed efficiency.</P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     588
    598589<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONSAI BRAHMAN</P>
    599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     590
    600591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, researchers are deliberately creating microcattle. Since 1970, Juan Manuel Berruecos Villalobos, former director of the Veterinary Medicine school at the National Autonomous University, has directed this enterprise. He and his colleagues have miniaturized cows by selecting the smallest specimens out of a herd of normal-sized Brahman cattle and breeding them with one another. After five generations, adult females average 15-180 kg adult males 20-220 kg. A few of the smallest cows are now only 60 cm tall and 140 kg in weight. Merely one-fifth of normal weight, they are shorter than the turkeys that share the barnyard with them. Indeed, they even get lost in the grassy pastures so that the farmers cannot see them.</P>
    601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592
    602593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program seems to have yielded a productive animal that can be cheaply and easily maintained in a small space. Berruecos has demonstrated that the tiny cows can be stocked on one-third the area needed to support one normal-sized cow. He reports that they are giving remarkable amounts of milk: up to four lifers a day, compared with six lifers from their full-sized counterparts. On a feed-intake to weight-gain basis, the tiny cattle are no less efficient than their normal-sized counterparts.</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    604595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 17 years have gone into the selection of what Berruecos calls his "bonsai cattle," the process is not yet finished. Future goals include testing embryo transplants to see if one normal-sized cow can support multiple "microfetuses" (possibly as many as eight). This would help to rapidly increase the numbers of the miniature form, which weigh merely 4-5 kg at birth.</P>
    605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     596
    606597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, the Mexican researchers see miniaturization as a new option for governments and farmers increasingly squeezed by shrinking farm land and rising production costs. Small livestock they say, are a way to produce more food on less land faster. For example, a campesino with almost no land can have one or two bonsais, but could never maintain a standard-sized cow.</P>
    607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     598
    608599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600
    610601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their adaptability and robustness make microcattle worthy of preservation, study, and greater use, and they should be incorporated into many ongoing programs.</P>
    611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    612603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selective breeding, although infrequently attempted, can probably improve productivity significantly. Records of breed history should be established, and unusual or special characteristics noted and the information disseminated. </P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    614605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24a.png"></center><br>
    615606 Original distribution of wild cattle and banteng (Based on Mason , 1984)</P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     607
    617608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where small, indigenous breeds are being replaced, representative populations should be maintained and studied to increase understanding of their adaptive diversity and to retain a genetic storehouse for the future.</P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     609
    619610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROCATTLE</P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     611
    621612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf West African Shorthorn</P>
    622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     613
    624614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African coastal forests, and inland. Female 125 kg; male 150 kg. Adaptation to harsh, humid climates and good resistance to trypanosomiasis and other diseases allow these small animals to exist where other cattle die. They are perhaps the smallest cattle of all (often weighing less than 100 kg). In the areas of worst disease and highest rainfall, this hardy animal is often found thriving, but half wild. </P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     615
    626616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muturu Nigeria. Female 160 kg; male 210 kg. This notable subtype is slightly larger. It is the most trypanotolerant of all cattle, showing no symptoms or loss of vitality. It is widely kept, mostly as a village scavenger and often as a pet, and yields a high percentage of meat. </P>
    627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     617
    628618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Dama</P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     619
    630620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. 200-400 kg. These active, stocky animals utilize low-quality forage, produce good beef, and are used as light draft oxen. Milk production, though poor, improves with feeding level. N'Dama mature early and are exceptionally fertile, and they have already become important in breeding programs. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis, and can exist where temperatures average 30&Yacute; C with 1,500 mm annual rainfall. In the least hospitable areas, N'Damas ranging down to 200 kg are often the only cattle that can remain productive.</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     621
    632622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodope</P>
    633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     623
    634624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeastern Europe. Female 200 kg; male 350 kg. A humpless multipurpose breed - draft, milk, and beef - that is exceptionally hardy. The milk is high in butterfat. Possibly adaptable to the subtropics. It is rapidly being lost to crossbreeding.</P>
    635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     625
    636626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebu</P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     627
    638628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebus are among the most important tropical domestic animals. However, the dwarfs are not well known, although in many areas they are preferred, especially as draft animals. Zebus use less water, even though their sweat glands are larger and more numerous than those of most other cattle. All have a low basal metabolism and resist heat well. In general, they also have high resistance to ticks and other parasites.</P>
    639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    640630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan Black Taiwan. Female 250 kg; male 250 kg. Well adapted to poor tropical conditions, these work animals are also used for meat. </P>
    641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    642632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kedah-Kelantan Malaysia. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. Hardy, well adapted cattle with exceptional fertility on a poor diet, both sexes are used as draft animals as well as sources of meat and cash. </P>
    643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    644634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinhala (Dwarf Zebu) Sri Lanka. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. An ancient type of zebu, preferred for its handiness in cultivating small paddies and terraced fields. </P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     635
    646636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuba Dwarf Sudan. 180-220 kg. These work animals are well proportioned but are not slaughtered for meat, and milk production is low. Although tolerant to trypanosomiasis, their numbers have dwindled because of crossbreeding. </P>
    647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     637
    648638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Zebu Somalia. 160-230 kg. These small native cattle are used for beef, milk, and for work. They are well adapted to poor feed in a desolate environment. </P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    650640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abyssinian Shorthorn Zebu (Showa) Central highlands of Ethiopia. Female 225 kg; male 305 kg. These widespread, small-humped cattle are very hardy. They produce beef and are generally milked, with surplus production about 2-4 kg daily. Resistant to many parasites, they also have a gentle disposition and make good work animals. </P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    652642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Zebu (Mongalla) Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Female 150 kg; male 250 kg. A highly variable, long-entrenched, small, East-African zebu with some nonzebu blood. Pastoralists favor it because of its hardiness. Although slow-maturing, it is well-fleshed, can yield excellent beef, and some types are milked. </P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     643
    654644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashona Zimbabwe. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. This hardy zebusanga type (see below) is widespread in drier areas and has a high resistance to disease and parasites. Since the 1940s, it has been bred for beef production and selected animals now weigh more than 500 kg. </P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    656646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mini-Brahman Mexico. 135 kg. Downsized from 450-kg Brazilian zebus through selective breeding by Mexican researchers, these gentle animals are reported to yield two-thirds as much milk (3-4 liters daily) as the parent stock. Because of much higher stocking rates on grass, production per hectare is reportedly greater than with full-sized animals (see sidebar, page 22). </P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    658648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     649
    660650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central and South America. Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese  cattle imported over 400 years ago, "criollo" cattle have adapted to a  wide range of harsh climates. Many varieties are small: mature females  often weigh 200-300 kg or less. They sometimes produce little beef or  milk under traditional conditions and management, but they are  extremely hardy and survive when other cattle perish. Through  importation and crossbreeding, many local types have been lost or are  threatened.</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     651
    662652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinampo Baja California, Mexico. 200-350 kg. Extremely tolerant of  wild desert conditions, these docile criollo cattle exist largely on scrub  and cactus. They get most of their water from succulent plants, have a  low metabolic rate and body temperature, and are mostly active at night. </P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     653
    664654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Scrub Florida, USA. 225-300 kg. Genetically isolated for more  than 300 years, the Florida Scrub is very hardy in harsh, subtropical  conditions. It has good resistance to ticks and screwworm, and can  subsist on forage with a high roughage content. </P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     655
    666656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanga</P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     657
    668658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type - an ancient cross between longhorns or shorthorns and  humped animals - is found throughout eastern and southern Africa. It  weighs from 150 to 500 kg or more. Some types have been selectively  bred or crossed with European cattle and are quite productive.</P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     659
    670660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bavenda Transvaal, South Africa. 240-290 kg. This hardy and  disease tolerant tropical variety is small and prolific. It is generally used  for draft, barter, and beef. However, it has been crossbred with larger  animals so frequently that the smaller types are almost extinct; most  "Bavendas" now weigh more than 300 kg.</P>
    671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     661
    672662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ovambo' Northeastern Namibia. Female 160 kg; male 225 kg. A calm  and docile animal with a small hump, it is used by seasonal pastoralists  for beef and milk.  </P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     663
    674664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilotic Sudan. 180-300 kg. These cattle of southern Sudan show great variation in size, partly due to environmental factors. They are generally resistant to local parasites and worms, have good potential for increased beef production, and their milk is very important locally.</P>
    675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     665
    676666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chadian "Native" and Dwarf Black Cattle</P>
    677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     667
    678668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad. Female 225 kg; male 275 kg. These two types are small, humped meat animals that graze the sparse savanna and are very drought resistant. Little scientific information exists about them.</P>
    679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     669
    680670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Arab Cattle"</P>
    681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     671
    682672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Small types (female 225 kg; male 300 kg) are used for meat and some milk, especially in Lebanon. There are many local forms with variable appearance, but all have small humps. Well adapted to grazing sparse vegetation on rough land, they are becoming rare due to crossbreeding.</P>
    683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     673
    684674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill Cattle</P>
    685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     675
    686676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. Female 160 kg; male 200 kg. A widespread type often recrossed with Indian zebu animals, they are bred to be small. They are thrifty creatures that maintain themselves well on poor forage. Bulls make sure-footed draft animals on rough ground and slopes, and the cows are milked.</P>
    687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     677
    688678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan Dwarf</P>
    689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     679
    690680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibet. Less than 250 kg. These humpless cattle are used as pack animals and can tolerate poor forage and high altitudes. </P>
    691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     681
    692682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow Cattle</P>
    693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683
    694684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest and south China. Female 220 kg; male 380 kg. In the subtropics and tropics, small multipurpose types of Yellow Cattle withstand high temperature and humidity. They are used mainly for work and meat, and seem well adapted to poor feed, harsh conditions, and rugged terrain. The Chowpei (190-380 kg) is a hardy working breed of more temperate areas in Hubei Province.</P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    696686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheju Hanwoo</P>
    697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    698688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 230 kg; male 280 kg. A yellowish-brown Cheju Island native that has almost no calving difficulty, it is well adapted to poor grazing conditions in harsh environments and is docile and obedient.</P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     689
    700690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madura</P>
    701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     691
    702692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. Female 220 kg; male 300 kg. An ancient cross between humped cattle and the banteng (see sidebar), these heat- and disease resistant hybrids also have good grazing and mothering ability, and are kept in the most extreme humid tropical environments. Breeding for fighting and racing has given them a poor disposition.</P>
    703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    704694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dexter Cattle</P>
    705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    706696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ireland and North America. 220-360 kg. This breed can be traced back to eighteenth-century Ireland and is believed to have been developed by peasant farmers living on rough land. It is exceptionally hardy and produces both milk and meat. In North America, it has become popular among city folk who acquire country property, as this microbreed is particularly well suited to their usually tiny farms. </P>
    707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     697
    708698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANTENG: THE CUTEST COW</P>
    709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     699
    710700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (Bos Javanicus) is a small Southeast Asian bovine with a promising future.* It is a different species from cattle. The two will interbreed, but the hybrid offspring are normally sterile.</P>
    711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     701
    712702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although almost entirely neglected by the animal science community, the banteng is remarkable for an ability to thrive under hot, humid, and disease-ridden conditions where cattle often grow poorly. The sexes are easily distinguished: males are jet black, females are golden brown. Both have bright white socks and rumps as if they had been freshly whitewashed. </P>
    713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     703
    714704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are found in remote areas of countries from Burma to Indonesia. But only Indonesia has used it as a farm animal so far. It has more than 1.5 million domesticated banteng - some 20 percent of the country's total "cattle" population. Indonesian farmers value the animal's agility, which allows them to cultivate Relds too narrow for cattle to turn the prow. In addition, gourmets consider banteng meat the tastiest of all. Indonesia appreciates the banteng so much that it has established a genetic sanctuary on the island of Bali - banning cattle in order to maintain the banteng's genetic purity.</P>
    715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     705
    716706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Indonesia, only a few scientists have studied this animal, but it seems clear that it is particularly useful under tropical conditions. In heat and humidity, it thrives; even when cattle are starving, one rarely sees a skinny banteng. And demand for its meat is never ending.</P>
    717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     707
    718708<I><P></P>
    719709<!--
    … …  
    724714  </Description>
    725715-->
    726 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     716</I>
    727717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 90 percent of the world's nearly half billion goats (Capra hircus) are found in developing countries; many weigh less than 35 kg fully grown.` Such "microgoats" are noted for their high reproductive rates, rapid growth, early maturity, tasty meat, and rich milk' as well as for their robust constitution, ease of handling, and tolerance of climatic stress and poor feeds.</P>
    728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    729719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many people - especially where pigs and poultry are not common - meat and milk from microgoats are the primary animal proteins consumed during a lifetime. Perhaps the world's best foragers, goats eat practically anything made of cellulose, and are not dependent on grass. Because of their unselective feeding behavior, they are capable of living where the feeds - tree leaves, shrubs, and weeds - are too poor to support other types of livestock.</P>
    730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    731721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such microgoats deserve wider recognition, for they are often the poor person's only source of milk, meat, and cash income. They are cheap to acquire and easy to maintain, even by people with little property and scarce resources.</P>
    732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    733723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    735725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in arid and semiarid climates.</P>
    736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    737727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    739729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats generally have a long snout and an upright tail, by which they can be distinguished from most sheep. The mouth is unusual in having a mobile upper lip and a grasping tongue, which permits the animal to nibble even tiny leaves on spiny species.</P>
    740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    741731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common commercial goat breeds generally weigh between 60 and 100 kg, with some weighing more than 200 kg. Microgoats may weigh less than 15 kg. Representative examples are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
    742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    743733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    745735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, with half in Asia and one-third in Africa.</P>
    746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    747737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    749739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The FAO projects that world numbers may nearly double by the turn of the century. Goats are thus not endangered, but in some areas select populations of feral goats are being deliberately eradicated, with the consequent loss of potentially valuable genes. Some small breeds are also threatened by excessive crossbreeding with larger types.</P>
    750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    751741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     742
    753743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most adaptable of all livestock, goats can persist in conditions from arid to humid, and from sea level to high altitude. They are especially well adapted to hot, semiarid climates and to rocky, barren terrain.</P>
    754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     744
    755745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     746
    757747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These ruminants can subsist on many feedstuffs that would otherwise be left to waste. Although selective browsers, they often prefer coarse leaves (including palm fronds) and shrubbery to palatable forage grass.</P>
    758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     748
    759749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most microgoats mature quickly, and in the tropics they can generally breed year-round. Their reproductive potential has often been underestimated; kidding is rarely difficult, and many types produce twins and sometimes even triplets or quadruplets.</P>
    760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     750
    761751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot, dry areas, goats require less attention than other livestock, and smaller goats have the added advantage of better heat dissipation. Some microgoats may also show disease resistance. For example, tolerance to trypanosomiasis makes them an important livestock in many regions of Africa. </P>
    762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752
    763753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    765755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally gentle, but can be easily frightened. They may become stubborn and aggressive when threatened or thwarted, and can prove hard to confine.</P>
    766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    767757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their feed smells of other animals - particularly of other goats -  they usually shun it unless nothing else is available. </P>
    768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     758
    769759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     760
    771761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats mainly produce meat and form an important part of the diet in southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, especially the Caribbean. Goat is sometimes a preferred meat, and there are few social or religious prohibitions against eating it.</P>
    772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     762
    773763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microgoats are good milkers, and under stressful conditions they may keep producing when other livestock are dry. Goat milk is a valuable dietary supplement: it is nutritious, easily digestible, and usually commands premium prices. It makes excellent cheese and yogurt and can be used by people allergic to cow's milk.</P>
    774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    775765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats produce some of the finest and most valuable fibers in the world. Angora and Cashmere goats often weigh less than 30 kg fully grown, for example.</P>
    776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     766
    777767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats produce a fine-textured, durable leather that finds extensive uses both locally and internationally. Horns, hooves, blood, and bone meal also have commercial value. Manure is another important product, and comes in fairly dry pellets that are easy to collect, store, and distribute.</P>
    778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768
    779769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats perform important functions in land management. Seeds of many trees (Acacia and Prosopis, for example) are "scarified" by passing through the goats' digestive system, fostering germination and natural revegetation. With care, goats can also be used to clear land of weeds and brush.</P>
    780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    781771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    783773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often allowed to roam and scavenge for their own food. They form strong territorial attachments and can be trained to stay within a designated area. However, they cannot be kept from investigating - and quite probably devouring - anything within that territory. They are persistent browsers, so it is essential to prevent overstocking as well as raids on crops.</P>
    784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    785775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variety of diet is important, and goats show much individuality in feed preferences. They are often raised on crop residue and kitchen refuse.</P>
    786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    787777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats can be run with other livestock without creating serious competition. The goats browse weedy shrubs, whereas the sheep and cattle graze more on grasses.</P>
    788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     778
    789779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although perhaps the hardiest of all livestock, most breeds benefit when they are provided shelter from rain and high-noon sun. Abrupt chilling and poor ventilation can cause severe respiratory problems. They are also susceptible to various maladies, such as internal parasites, especially when confined. The highest mortality, however, is caused when very young kids are not supplied with adequate feed and clean, dry shelter.</P>
    790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     780
    791781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     782
    794783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries goats are already prominent in rural life. Common almost everywhere in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, they are dependable multi-use animals. They are particularly important in providing ready cash, such as for school fees, taxes, marriages, or funerals.</P>
    795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     784
    796785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats integrate well in mixed agriculture, for example, by consuming leafy wastes, clearing land, and contributing fertilizer. In many places they are raised almost exclusively by women and children. If confined, goats require only simple, inexpensive shelters or pens, which makes them especially important as subsistence animals. In many situations, they may be the most efficient and economic producers for smallholders.</P>
    797 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     786
    798787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have a relatively fast rate of growth and early reproductive age, even under harsh conditions. They can graze rougher terrain than cattle and most sheep, can go for longer periods without water, and forage well in wooded areas where grass is lacking. They can derive most or all of their diet from roughage unusable by humans; high-energy feeds, such as protein supplements or carbohydrate supplements, are usually not needed even to fatten them for slaughter.</P>
    799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     788
    800789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally healthy and are not affected by many of the parasites and diseases that ravage other livestock. Some resistance to mange, internal parasites, foot-and-mouth disease, and other livestock scourges has been reported.</P>
    801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     790
    802791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     792
    804793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places (notably, in industrialized nations) there is a strong prejudice against goats and goat meat.</P>
    805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     794
    806795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes microgoats targets for predators and thieves.</P>
    807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     796
    808797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small goats are poor milkers, especially under hardship conditions; however, even small amounts of milk can often fulfill a child's daily nutritional requirement or reinforce a nursing mother's diet.</P>
    809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     798
    810799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are independent and may wander away if not watched, and they can be difficult to pen. They may also have an unpleasant odor when kept confined (males are particularly malodorous during rutting season). </P>
    811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     800
    812801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often disparaged for degrading land and destroying vegetation because they continue to survive on overutilized lands often laid waste by mismanagement of sheep or cattle.</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     802
    814803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRESH GENES</P>
    815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     804
    816805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rare wild animal with spectacular horns, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is the goat's wild ancestor. People domesticated it before 7000 B.C., probably in the mountains along the Iran/ Iraq border. Until recent times, it remained widely scattered across the vast region between Greece and Pakistan, but it now exists only in pockets and is threatened with extinction.</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     806
    818807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This would be a tragedy because the bezoar is a resilient wild species that crosses readily with domestic goats, and it could pass on its genetic inheritance for heat, drought, and cold tolerance: disease resistance; and other survival qualities.</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    820809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p39a.png"></center><br>
    821810 Distribution of the bezoar. The arrow indicates the area where it was probably first domesticated, resulting in the goat as we know it (From Mason 1984)</P>
    822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     811
    823812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fascinating science and valuable results probably await those willing to study this hardy, handsome creature and to explore the reharnessing of its genetic endowment. Today the bezoar is considered merely a trophy for hunters. The power of its genes to refresh - perhaps even revolutionize - the world's 500 million goats has been lost to sight. </P>
    824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     813
    825814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     815
    827816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The microgoat's potential has hardly been realized. More research on performance and husbandry is needed to preserve and restore small breeds. Selective breeding for prolificacy, viability, and rapid growth, as well as more selective on-site culling, could greatly improve both meat and milk yields and quality.</P>
    828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     817
    829818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management systems that exploit smallness, stabilize production, and preserve the environment should be introduced and publicized in appropriate goat-rearing areas. Careful assessments of indigenous management methods should be made, particularly emphasizing their desirable characteristics. Improving hygiene in the wet season and supplemental feeding in the dry season are also important, as are disease- and parasite-control measures.</P>
    830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     819
    831820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The undomesticated ibex and markhor could possibly be major contributors in the development of new, useful breeds for tropical and arid regions (see sidebar, page 42). </P>
    832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     821
    833822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MICROGOATS</P>
    834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     823
    835824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Djallon)</P>
    836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     825
    837826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West and Central Africa. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to humid lowlands, this widespread goat is particularly valuable for meat and skin production. Generally, it is bred for meat, but milk is sometimes an important secondary product. Sexual maturity is very early (3-6 months), and quadruplets occasionally occur (most goat breeds normally produce only single births). Related types go by the names "Cameroon Dwarf," "Dirdi," and "Nigerian Dwarf."</P>
    838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     827
    839828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nubian Dwarf</P>
    840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     829
    841830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 35-40 kg (often less). A stable miniature variety of the milking Nubian, this microgoat has been developed recently in the United States by crossing standard-sized Nubians with the West African Dwarf. It combines a good milk output with high levels of butterfat.</P>
    842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     831
    843832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Pygmy</P>
    844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     833
    845834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 15-25 kg. Derived from the West African Dwarf, it is noted for its hardiness and good nature, good milk production, and adaptability to various climates. There are several varieties, some for milking, others for meat.</P>
    846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     835
    847836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Nubian</P>
    848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     837
    849838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Sudan. 25-30 kg. Widespread milk goats of riverain and urban areas.</P>
    850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     839
    851840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Dwarf</P>
    852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     841
    853842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan. 11-25 kg. A very hardy desert goat similar to the West African Dwarf, it averages 15 kg, but some mature individuals may weigh as little as 11 kg. Used for meat and hides, it produces little milk.</P>
    854 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     843
    855844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small East African</P>
    856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     845
    857846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania. 20-30 kg. A widely neglected meat and hide animal found over a wide range, it is fast growing (sexual maturity at four months) and extremely hardy.</P>
    858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     847
    859848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian</P>
    860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     849
    861850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius. 25-30 kg. A prolific, year-round breeder raised for meat production, it is often confined in simple shelters from birth to slaughter. Perhaps because of this isolation, mortality is less than 10 percent, even with little or no veterinary care.</P>
    862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     851
    863852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
    864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     853
    865854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. "Criollo" is a name given to several breeds of ancient Iberian blood with local adaptations to many unfavorable conditions. They are often small and hardy. </P>
    866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     855
    867856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creole Caribbean. Females 20 kg; males 25 kg. Robust meat goats of Spanish or West African origin that are kept throughout the Caribbean.</P>
    868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     857
    869858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crioulo Brazil. 30-35 kg. A meat and skin goat derived from Portuguese ancestors, it is hardy, prolific, undemanding, and adapted to harsh environments. </P>
    870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     859
    871860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapper</P>
    872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     861
    873862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan. Female 20 kg; male 24 kg. Originating in dry regions, this meat and milk goat is a nonseasonal breeder with outstanding potential.</P>
    874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     863
    875864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbari</P>
    876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     865
    877866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan, India. Females 20-25 kg; males 20-40 kg. A prolific, fastgrowing "urban" goat with high twinning and low mortality. Often kept inside houses, they adapt well to confinement and are important for both milk and meat.</P>
    878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     867
    879868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaddi (White Himalaya)</P>
    880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     869
    881870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill districts of northern India. 25-30 kg. Kept for meat and their long, lustrous white hair, they are pure-breeding and healthy.</P>
    882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     871
    883872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changthangi (Ladakh)</P>
    884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     873
    885874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir, India. Male 20 kg. A pashmina (cashmere) goat of India, it is adapted to a high altitude, high humidity climate with extremes of temperature.</P>
    886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     875
    887876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terai</P>
    888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     877
    889878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 8-12 kg. A very small, hardy animal of the southern lowlands, it kids year-round (sometimes twice), and often produces twins.</P>
    890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     879
    891880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Hill Goat</P>
    892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     881
    893882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 12-16 kg. A small, mid-altitude goat resembling the Terai. </P>
    894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     883
    895884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Bengal (Teddy, Bangladesh Dwarf)</P>
    896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     885
    897886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern India and Pakistan. Female 10 kg; male 14 kg. A widespread, humid-area, meat goat that is early maturing and very prolific. It kids twice a year, and produces 60 percent twins and 10 percent triplets. It produces a superior leather.</P>
    898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     887
    899888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katjang</P>
    900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     889
    901890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeast Asia, China, and Pacific Islands. In places, less than 20 kg. A widespread, highly variable, hardy goat adapted to humid conditions, it usually has twins or triplets. Used for meat and skins, with exceptional females being milked.</P>
    902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     891
    903892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarf (Tibetan, Jining, Fuyang, or Chengdu Grey)</P>
    904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     893
    905894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. 20-40 kg. Well adapted to the humid tropics, it normally twins and is a good meat producer.</P>
    906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     895
    907896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heuk Yumso</P>
    908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     897
    909898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A prolific cold-climate goat with a year-round breeding season. The meat is highly prized, and often sells at a premium due to its supposed health-giving effects.</P>
    910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     899
    911900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
    912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     901
    913902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Female 20 kg; male 20 kg. A meat goat, usually black, for harsh desert conditions.</P>
    914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     903
    915904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai (Black Bedouin)</P>
    916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     905
    917906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai, Egypt and Negev Desert, Israel. Female 20 kg; male 50 kg. Native to dry, hot deserts, this milk and meat goat matures at 5-8 months and has a twinning rate over 50 percent. A most important characteristic is its drought tolerance. The female, for instance, can drink only once a day - at a pinch, once every other day - without losing appetite or reducing milk flow. </P>
    918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     907
    919908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD RELATIVES</P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     909
    921910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several wild relatives will cross with the goat. Surprisingly, they have the same chromosome number (2n=60), and the offspring are frequently fertile. Although essentially unknown to agricultural science, these hybrids may offer a new gene pool for creating new farm animals and for improving the world's goats. They seem to combine the self-reliance of wild species with the usefulness of domestic ones. Artificial insemination and other modern techniques could make them easier to produce today than ever before.</P>
    922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     911
    923912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibex*</P>
    924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     913
    925914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project in Israel has already produced a cross between the goat and the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). The Sinai Desert goat, the breed that was used, ranks next to the camel in its ability to go without water - it often drinks only twice a week - but its meat has such a strong flavor that most people consider it dreadful. On the other hand, the ibex is compact and muscular and produces tender, mild meat that steak lovers find delicious. The product from crossbreeding the two is a creature seemingly able to endure extreme temperatures and drought, make use of poor pasture, and produce wonderful steaks.</P>
    926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915
    927916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A herd of several hundred of these hybrids (dubbed 'ya-ez") has been created at Kibbutz Lahav in the northern Negev Desert area. Both sexes are fertile, and they can be bred with each other or with either parent. The meat is already in demand on the menus of elegant Tel Aviv hotels. </P>
    928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    929918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor**</P>
    930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     919
    932920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Pakistan's northern uplands, it is not uncommon to find hybrids between domestic goats and the mountain goat known as "markhor" (Capra falconeri). Each year in Chitral and Gilgit, they can be found in the goat markets.</P>
    933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     921
    934922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhors inhabit high elevations in rugged mountains and thrive on diets so meager as to be useless to goats. The hybrids are produced when markhor males - perhaps ousted by more dominant males - come in contact with feral domestic goats. However, some farmers raise young markhor and goats together (to overcome mutual resistance) and produce their own hybrids,</P>
    935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     923
    936924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a single hybrid animal local goatherds pay up to 5,000 rupees, a princely sum in this impoverished region. Traditionally, villagers have kept them as stud animals. They appreciate the animal's genetic endowment. Markhors tolerate extremes of cold and snow, are nimble and skilled at escaping predators, and survive on scanty fodder, Moreover, they have a high reproduction potential because they generally produce twins. As a result, they also tend to give more milk and it is rich in nutritive value. Instead of long body hairs, markhors possess insulating underfur - a soft and valuable raw material for the famous Kashmiri shawls.</P>
    937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     925
    938926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently, the hybrids can possess many of these qualities together with a calm disposition. Thus they could be useful in themselves and as conduits for passing such traits on to goats. </P>
    939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     927
    940928<B><P></P>
    941929<!--
    … …  
    946934  </Description>
    947935-->
    948 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     936</B>
    949937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the hundreds of breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in the world, those weighing less than 35 kg when mature have been largely ignored. Although these are common, the impression lingers that they are too small to be useful. Yet this virtually untapped gene pool is esnecially well adapted to traditional Third World animal husbandry. Given attention, these "microsheep" could boost meat, milk, skin, wool, and pelt production in many villages and small farms of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</P>
    950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     938
    951939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many microsheep thrive in environments that tax the ability of larger breeds to survive. They are adapted to poor feeds and can be grazed in uncultivated wastelands unsuited to any other livestock except goats or camels. Because of their size, microsheep can fatten in areas where forage is so scattered and sparse that larger animals cannot cover enough ground to fill their bellies each day. In addition, their foraging complements that of other livestock. For example, sheep can graze rough grasses and weeds that cattle find unpalatable. Some survive even the stress of extreme aridity and for this reason are the predominant livestock in North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
    952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     940
    953941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small breeds can be disease resistant. Some, for example, are widespread in the zones of Africa where trypanosomiasis is prevalent. They are generally less adversely affected by foot-and-mouth disease than are cattle, and some small native sheep seem to have fewer problems with insects and parasites than do most other livestock, including temperate-area sheep.</P>
    954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     942
    955943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving more attention to the management and improvement of microsheep could pay back abundantly in the form of food, income, and improved land utilization in many parts of the developing world. </P>
    956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     944
    957945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     946
    959947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, but notably in drier regions of the tropics.</P>
    960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     948
    961949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     950
    964951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An average weight for temperate sheep breeds is about 70 kg,' but the smallest microsheep weigh less than 20 kg fully grown. Many tropical microsheep are "hairless," and have little or no wool. These are often difficult to distinguish from goats, but (like all sheep) they generally have blunter snouts, more fat, and hanging tails. Some have greatly enlarged rumps or tails that store fat. Unlike goats, sheep have no odor-producing glands.</P>
    965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     952
    966953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some representative microsheep are described at the end of this chapter.</P>
    967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     954
    968955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     956
    970957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than one billion sheep occur worldwide, and they occupy every climatic zone in which people live. At least half are in developing countries.</P>
    971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     958
    972959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     960
    974961<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although more than 1,000 breeds are recognized, only a handful dominate the world's sheep industries. Lesser-known breeds are rapidly becoming extinct (especially in developed countries, although scattered efforts are being made to preserve them). Elsewhere, genetic resources have not been properly evaluated, and potentially valuable stock is being lost before it is even understood.</P>
    975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     962
    976963<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     964
    978965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are among the most adaptable animals. Various types are kept in areas of extreme heat, cold, altitude, aridity, humidity, and rainfall. They are especially widespread in hot, dry climates, but some breeds also thrive in humid areas. </P>
    979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     966
    980967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     968
    982969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep make efficient use of a wide variety of fodder: tree leaves, fortes, grasses, crop residues, and agricultural by-products, for instance. They often survive privation by calling on their reserves of body fat.</P>
    983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     970
    984971<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, sheep reach sexual maturity in about a year. Many breeds lamb year-round, which allows for a continuous production of premium meat. Gestation takes about five months, and lambing is usually timed to occur when feed is most abundant and nutritious. Microsheep often bear two or more young and, under good management, may produce lambs annually for more than five years.</P>
    985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     972
    986973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     974
    988975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These shy animals flock together and, in general, are managed with little effort. They are easily panicked, however, and rams can become aggressive during rutting or when threatened.</P>
    989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     976
    990977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLE SHEEP THAT COULD</P>
    991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     978
    992979<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dozens of the world's neglected breeds of tiny sheep should be preserved from extinction, for many will undoubtedely prove to have outstanding qualities. Current efforts to save the Navajo sheep in the United States exemplify what can be achieved</P>
    993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     980
    994981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Navajo is a microsheep, and is perhaps the oldest breed of sheep in the United States. It may have been introduced to North America in 1540 by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, who was seeking the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in the region that is now Arizona and New Mexico. Smaller than many dogs, a full-grown Navajo sheep may weigh only 30 kg, but it became a big part of the culture of the Southwest. Although the Navajos and other local Indians had never seen sheep before the 1500s, they soon became shepherds and weavers, and their rugs made from the unique wool of this wiry little animal remain famous even today.</P>
    995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     982
    996983<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo sheep have white or brown wool hanging in ringlets around their bodies. The fleece is a double coat: long, coarse guard hairs on the outside and short wool on the inside. It yields warm, waterproof, and long-lasting products. Many of the sheep have four horns because the Indians believed that this trait was sacred, and they favored four-horned rams for breeding purposes.</P>
    997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     984
    998985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of Navajo sheep was reduced sharply between 1950 and 1950 because of severe overgrazing and replacement by improved wool breeds. In recent times there has been so little commercial and scientific interest in this microsheep that by the 1970s only a handful of purebred specimens survived. Since the late 1970s, however, Lyle McNeal, a Utah State University professor, has been working to save it from extinction. By 1988 he had a burgeoning flock at the university and was learning that this supposedly obsolete dwarf is amazingly useful.</P>
    999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     986
    1000987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed originated in the arid south of Spain (where it is called the "churro"), and it thrives in the hot, dry climate. Unlike normal breeds, it can exist in the desert without supplementary food and with little water. As McNeal has pointed out, any sheep that can survive and raise a lamb in the aridity and searing heat of the American Southwest has to be superior. He has found that the ewes have a strong maternal instinct, which is vital for protecting lambs against the coyotes that are common in the region. </P>
    1001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     988
    1002989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to the efforts of McNeal and his colleagues, Indians are beginning to use Navajo sheep again; by 1988 there were more than 400 on the Navajo reservation, with their wool fetching premium prices. This tough little sheep could prove valuable not only for American Indians but for poor people in many other dry regions as well. </P>
    1003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     990
    1004991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    1005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     992
    1007993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep are mainly kept for meat production, but - especially in arid regions - for milk as well. Their meat is usually lean with little "muttony" taste.</P>
    1008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     994
    1009995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wool or hair is taken from many breeds, although the yield is often small. Skins from hair sheep' thinner than cowhide, are widely used and are in international demand. In some places, manure is considered an important product. In Nepal, thousands of small sheep are used as pack animals, especially to carry salt into mountain valleys.</P>
    1010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     996
    1011997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    1012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     998
    1014999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most sheep are maintained in free-ranging flocks. Many are grazed (often tethered) over a small area during the day and confined in a "fold" at night. Others are penned or kept as village scavengers. These are usually fed supplements of household scraps.</P>
    1015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1000
    10161001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep form an integral part of a mixed farming economy; for example, they may graze pastures during the wet season, and survive on crop residues and field weeds during the dry season. They have excellent foraging capabilities and are often kept alongside goats. This broadens the variety of forages utilized and often increases total production from a single piece of land, for sheep and goats have complementary feeding habits and male goats help protect the sheep from some predators.</P>
    1017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1002
    10181003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of the heavy toll that predators (such as feral dogs) can take on lambs and ewes, the largest proportion of sheep in the tropics are lost through lack of basic care. Modest supplemental feeding of lambs and inexpensive preventive medicines can do much to lower mortality and boost production.</P>
    1019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1004
    10201005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    1021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1006
    10221007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are multipurpose animals, and almost everywhere they produce several products. The rich milk is often preferred to that of cows or goats, especially for making cheese and yogurt.</P>
    1023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1008
    10241009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lambs form an important part of the household economy for much of the rural world, and only rarely is social or religious stigma attached to keeping or eating them. Indeed, sheep are the traditional feast animals of several religions, and in some places sheep meat is preferred to beef and sells at a premium.</P>
    10251010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By and large, all sheep products can be processed, utilized, or marketed by the producer. In addition, sheep marketing and transportation systems exist in most countries, at least to some degree.</P>
    1026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1011
    10271012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are efficient producers and can provide a quick turnover for food and cash. On the brush and coarse grasses of marginal lands, they may be more productive than cattle, and on grass they may outproduce goats. As long as they are not overstocked, sheep do not degrade vegetation; unless starving they will not debark trees. Small breeds cause little erosion, even on steep slopes, heavily traveled paths, or near water holes.2 In South Asia, they have been continuously stocked on the same ground for thousands of years without causing apparent harm.</P>
    1028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1013
    10291014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because sheep have a natural tendency to accumulate fat, they "finish" well on grazing and usually do not require a high-energy finishing diet.</P>
    1030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1015
    10311016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    1032 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1017
    10331018<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general healthiness, sheep are affected by many internal parasites and diseases, a few of which are communicable to man. They are especially susceptible to infectious conjunctivitis (pinkeye).</P>
    1034 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1019
    10351020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators and thieves can be greater threats than sickness. Labor inputs can be high because of the almost continual protection sheep need.</P>
    1036 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1021
    10371022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mutton has a strong taste that many find unappealing. However, the taste is carried mainly by the fat, and the generally lean microsheep are often commended for their fine-textured, sweet meat.</P>
    1038 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1023
    10391024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    1040 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1025
    10411026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numerous breeds of small sheep should be investigated. Assessments should be made for the animals' ability to thrive under adverse conditions and for resistance to particular diseases and parasites.</P>
    1042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1027
    10431028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, even minimal extension services and veterinary support for sheep could greatly decrease mortality, especially among lambs.</P>
    1044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1029
    10451030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving microbreeds without increasing their size is one of the most interesting challenges facing sheep scientists today. While efforts should be made to conserve and select within types, research should also be conducted on hybrid vigor. Efforts to improve the pelt and fleece of microsheep should also be encouraged.</P>
    10461031<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More studies on the interactions between sheep and cropping systems are needed. Sheep (and the manure they produce) could become important components of forestry (see sidebar), crop rotation, alley cropping, and other forms of sustainable agriculture. For instance, sheep are especially effective for weed control in plantation crops such as oil palm and rubber as well as in forests.</P>
    1047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1032
    10481033<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SMALL SHEEP IN THE FOREST</P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1034
    10501035<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in countries with long traditions of raising large sheep, there are opportunities for using small, agile, hardy breeds. The following is an example.</P>
    1051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1036
    10521037<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeking safer methods for stopping brush from smothering newly planted trees, U.S. government foresters have turned from chemical defoliants to flocks of sheep. Court decisions in 1983 and 1984 barred the use of herbicides along Oregon's Pacific Coast. Various alternatives were tried, and the animals proved the most successful. Sheep are now the favored method for controlling unwanted vegetation. Indeed, they have changed the foresters' whore approach to managing reforestation.</P>
    1053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1038
    10541039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formerly, the U.S. Forest Service allowed the brush to grow on logged-over sites and then sprayed it down before planting tree seedlings. Now it plants grass to suppress brush and reduce erosion. The sites are later fertilized, tree seedlings are planted, and within a year sheep are brought in to graze. </P>
    1055 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1040
    10561041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, in the district around Alsea, Oregon sheep nimbly skirt old stumps to graze on the lush vegetation. Three times each summer since 1984, about 2,000 sheep have been guided across the replanted areas by a herder and a range conservationist. The sheep eat both the grass and the new buds on brush, but they leave most fir-tree seedlings untouched. The key, according to Rick Breckle, a forester, is to have enough sheep to graze an area evenly and to keep them moving so they don't resort to nibbling the young trees.</P>
    1057 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1042
    10581043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previously, chemical brush treatments had annually cost $135-$353 per hectare. Now, sowing grass and grazing sheep costs about $300 per hectare. And there is a product to sell: the adult sheep don't fatten well, but the lambs bring a useful income at the end of the summer. What is more, Breckle reports that the trees seem to be growing faster - probably because of the manurings they receive.</P>
    1059 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1044
    10601045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method seems likely to be effective elsewhere - at least with trees that are unpalatable or too tall for their growing points to be nibbled. Malaysia, for instance, doubled its sheep population between 1986 and 1989, in part because it has begun raising sheep between the trees in rubber plantations. With the use of agroforestry increasing worldwide, small sheep could find a whole new application.</P>
    1061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1046
    10631047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROSHEEP</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1048
    10651049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1050
    10671051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal to Nigeria, and south to Angola. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Well adapted to warm, humid conditions. Prolific, and good disease resistance. Major meat producer in West Africa. Fast growing: by six months of age they approach adult weight.</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1052
    10691053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landim (Small East African)</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1054
    10711055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East and Central Africa. 23-40 kg. Prolific, adaptable, long fat-tailed type. Large litter size for a sheep. In one recent test, ewes averaged more than 1.4 lambs.3 </P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    10731057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berber</P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1058
    10751059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Atlas Mountains. 25-41 kg. Needing little feed and remaining constantly outdoors, these extremely hardy sheep are exploited for meat and their coarse, hairy wool. They fatten easily when well fed.</P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1060
    10771061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab</P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1062
    10791063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Africa. 40-50 kg. This thin-tailed sheep is exceptionally robust, and is resistant to extremes of temperature, drought, and poor nutrition. Primarily a meat producer, its wool is used for coarse cloths and carpets.</P>
    1080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1064
    10811065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan Dwarf</P>
    1082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1066
    10831067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the many small breeds of eastern and southern Africa, its weight ranges from 15 to 25 kg, but it may weigh as little as 11 kg. Yielding a fine, short fleece, this hardy, frugal sheep is often run with cattle to maximize grazing.</P>
    1084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1068
    10851069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
    1086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1070
    10871071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deserts of Arabia. 32 kg. A popular and ancient fat-tailed meat producer that is highly acclimatized to drought and privation.</P>
    1088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1072
    10891073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zel (Iranian Thin-Tailed)</P>
    1090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1074
    10911075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian region of northern Iran. Female 30-32 kg. Well adapted to subtropical regions, they produce coarse wool, milk, and excellent meat that lacks the "mutton taste" and odor of some sheep meats.</P>
    1092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1076
    10931077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greek Zackel</P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1078
    10951079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain and island types. Female 30 kg; male 40 kg. These common sheep are active, hardy, and resistant to extremes of climate and disease. Primarily a milking sheep, their wool is used locally and lambs are slaughtered for special occasions. </P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1080
    10971081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitia</P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1082
    10991083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crete. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Another of the hardy, screwhorned "zackel" sheep common to the Balkans, they are adapted to poor pasturage and extensive herding. Quick maturing and highly fertile, they can be exploited for milk as well as for meat and coarse wool.</P>
    1100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1084
    11011085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common Albanian</P>
    1102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1086
    11031087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Similar to the Greek Zackel, they are used as triple-purpose animals: meat, milk, and wool. They survive in low, marshy areas where parasites are common.</P>
    1104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1088
    11051089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zeta Yellow</P>
    1106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1090
    11071091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A small, hardy sheep used for milk and some meat, its primary product is wool. Often unshorn for several years, the long fibers are woven into expensive carpets.</P>
    1108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1092
    11091093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pag</P>
    1110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1094
    11111095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 20-30 kg; male 25-35 kg. These wool, milk, and meat sheep are frugal and well adapted to scant vegetation and rocky terrain. Although they have a low birth rate and carcass yield, their milk and wool are commercially exploitable.</P>
    1112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1096
    11131097<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roccia (Steinschaf)</P>
    1114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1098
    11151099<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Italy, Austria. Female 30 kg; Male 30-35 kg. These "stone sheep" resemble a goat in their ability to exploit the poor pastures of high, steep, rocky mountains. Although not highly productive, they are hardy and frugal and commonly produce twins.</P>
    1116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1100
    11171101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsican</P>
    1118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1102
    11191103<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsica (France). 25-30 kg. A hardy native breed that is well adapted to rather sparse feed conditions. Coarse wool, both white and black, is well suited for hand processing. </P>
    1120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1104
    11211105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entre Douro e Minho</P>
    1122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1106
    11231107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 15-18 kg; Male 20-25 kg. These independent sheep yield a good wool in mountainous terrain that would otherwise be nonproductive.</P>
    1124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1108
    11251109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Churra do Campo</P>
    1126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1110
    11271111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. A coarse-woofed sheep extensively kept in Portugal's dry interior for milk and wool. </P>
    1128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1112
    11291113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Galician</P>
    1130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1114
    11311115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spain. Female 18 kg; male 25 kg. A milking breed that survives on  poor pasture, it also produces a marketable wool.</P>
    1132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1116
    11331117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soay</P>
    1134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1118
    11351119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scotland. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to wide temperature  variations. Possibly the most primitive domesticated sheep of Europe,  probably unchanged from Viking times. Immune to foot rot. A wool  sheep with short brown fleece that is shed annually.</P>
    1136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1120
    11371121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Ronaldsay (Orkney)</P>
    1138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1122
    11391123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Scotland. 27-32 kg. Surviving year-round on seaweed,  this rare breed is adapted to high salt intake and the associated digestive  problems. Yield 1-2 kg medium-coarse wool.</P>
    1140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1124
    11411125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
    1142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1126
    11431127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. Derived from ''native'' Spanish Churro and Merino  sheep. Many are small and very hardy.</P>
    1144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1128
    11451129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo-Churro Southwestern United States. Female 45 kg; male 70  kg. Maternal, and very resistant to internal parasites and hoof rot.  Although the Navajo subsists and reproduces on little feed and scarce  water in desert regions, it was widely replaced by improved breeds  earlier in this century. Because of its hardiness, however, and the use of  its wool in traditional weaving, its numbers are rebounding (see sidebar,  page 50). </P>
    1146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1130
    11471131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Native Southeastern United States. Females 35-45 kg;  males 45-6O kg. This long-isolated and highly variable sheep is  adapted to harsh subtropical climates and is known for its ability to  forage. A medium-wool breed, it is very resistant to intestinal parasites.  Verging on extinction due to neglect and uncontrolled crossbreeding. </P>
    1148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1132
    11491133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands White Hair (St. Croix)</P>
    1150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1134
    11511135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean. Female 35-45 kg; male 45-55 kg. Hair sheep with  some wool in young animals. Well adapted to warm humid conditions, it has fairly good disease and parasite resistance and produces good meat. Prolific, it breeds most of the year and commonly has twins.</P>
    1152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1136
    11531137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magra (Chokhla)</P>
    1154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1138
    11551139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India, Pakistan.4 20-25 kg. Adapted to hot, dry areas, the extremely white and shiny fleece is valued for carpet wool. Slowmaturing and low fertility (lambing at 45 percent) plus extensive crossbreeding have led to serious declines in population.</P>
    1156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1140
    11571141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marwari</P>
    1158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1142
    11591143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India. 25-30 kg. A widespread, white-fleeced sheep that has a high resistance to disease and worms, good fertility, and low mortality. They do well in large flocks.</P>
    1160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1144
    11611145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mandya (Bandur)</P>
    1162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1146
    11631147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest India. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. An outstanding meat breed with good mutton quality, it adapts well to mixed farming and has unusually low lamb mortality.</P>
    1164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1148
    11651149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hu (Huyang, Lake Sheep)</P>
    1166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1150
    11671151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. Female 35 kg; male 45 kg. These fat-tailed sheep have a six month lambing interval and are very prolific. They are used under intensive management to produce meat, wool, and a valuable lambskin.</P>
    1168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1152
    11691153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javanese Thin-Tail</P>
    1170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1154
    11721155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. 25-40 kg. Widely held as a "bank account," these meat, manure, and skin sheep are well known for being prolific. Although single lambs are not uncommon, litters of six have also been recorded. </P>
    1173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1156
    11741157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AND WOOLLY</P>
    1175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1158
    11761159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considering that dozens of countries depend on the productivity of more than a billion domesticated sheep, it is remarkable that their wild ancestor is accorded no attention. This fast-declining animal is now little more than a trophy for hunters, a fact that should be of vital intemational concern.</P>
    1177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1160
    11781161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep were domesticated in the Middle East and Central Asia in the Stone Age era between 8,000 and 11,000 years ago.* Their wild ancestor was almost certainly the mouflon (Outs orientalis). However, domestication may have occurred in more than one place, and two other wild creatures, the urial (Outs vignei) and the argali (Outs ammon), also possibly provided genes to some sheep breeds.</P>
    1179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1162
    11801163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouflon, urial, and argali still exist in the mountains of Central Asia, and a European subspecies of mouflon is also found in the Mediterranean, but only on Corsica, Cyprus, and Sardinia.** Because they live in remote, rugged, upland areas, these wild sheep are usually undisturbed, but the numbers are decreasing everywhere.</P>
    1181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1164
    11821165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This may be a serious loss because these animals could be extremely valuable. They are capable of crossing with domestic sheep, and the offspring are viable and fully fertile.*** For developing new meat-producing breeds, their potential seems almost limitless.</P>
    1183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1166
    11841167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the thousands of years that sheep have been protected by humans, their wild ancestors have continued to face predators, parasites, disease, extreme cold and seasonal starvation. Their genetic endowment, forged and tempered in unforgiving harshness, could be a benefit for all future sheep generations. These animals appear to resist various diseases. Their meat is reported to be of excellent quality, notably lacking the strong mutton flavor that many people find objectionable. They have relatively short, thin tails - a feature that might eliminate the need for docking (tail removal) in the domestic flock. Some (for instance, the Asian mouflon and the urial) have rates of effective reproduction up to 1.6 lambs per ewe, more than twice the average of most domestic types, especially under the conditions where these wild creatures live.</P>
    1185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1168
    11861169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That mouflon and other wild sheep could have practical utility is suggested by research at Utah State University. Scientists there have mated mouflon with farm sheep to create sheep better able to defend themselves against coyotes and other natural dangers. Half-wild, half-tame sheep hybrids have existed on a ranch in southern Utah for the past decade. Also, in Cyprus similar mouflon x sheep hybrids have shown considerable promise.</P>
    1187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1170
    11881171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, this wiry little mountain sheep could be a model for educating students and the public. It is a living reminder of the fantastic changes that can be induced in animals by selection for various traits. Also, it is a "map" to the history of sheep domestication. Studies of mouflon genes, blood immunology, morphology, physiology, horn structure, skeleton, fleece, temperament, and a host of other features would help unravel the ancestry. These studies and various biochemical analyses would be a fascinating contribution to agriculture, science, history, and the public perception of the origins of our natural resources.</P>
    1189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1172
    11901173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genes from wild sheep are not likely to quickly benefit wool production. Lack of fleece is one reason why these creatures have been neglected but throughout most of Asia and in North Africa, sheep are bred primarily for meat and milk, and there is a growing worldwide interest in the use of hair sheep. All of this brings new possibilities for the use of this old resource.</P>
    1191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1174
    11921175<B><P></P>
    11931176<!--
    … …  
    11981181  </Description>
    11991182-->
    1200 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1183</B>
    12011184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g005a.png"></center><br>
    12021185 FIGURE</P>
    1203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1186
    12041187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most breeds of swine (Sus scrofa) are too large to be considered microlivestock, but there are some whose mature weight is less than 70 kg. These micropigs are particularly common in West Africa, South Asia, the East Indies, Latin America, and oceanic islands around the world. At least one, the Mexican Cuino, may weigh a mere 12 kg full-grown.</P>
    1205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1188
    12061189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many miniature swine have been developed for use in medical research, but their agricultural potential has been largely ignored. This is unfortunate, for micropigs of all types - native, feral, and laboratory - deserve investigation. Swine provide more meat worldwide than any other animal, and micropigs are potentially important sources of food and income for poor people in many parts of the developing world.</P>
    1207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1190
    12081191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes for nimble and self-sufficient pigs, in contrast to large, lethargic breeds. Small breeds are easier to manage and cheaper to maintain; the threat of injury from angry or frightened animals is lessened; and the sows are less likely to crush newborn piglets, often a major cause of mortality in large breeds. Some micropigs - particularly those from hot regions or wild populations - also have a higher resistance to heat, thirst, starvation, and some diseases.</P>
    1209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1192
    12101193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs adapt to a wide variety of management conditions, from scavenging to total confinement; some are even kept indoors.2 They gain weight quickly, mature rapidly, and help complement grazing livestock because they relish many otherwise unused wastes from kitchens, farms, and food industries, as well as other foods such as small roots, leafy trash, or bitter fruits that are not consumed by humans or ruminants. </P>
    1211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1194
    12121195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For these reasons, micropigs could become useful household and village livestock in the developing world, and they deserve greater attention than they now receive. Although their growth may not be as rapid as that of improved breeds raised under intensive commercial production, with modest care and minimum investment, backyard micropigs can produce sizable yields of meat and other products, as well as improved income for rural and even urban populations.</P>
    1213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1196
    12141197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    1215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1198
    12161199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in warm, humid areas.</P>
    1217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1200
    12181201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    1219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1202
    12201203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like full-sized breeds, micropigs are stout-bodied, short-legged animals with small tails and flexible snouts ending in flat discs. Examples of some micropigs are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
    1221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1204
    12221205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    1223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1206
    12241207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic pigs are found all over the world, but their concentrations vary greatly. Africa has the fewest per capita, but in recent years they have gained increasing favor in the sub-Saharan regions. In Latin America, pigs have long been a major component of backyard agriculture. In the Middle East, an early center of domestication, pigs are not widely kept today because of religious dietary restrictions. In the Ear East, they are the major meat source, and China has more pigs than any other country. And in the Pacific region, pigs and chickens are often the only meat available.</P>
    1225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1208
    12261209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    1227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1210
    12281211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are becoming more popular: their worldwide numbers increased by about 20 percent in the 1970s. However, in most countries commercial pig production has focused on a mere handful of breeds, and much genetic diversity is unstudied or even threatened with extinction. Some microbreeds have already been lost, and others are dwindling in numbers.3 Many European breeds have been completely lost. The Cuino and some other Latin American criollo types are threatened, as are most of Africa's traditional breeds. China, however, has made notable efforts to preserve its native types. </P>
    1229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1212
    12301213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    1231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1214
    12321215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although, as previously noted, pigs are found all over the world, they are in general adapted to warm, humid climates where many other livestock species are more susceptible to diseases and environmental stresses. They are also raised at high altitudes, such as in the Andes and Tibet. Although there are few climatic limitations to pig production, only about 20 percent of the world's pigs are currently kept in the tropics.</P>
    1233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1216
    12341217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    1235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1218
    12361219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are omnivores, willing and able to eat almost anything.4 Unlike most other livestock, they eat their fill and sleep as the food digests, allowing humans to establish a convenient eating and sleeping schedule.</P>
    1237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1220
    12381221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are prolific; a few Chinese breeds routinely have litters of 20 or more. Micropigs are no exception; litters of 6-10 are common. Piglets gain weight rapidly and can be weaned after a few weeks. Sexual maturity is sometimes attained as early as 4-6 months, depending on breed and environment. Pigs are usually slaughtered at 67 months of age, allowing them to be produced on an annual cycle. They can live 10-20 years.</P>
    1239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1222
    12401223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their smaller size, micropigs have a relatively greater skin-to-weight ratio than today's commercial breeds, and therefore they probably shed heat more effectively. Certainly they seem to perform better in tropical heat and humidity, which normally keep the heavier types from reaching their maximum productivity. Studies have suggested that an optimal size for some tropical environments - because of metabolic and feed efficiency - may be less than 65 kg.5</P>
    1241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1224
    12421225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    1243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1226
    12441227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are social animals; they enjoy companionship and ferociously defend their young and sometimes even the humans who care for them. They are employed as guard animals in some areas and have been used extensively in behavioral research.</P>
    1245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1228
    12461229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to common belief, pigs are clean and tidy if provided adequate space. Larger breeds, however, wallow in mud to stay cool in hot weather and require a wallow or shade (except for some Latin American types, which seem less susceptible to heat). Some lightcolored pigs sunburn easily.</P>
    1247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1230
    12481231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs will dig up earth with their mobile snouts; some breeds do it constantly. </P>
    1249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1232
    12501233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    1251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1234
    12521235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh pork is the major pig product in tropical areas. It usually fetches premium prices, and in many places (such as the Pacific Islands and China) it is the most important red meat available to rural people. Nutritious and tasty, it is one of the easiest meats to preserve, needing only salt or melted fat. Processed products such as bacon and sausages can be important for both home consumption and cash sales.</P>
    1253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1236
    12541237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig fat (lard) is a good source of food energy, and can substitute for cooking fats and oils. It is easily melted and clarified, is widely used to make soap, and is a valuable commercial product.</P>
    1255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1238
    12561239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig skin, once degreased, is easily tanned into leathers that are popular for garments, shoes, and other products demanding soft, light, and flexible leathers.</P>
    1257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1240
    12581241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig manure is a good fertilizer. Because the animals are often kept in confinement, it can be easily collected.</P>
    1259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1242
    12601243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    1261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1244
    12631245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, pigs are kept as free-roaming scavengers. They can be trained (by coaxing with feed, salt, or affection) to keep close to home, thereby helping to minimize destructive scavenging.</P>
    1264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1246
    12651247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herding is a higher level of management that requires more effort, but it allows pigs to be integrated into other types of agriculture while utilizing feeds that otherwise go to waste.</P>
    1266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1248
    12671249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their exercise needs are minimal and dominance is quickly established within litters, pigs are the easiest hoofed livestock to raise in small enclosures (sties). However, fencing must be secure, and if sties are small, the animals must be moved frequently to prevent diseases and parasites from building up.</P>
    1268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    12691251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    1270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    12711253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are well-known, often traditional, animals in many areas, and people usually do not have to be taught how to manage and use them. Efficient scavengers, they can live, grow, and reproduce with a minimum of investment or specialized care. </P>
    1272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1254
    12731255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are highly efficient converters of feed to meat. They can provide the greatest return for the least investment of any hoofed livestock because of their fecundity, low management costs, broad food preferences, and rapid growth.</P>
    1274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1256
    12751257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs normally accumulate fat during adolescent growth (making ''finishing" feeds less necessary). Some micropigs (especially those from feral ancestors) have the ability to quickly mobilize and store these body-fat reserves; in times of extreme scarcity, it aids their survival.6</P>
    1276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1258
    12771259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs work well in multiple-cropping schemes. They are often used to help clear small plots by uprooting weeds, shrubs, and even small trees. In Southeast Asia, they are frequently raised in conjunction with aquaculture, their manure providing food for the fish.</P>
    1278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1260
    12791261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    1280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1262
    12811263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If improperly managed or maintained in filthy conditions, pigs may quickly succumb to disease and parasite epidemics. Most diseases are communicated only among pigs, but some can be transmitted to humans. For this reason, pork should always be fully cooked.</P>
    1282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1264
    12831265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some cultures never eat pork. Others do, but nonetheless accord pigs and their keepers low status.</P>
    1284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1266
    12851267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigs are vulnerable to many predators.</P>
    1286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1268
    12871269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    1288 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1270
    12891271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major survey of small pig breeds is needed. They have the potential to be valuable producers in their own right, as well as to improve other pig breeds. For instance, they represent a little-known reservoir of disease resistance and climatic adaptation. Governments, research stations, universities, and individuals should make special efforts to preserve types that have outstanding or unusual qualities.</P>
    1290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1272
    12911273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it is necessary to eradicate feral pig populations (as is common on Pacific islands), representative stocks should be preserved. These rugged animals have been genetically isolated for decades or even centuries and are likely to carry valuable traits for survival under adversity.</P>
    1292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1274
    12931275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large breeds may be promising candidates for genetic "downsizing," which has already produced the many types of miniature pigs that are used in medical research. </P>
    1294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1276
    12951277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLEST PIG</P>
    1296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1278
    12971279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although this chapter highlights the world's smallest breeds, there exists a pig that is even smaller. It is, however, an entirely different species and it is on the brink of extinction.</P>
    1298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1280
    12991281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius) is a shy and retiring wild creature of northeastern India. It is merely 60 cm long with a shoulder height of 25 cm, and weighs less than 10 kg. It was once found widely along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, however, it apparently occurs in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam. Despite this protection and the fact that it is listed among the 12 most endangered species on earth, it still falls victim to hunters and to habitat destruction - especially illegal grass fires.</P>
    1300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1282
    13011283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If saved from extinction, this minute species - barely reaching a person's calf - might become useful throughout the world. Its chromosome number is the same as that of the common pig and its physiological processes are probably also similar. Therefore, were its numbers to be built up, it might become a valued and well-known resource for laboratories and small farms. Its daily food intake and its space requirements are only a fraction of a normal pig's. It probably has exceptional tolerance to heat, humidity, and disease.</P>
    1302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1284
    13031285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a domesticated species, and there is therefore much to learn before its usefulness can be clearly seen. Indeed, whether it can be reared in captivity is uncertain. Some attempts have ended in disaster, but this seems to have been the result of mismanagement.</P>
    1304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1286
    13051287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before there is any possibility of developing it, however, the pigmy hog must be preserved from ultimate loss. The last specimen could go into a villager's pot at any time now. </P>
    1306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1288
    13071289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g006a.png"></center><br>
    13081290 Adult male of the common pig (wild boar) and pigmy hog draw to same scale. (W.L.R. OLIVER)</P>
    1309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1291
    13101292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROPIGS</P>
    1311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1293
    13121294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Nigerian Black, Ashanti)</P>
    1313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1295
    13141296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. Mature weights of 25-45 kg are reported. In the humid lowland forests of West Africa this breed has long been kept by villagers, often as a scavenger. Indigenous to the hot, humid tsetse zones of West Africa, it seems resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
    1315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1297
    13161298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarfs</P>
    1317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1299
    13181300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China (and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam) has long had small pigs - often characterized by numerous teats and large litters - associated with traditional intensive agriculture as well as scavenging conditions. Some Chinese pigs weighing less than 70 kg are adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions, but the smallest (20-35 kg) live in the cold climates and high altitudes of Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet. Small black Chinese pigs were crossed with European types in the early 1800s and produced the foundation stock of many modern Western breeds.</P>
    1319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1301
    13201302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
    1321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1303
    13221304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of "native" breeds throughout Latin America commonly known as "criollo." Many are quite small. Although, apparently, they are slow to mature and bear small litters, they adapt well to environmental extremes and are widely kept by rural inhabitants for food and income. Criollos are little studied and are being replaced by imported breeds before their possibly outstanding qualities can be quantified.</P>
    1323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1305
    13241306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuino This micropig from the highlands of central Mexico may be descended from small Chinese types and is the smallest domestic pig, weighing as little as 10-12 kg fully grown. Hardy and an efficient scavenger, it can grow quickly when feed - especially corn - is abundant. A century ago the cuing was a widespread household animal and was used for a time for experimental work in central Mexico. It is now little known and could be threatened with extinction. </P>
    1325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307
    13261308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Hairless (felon, Tubasqueno, Birish) These small pigs of central and northern South America survive in hot, humid, adverse climates. They are adapted to bulkier feeds than most pigs and can thrive on fruit wastes. Many local types exist. </P>
    1327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1309
    13281310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilo (Macao, Tatu, Canastrinha) This small, widespread, black, hairless pig of Brazil is often kept inside the house. </P>
    1329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1311
    13301312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yucatan Miniature Swine A subtype of the black hairless from Mexico's hot, arid Yucatan Peninsula, it was imported into the United States in 1960. It has been downsized for laboratory use in the United States and is known as the Yucatan Micropig (registered). Weight at sexual maturity has been lowered through selective breeding from 75 kg to, currently, between 30 and 50 kg, with an ultimate goal of 20-25 kg. There is no evidence of "dwarfism," stunting, or loss of reproductive performance, and it appears to hold notable promise as microlivestock for developing countries. The parent stock, used for meat and lard production in Yucatan, is renowned for gentleness, intelligence, resistance to disease, and relative lack of odor. Exceptional docility, even in older boars and sows with litters, makes them easy to handle without the need for specialized housing or equipment.7 </P>
    1331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1313
    13321314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Laboratory Breeds</P>
    1333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1315
    13341316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other miniature laboratory pigs have potential for tropical use. These include the Goettingen, Hanford, Kangaroo Island, Ohmini, Pitman-Moore, and Sinclair (Hormel). In general they weigh 30-50 kg when ready for slaughter and mature at less than 70 kg.</P>
    1335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1317
    13361318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ossabaw</P>
    1337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1319
    13381320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 20-30 kg. Feral on Ossabaw Island, South Carolina, for more than 300 years, this pig is well adapted to environmental extremes. Unlike most domestic animals, it can maintain itself in coastal salt marshes. It has perhaps the highest percentage of fat of any pig. The piglets are very precocious, self-reliant, and robust.8</P>
    1339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1321
    13401322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kunekune (Pua'a, Poaka)</P>
    1341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1323
    13421324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand. Female 40 kg; male 50 kg. Perhaps of Chinese origin, these black-and-white spotted pigs are docile, slow, and easy to contain. Although late maturing, they can fatten on grass alone. Like other native breeds throughout the Pacific region (for example, the Pauta of Hawaii), stock is being lost through crossbreeding, displacement by other breeds, and eradication efforts. </P>
    1343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1325
    13441326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find certain disease-resistant genes in poultry it may be necessary to go looking in the backyard chicken flocks in Latin America, Africa, or Asia.</P>
    13451327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
    13461328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
    1347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1329
    13491330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. . . Policies are needed to encourage development of a labor-intensive small-scale livestock sector, which would increase employment and provide a major market for surplus cereals. This sector, however, is particularly restrained by poor technology, poor public support services, and poor marketing channels. Third World livestock production of this type could provide a natural focus for foreign assistance that earlier seemed inappropriate because of concerns about global food scarcity.</P>
    1350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1331
    13511332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John W. Mellor International Food Policy Research Institute</P>
    1352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1333
    13531334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful development of agriculture often requires an intimate understanding of the society within which it is to take place - of its systems of values, of its customary restraints.... It has been necessary to understand what incentives the farmer needs to change, what practical difficulties he encounters introducing change, what his traditional pattern of land use is and how this pattern or system can be upset by thoughtless innovation.</P>
    1354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1335
    13551336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John de Wilde</P>
    13561337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa </P>
    1357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1359 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1338
     1339<B>
    13601340<!--
    13611341</Section>
    … …  
    13661346  </Description>
    13671347-->
    1368 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1348</B>
    13691349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g007a.png"></center><br>
    13701350 FIGURE</P>
    1371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1351
    13721352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens, ducks, muscovies, geese, guinea fowl, quail, pigeons, and turkeys epitomize the concept of microlivestock. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America they are (collectively) the most common of all farm stock. In many - perhaps most - tropical countries, practically every family, settled or nomadic, owns some kind of poultry. In the countryside, in villages, even in cities, one or another species is seen almost everywhere; in some places, several may be seen together. Although raised in all levels of husbandry, these birds occur most often in scattered household flocks that scavenge for their food and survive with little care or management.</P>
    1373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1353
    13741354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their size bestows microlivestock advantages, including low capital cost, low food requirements, and little or no labor requirements. They are also "family sized": easily killed and dressed, with little waste or spoilage.</P>
    1375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1355
    13761356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These poultry species help meet the protein needs of the poorest people in the world. Some are raised even in areas where domestic cattle cannot survive because of afflictions such as trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease. Some are maintained under conditions of intensive confinement - provided a source of feed is available - and can be produced in areas with insufficient land for other meat-producing animals.</P>
    1377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1357
    13781358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, these birds grow quickly and mature rapidly. (For instance, a chicken can, under proper conditions, reach maturity in 26 months.) They adapt readily to being fenced or penned much, or all, of the time. And, compared with the major farm livestock, their life cycles are short and their production of offspring is high. Thus, farmers can synchronize production to match seasonal changes in the availability of feed. </P>
    1379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1359
    13801360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although poultry contribute substantially to human nutrition in the tropics, it is a small fraction of what it could be. The meat is widely consumed and is in constant demand. An excellent source of protein, it also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, as well as the B-complex vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. Nutritionally as complete as red meat, it is much lower in cholesterol and saturated fats. Poultry eggs are also important sources of nutrients. They are a renewable resource, easy to prepare, and are among the best sources of quality protein and vitamins (except vitamin C).</P>
    1381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1361
    13821362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of their numbers and potential, poultry are rarely accorded primary consideration in economic development activities. All in all, these small birds lack the appeal of large, four-legged livestock. Indeed, most countries have little knowledge of the contribution household birds actually make to the well-being and diets of their peoples. In some countries - even those where birds are widely kept - there is little or no poultry research or extension. And where such programs do exist they usually focus almost exclusively on the production of chickens under "industrial" conditions near cities (see sidebar, page 75).</P>
    1383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1363
    13841364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries now have these intensive chicken industries, in which birds are kept in complete confinement. However, these commercial operations provide food for people in the cash economy, not for subsistence farmers. Moreover, grain is sometimes diverted or imported to maintain these operations, perhaps causing food shortages, higher prices, or depleted foreign exchange. Thus, in this section we focus on other, neglected, aspects of poultry production.,</P>
    1385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1365
    13861366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The neglect of poultry that scavenge around the rural farmhouses and in village yards is understandable. The birds are scattered across the countryside where extension programs are difficult to implement. Their presence is often so ingrained in traditional village life that they are taken for granted and ignored by the authorities.</P>
    1387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1367
    13881368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet village poultry deserve greater attention. As converters of vegetation into animal protein, poultry can be outstanding. In fact, it is estimated that, in terms of feed conversion, eggs rank with cow's milk as the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry meat ranks above that of other domestic animals.</P>
    1389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1369
    13901370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most Third World poultry flocks live a wary, half-wild existence, scrounging for insects, earthworms, snails, seeds, leaves, and leftovers from the human diet. From dung and refuse piles they salvage undigested grains, as well as insects and other invertebrates. Often the persons who care for them are women or children. Some keep the birds around the house, penning them at night for protection from predators and thieves.</P>
    1391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1371
    13921372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This almost zero-cost production has, in spite of high losses, a remarkable rate of return. Any improvements that require the purchase of supplies cut severely into the profitability. The first step in improving the production of free-ranging poultry is vaccination against diseases (especially Newcastle disease, fowl pox, and Marek's disease) and a modest, supplemental feeding during times of seasonal scarcity. </P>
    1393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1373
    13941374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL CHICKEN</P>
    1395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1375
    13961376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout modem livestock farming the trend is toward more intensive methods, and poultry specialists have set the pace. In many countries, since the 1920s, barnyard fowl have given way to egg and broiler factories. The old-fashioned chicken reared outside on corn stubbles for 5 or 6 months has been replaced by the broiler, mass-produced in controlled environment houses in 7 - 10 weeks.</P>
    1397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1377
    13981378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this revolution in poultry raising, small farmers who once made a comfortable living from a few laying hens have been forced out of business. These economic changes have also forced poultry men to have larger and larger flocks to survive. The largest broiler-chicken companies even control their own breed development, feed production, house construction, slaughtering, and freezing, many even have wholesale outlets.</P>
    1399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1379
    14001380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rapid changes in poultry farming methods can be attributed to the application of advanced technology. The development of the incubator to replace the mother hen sitting her seasonal clutch of eggs was the first mayor step toward intensive poultry farming.</P>
    1401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1381
    14021382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, chickens were the first livestock to receive serious attention from geneticists. Before World War II, it was discovered that crossbreeding selected pure and inbred lines could result in dramatic increases in production. Hybrids tailor-made for egg or meat production quickly ousted the old pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red White and Brown Leghorns, Light Sussex, and the various crosses among them. Chicken broilers made by crosses involving parents derived from Cornish and Plymouth Rock have supplanted all others.</P>
    1403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1383
    14041384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation now prevails in most industrialized countries. The breeding of commercial stocks is in the hands of a few corporations for each commodity (white eggs, brown eggs, chicken broilers, turkeys) and each has national or even global distribution of its hybrid stocks.</P>
    1405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1385
    14061386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BREAKTHROUGH IN POULTRY HEALTH</P>
    1407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1387
    14081388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newcastle disease is endemic in developing countries and is a constant threat to poultry. Farmers dread this virus, first identified half a century ago in northern England that brings diarrhea, paralysis, and death to most poultry. It is severe, highly contagious, and can cause 100 percent mortality. When it strikes an area, farmers must kill all chickens - even healthy ones - to stop it from spreading.</P>
    1409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1389
    14101390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only Australia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and some Pacific islands are unaffected. But, although the disease is not found in Australia, certain strains of the virus are present in Australian chickens. These strains are completely harmless, but Australian researchers have found that they induce antibodies that are effective against Newcastle disease.</P>
    1411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1391
    14121392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a joint project (funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), scientists from Malaysia's University of Agriculture and Australia's University of Queensland* have put this to good use. They have produced a live culture of the harmless virus that farmers can spray onto feed pellets to vaccinate their birds.</P>
    1413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1393
    14141394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field tests of the new vaccine, carried out in Southeast Asia, have been extremely promising. Simply coating feeds with the virus seems to be enough to immunize some chickens, which then pass the immunity on to the others in the flock as well as to new hatchlings. In Malaysia, which has 49 million chickens and a population willing to pay a premium for tasty village poultry meat, one economist estimates that the vaccine might increase rural incomes by 25 percent.</P>
    1415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1395
    14161396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conventional vaccines must be stored under refrigerated conditions, which most villages lack. But the Malaysian workers made the Newcastle disease vaccine tolerant of heat. By selective breeding, they now have strains that resist 56&Yacute;C for at least 2 hours. Thus, even in the tropics, the vaccine remains effective for several weeks without refrigeration. The researchers have also devised methods for coating the vaccine onto pelleted feeds. Because the virus can withstand heat, they use a machine designed for coating pharmaceutical tablets.</P>
    1417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1397
    14181398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the project is showing every promise of producing a cheap means of reducing Newcastle disease losses among chickens throughout much of the world. Already inquiries have come from other Asian countries and from Africa, and it is hoped that the vaccine may eventually benefit many countries. </P>
    1419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1399
    14221400<B><P></P>
    14231401<!--
    … …  
    14271405  </Description>
    14281406-->
    1429 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1407</B>
    14301408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g008a.png"></center><br>
    14311409 FIGURE</P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1410
    14331411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens (Gallus gallus or Gallus domesticus)1 are the world's  major source of eggs and are a meat source that supports a food  industry in virtually every country. There may be as many as 6.5 billion  chickens, the equivalent of 1.4 birds for every person on earth.2</P>
    1434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1412
    14351413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No other domesticated animal has enjoyed such universal acceptance,  and these birds are the prime example of the importance of  microlivestock. Kept throughout the Third World, they are one of the  least expensive and most efficient producers of animal protein.</P>
    1436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1414
    14371415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the world's poor, chickens are probably the most nutritionally  important livestock species. For instance, in Mauritius and Nigeria more  than 70 percent of rural households keep scavenger chickens. In  Swaziland, more than 95 percent of rural households own chickens,  most of them scavengers. In Thailand, where commercial poultry  production is highly developed, 80-90 percent of rural households still  keep chickens in backyards and under houses. And in other developing  countries from Pakistan to Peru, a similar situation prevails.</P>
    1438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1416
    14391417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, these chickens should be given far more attention. They  represent an animal and a production system with remarkable qualities;  they compete little with humans for food; they produce meat at low  cost; and they provide a critical nutritional resource.</P>
    1440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1418
    14411419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scavenger chickens are usually self-reliant, hardy birds capable of  withstanding the abuses of harsh climate, minimal management, and inadequate nutrition. They live largely on weed seeds, insects, and feeds that would otherwise go to waste.</P>
    1442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1420
    14431421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, quantitative information about the backyard chicken is hard to obtain. Few countries have any knowledge of its actual contribution to the well-being and diet of their people. Notably lacking is an understanding of the factors limiting egg production, which is markedly low and perhaps could be raised dramatically with modest effort.</P>
    1444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1422
    14451423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    1446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1424
    14471425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    1448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1426
    14491427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    1450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1428
    14511429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are so well known and ubiquitous that they need no further description. Varying in color from white through many shades of brown to black, they range in size from small bantams of less than 1 kg to giant breeds weighing 5 kg or more. Scavenger chickens tend to weigh about I kg.</P>
    1452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1430
    14531431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The indigenous chickens of Asia are probably descended directly from the wild junglefowl. Those of West Africa are believed descended from European birds brought by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century; those of Latin America probably descend from Spanish birds introduced soon after the time of Columbus.</P>
    1454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1432
    14551433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p81a.png"></center><br>
    14561434 figure</P>
    1457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1435
    14581436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    1459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1437
    14601438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All countries have chickens in large numbers.</P>
    1461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1439
    14621440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    1463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1441
    14641442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are not endangered, but industrial stocks are replacing traditional breeds to such an extent that much potentially valuable genetic heritage is disappearing. </P>
    1465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1443
    14661444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    1467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1445
    14681446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although chickens derive from tropical species, they adapt to a wide  variety of environments. The modern Leghorn, for example, is found  from the hot plains of India to the frozen tundra of Siberia, and from  sea level to altitudes above 4,000 m in the Andes. (There are, however,  hatching problems at such high altitudes because of oxygen deficiency.)  They also occur in desert countries such as Saudi Arabia, which has a  vast poultry industry and even exports broilers. (However, the birds  need shade and a lot of water where it is hot and dry.)</P>
    1469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1447
    14701448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    1471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1449
    14721450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are omnivorous, living on seeds, insects, worms, leaves,  green grass, and kitchen scraps.</P>
    1473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1451
    14741452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial bird may produce 280 eggs annually, but a scavenger  may produce close to none. Commonly, a farmyard hen lays a dozen  eggs, takes three weeks to hatch out a brood of chicks, stays with the  chicks six weeks or more, and only then starts laying again.</P>
    1475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1453
    14761454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egg production depends on daylength. For the highest production  rate, at least 12 hours of daylight are needed. The incubation period is  21 days. A hen can begin laying at 5 months of age or even earlier, but  in scavengers it may be much later. The average weight of the eggs is  approximately 55 g from industrial layers and approximately 40 g from  scavengers. Hatching success from breeder flocks often exceeds 90  percent. Industrial broilers can be marketed as early as 6 weeks, when  they are called "Cornish hens."</P>
    1477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1455
    14781456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    1479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1457
    14801458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These passive, gregarious birds have a pronounced social (pecking)  order. If acclimated, they remain on the premises and are unlikely to go  feral. If given a little evening meal of "scratch," they learn to come  home to roost at night.</P>
    1481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1459
    14821460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    1483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1461
    14841462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens have multiple uses. They were probably first used for cock  fighting; later they were used in religious rituals, and only much later  were raised for eggs and meat. Today, chickens can provide a family  with eggs, meat, feathers, and sometimes cash.  </P>
    1485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1463
    14861464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    1487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1465
    14881466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In different parts of the world, people keep scavenging chickens in  different ways. The managers are often women and children because  they have more time to spend at home to feed the birds and repel  predators. Some people leave the birds entirely to their own devices.  Many house them at night. Others take the birds each day to the fields,  where they may find much more food.</P>
    1489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1467
    14901468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ingenious local practices. In Ghana, for example,  farmers "culture" termites for poultry by placing a moist piece of cow  dung (under a tin) over a known termite nest. The termites burrow into  the dung, and some can then be fed to the chickens each day. Because  termites digest cellulose, this system converts waste vegetation into  meat.</P>
    1491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1469
    14921470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ratio of 1 male to 10-15 females is adequate for barnyard flocks.  Hens will lay eggs in the absence of a rooster - but of course the rooster  is needed if fertile eggs are wanted.</P>
    1493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1471
    14941472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing chicks stimulates the hen to lay more eggs. This results in  more chicks being hatched, but it requires that the chicks be nurtured  and fed until they are old enough to fend for themselves.</P>
    1495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1473
    14961474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    1497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1475
    14991476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are everywhere; every culture knows them and how to  husband them. They have been utilized for so many centuries that in  most societies their use is ingrained. Unlike the case with pork and beef,  there are few strictures against eating chicken meat or eggs.</P>
    1500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1477
    15011478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is high in quality protein, low in fat, and easily prepared. In  many countries, the village chicken's meat is preferred to that of  commercial broilers because it has better texture and stronger flavor.  Even in countries with vast poultry industries there is a growing demand  for the tasty, "organically grown," free-ranging chicken.</P>
    1502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1479
    15031480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are more suited to "urban farming" than most types of  livestock and can be raised in many city situations.</P>
    1504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1481
    15051482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are conveniently sized, easily transported alive, and, by and  large, do not transmit diseases to humans.</P>
    1506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1483
    15071484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    1508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1485
    15101486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the problems of village  chickens are mainly those discussed below.  </P>
    1511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1487
    15121488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Hatching Mortality</P>
    1513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1489
    15151490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonly, a hatch of eight or nine village chicks results in only two  or three live birds after a few days. A survey in Nigeria, for instance,  showed that 80 percent died before the age of eight weeks. Losses  elsewhere are known to be similar. This is mostly because of starvation,  cold, dehydration, predators (hawks, kites, snakes, dogs, and cats, for  example), diseases, parasites, accidents, and simply getting lost - all of  which can be prevented without great effort.</P>
    1516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1491
    15171492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chronic and Acute Disease</P>
    1518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1493
    15201494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry diseases can become epidemic in the villages because there  are few if any veterinarians. Newcastle disease, fowlpox, pullorum  disease, and coccidiosis, for example - all of which are endemic in the  Third World - can destroy the entire chicken population over large  areas. Lice and other parasites are also prevalent. Scavengers and  industrial birds seem to show no differences in their tolerance for such  diseases and parasites.</P>
    1521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1495
    15221496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Production</P>
    1523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1497
    15251498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey in Nigeria showed that the annual production per hen was  merely 20 eggs. Such low production is common throughout the Third  World and is caused by a combination of low genetic potential,  inadequate nutrition, and poor management. Villagers rarely provide nest  boxes or laying areas, so that some eggs are just not found. Some birds  have high levels of broodiness, and eggs accumulating in a nest  stimulates this. There are indications, however, that some village  chickens (for example, some in China) have quite substantial egg-laying  potential when provided with adequate feed.3</P>
    1526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1499
    15271500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Consumption</P>
    1528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1501
    15301502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, many people choose not to eat eggs. Often this is  because eggs are the source of the next generation of chickens;  sometimes it is because of superstition. Further, eggs do not keep well  because most are fertile and, exposed to constant tropical heat, undergo  rapid embryo development.  </P>
    1531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1503
    15321504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop Damage</P>
    1533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1505
    15351506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often necessary to confine the birds to protect young crops or  vegetable gardens.</P>
    1536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1507
    15371508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    1538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1509
    15401510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the situation with small cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, there are  few named and recognized breeds of Third World chickens. Yet, nearly  every country has at least one kind of village chicken. These have  survived there for centuries and are highly adapted to local conditions.  In village projects, these unnamed chickens deserve priority attention  before other types are sought from elsewhere.</P>
    1541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1511
    15421512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally speaking, improving the production of scavenging poultry  does not require sophisticated research. Instead, simple precautions are  sufficient. These are discussed below.</P>
    1543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1513
    15441514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease Control</P>
    1545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1515
    15471516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a national or regional level, the initial approach to increasing  chicken production in tropical areas should be disease control. There are  several outstanding instances of success in this endeavor. For example,  the spectacular rise of poultry production in Singapore (from 250,000  birds in 1949 to 20 million in 1957) followed the control of Ranikhet  disease. Village flock-health programs, carried out regularly by visiting  veterinarians ("barefoot veterinarians"), might be the answer to some of  the routine health problems. Today, a prime target should be Newcastle  disease, for which there are good chances for success (see page 76).</P>
    1548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1517
    15491518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
    1550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1519
    15521520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in chicken production at the farm level is improved  management. With more care and attention, mortality can be greatly  reduced. Because incubating and brooding hens must spend the night on  the ground, they are extremely vulnerable. Even modest predator  controls can be highly beneficial. Building crude and inexpensive nest  boxes and constructing a simple holding area around them can  substantially raise production by ensuring that more chicks survive.  </P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1521
    15541522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE CHICKEN'S WILD ANCESTOR</P>
    1555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1523
    15571524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although little known to most people, the red junglefowl has  contributed more to every nation than any other wild bird. It is  the ancestor of the chicken.</P>
    1558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1525
    15591526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given its descendants importance worldwide, the neglect of  this bird is baffling. If the cow's wild ancestor, the aurochs, had  not become extinct in the 1600s, it would now be worth millions  of dollars as the ultimate source of cattle genetic diversity. Yet  the world's chicken industry remains virtually unaware of the  origin of its source of livelihood.</P>
    1560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1527
    15611528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the aurochs, the red junglefowl has a wealth of wild  genes, and it deserves more recognition and protection. For one  thing the modern chicken - selectively bred in the temperate  zone - is highly susceptible to heat and humidity; the junglefowl,  on the other hand, is not. It inhabits the warmest and most humid  parts of Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, and most of  Southeast Asia. It may also be resistant to various chicken  diseases and pests.</P>
    1562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1529
    15631530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a rare species. Throughout the wide crescent  stretching from Pakistan to Indonesia, junglefowls are still seen  in the wild, especially in forest clearings and lowland scrub.  Although they are a prized bag for hunters, they survive by fast  running and agile flying. They are sometimes sold in village  markets, but can easily be mistaken for domesticated chickens,  which in this region are often very similar. The wild junglefowl,  however, has feathered legs, a down-curving tail, and an overall  scragginess.</P>
    1564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1531
    15651532<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Junglefowls should be under intensive study. They are easy to  rear in captivity and do well in pens, even small ones, as long as  they are sheltered from rain and wind. One drawback is their  craze for scratching unless provided plenty of space they  promptly tear up all grass and dirt. Another is that junglecocks  are violent fighters and must be kept apart. (Cockfighting is  probably a major reason why they were initially selected, and  thus their aggressiveness is perhaps the reason we have the  chicken today.)</P>
    1566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1533
    15671534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These highly adaptable creatures live in a variety of habitats,  from sea level to 2,000 m. Most, however, are found in and  around damp forests, secondary growth, dry scrub, bamboo  groves, and small woods near farms and villages. They are  amazingly clever at evading capture and thrive wherever there is  some cover.</P>
    1568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1535
    15691536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other junglefowl species might also provide useful poultry.  They, too, can be raised in captivity with comparative ease, as  long as the cocks are kept apart. Perhaps they might be tamed with imprinting and could prove useful as domestic fowl,  especially in marginal habitats. They are everywhere considered  culinary luxuries and their meat commands premium prices.  Moreover, several have colorful feathers, giving them additional  commercial value. These other species are:</P>
    1570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1537
    15721538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- La Fayette's Junglefowl (Gallus lafayettei). Avery attractive  bird of Sri Lanka, it is little known in captivity, and only in the  United States are there any number in captivity.</P>
    1573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1539
    15751540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray or Sonnerat's Junglefowl (Gallus sonnerati). A native  of India, this colorful bird produces feathers that are used in  tying the most prized trout and salmon flies. Demand is so great  that certain populations have declined, and since 1968 India has  banned all export of birds or feathers. Nonetheless, there are  several hundred in captivity in various countries.</P>
    1576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1541
    15781542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Green Junglefowl (Gallus varius). This is yet another striking  bird. The cock has metallic, greenish-black feathering set off by  a comb that merges from brilliant green at the base to bright  purple and red at the top. Native to Java, Bali, and the  neighboring Indonesian islands as far out as Timor, it is found  particularly near rice paddies and rocky coasts. This species, too,  can be raised without great difficulty, and there are at least 90 in  captivity in various parts of the world.  </P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1543
    15801544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1545
    15831546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving poultry nutrition is also of prime importance. There are no quantitative data on the quality of a scavenging chicken's diet. Surveys are badly needed so that appropriate, low-cost supplements can be devised.</P>
    1584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1547
    15851548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chances are that the diet for chicks of scavenging poultry is almost always deficient in available energy. Minimal supplementation in the form of cereals or energy-rich by-products can greatly improve both egg and meat production. However, caution must always be exercised and the supplements given only to chicks. Overfed adults will give up scavenging and stay around the owner's house, without really producing much more meat or eggs.</P>
    1586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1549
    15871550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
    1588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1551
    15901552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it seems attractive to replace the scrawny village chicken with bigger, faster-growing imported breeds, it is a process fraught with difficulty. Exotic breeds lack the ability to tolerate the rigors of mismanagement and environmental stress. Many cannot avoid predators, as a result either of being overweight or of having a poor conformation for flight. The local birds, however, probably have a genetic potential that is much higher than can be expressed in the constraining environment. Thus, the environmental constraints should be tackled first.</P>
    1591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1553
    15921554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the village birds may have a feed-conversion efficiency that is far less than ideal because they are adapted to a scavenging existence. Modern breeds imported into Ghana, for instance, showed a feed-conversion efficiency of less that 3.5:1 (weight of food eaten: growth and eggs), but the local birds had efficiencies of 11:1.4 </P>
    1593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1555
    15941556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
    1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1557
    15971558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for preserving genetic variability is greater in poultry, especially in chickens, than in any other form of domestic animal. North America, for instance, which years ago had 50 or more common breeds, now relies on only 2 for meat production, and the others have been largely lost. Conservation of germplasm has become a matter of serious concern, and the saving of rare breeds in domestic fowl should not be delayed. </P>
    1598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1559
    15991560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE SOUTH AMERICAN CHICKEN</P>
    1600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1561
    16021562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early European explorers of South America were surprised to discover an abundance of unusual chickens that laid colored eggs and had feathers resembling earrings on the side of the head. While the origin of this bird - commonly called the araucanian chicken and classified as Gallus inauris - is debatable, scientists generally agree that it is pre-Columbian. There is archeological evidence that this bird is native to the Americas. It is reported to have occurred in Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Easter Island. It still occurs in the wild in southern Chile and on Easter Island.</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1563
    16041564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been called the "Easter-egg chicken" because it lays light green, light blue, and olive colored eggs. It lays well and has a delicious meat. In areas such as southern Chile the eggs are preferred over those of normal chickens because of their flavor and dark yellow yolk. This unusual bird has a high degree of variability; however, specimens of similar genetic background have been grouped to create "breeds" such as the White Araucanian, Black Araucanian, and Barred Araucanian. These are homozygotes and breed true.</P>
    1605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1565
    16061566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been the subject of much public interest,. clubs dedicated to its preservation have been formed in the United States, Great Britain, and Chile. Its possible exploitation as a backyard microlivestock deserves serious consideration. </P>
    1607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1567
    16091568<B><P></P>
    16101569<!--
    … …  
    16151574  </Description>
    16161575-->
    1617 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1576</B>
    16181577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g009a.png"></center><br>
    16191578 FIGURE</P>
    1620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1579
    16221580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)1 are well known, but still have much unrealized promise for subsistence-level production. Although a major resource of Asia, where there is approximately one duck per 20 inhabitants, they are not so intensively used elsewhere. On a worldwide basis, for instance, they are of minor importance compared with chickens.</P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1581
    16241582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate because ducks are easy to keep, adapt readily to a wide range of conditions (including small-farm culture), and require little investment. They are also easily managed under village conditions, particularly if a waterway is nearby, and appear to be more resistant to diseases and more adept at foraging than chickens.</P>
    1625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1583
    16261584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the products from ducks are in constant demand. Some breeds yield more eggs than the domestic chicken. And duck meat always sells at premium. A few recently created breeds (notably some in Taiwan) have much lower levels of fat than the traditional farm duck. This development could open up vast new markets for duck meat, especially in wealthy countries, where consumers are both concerned over fat in their diet and eager for alternatives to chicken.</P>
    1627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1585
    16281586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are also efficient at converting waste resources - insects, weeds, aquatic plants, and fallen seeds, for instance - into meat and eggs. Indeed, they are among the most efficient of all food producers. Raised in confinement, ducks can convert 2.4-2.6 kg of concentrated feed into I kg of weight gain. The only domestic animal that has better feed conversion is the broiler chicken.</P>
    1629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1587
    16301588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raised as village birds and allowed to forage for themselves, ducks become less productive but become even more cost effective because much of the food they scavenge has no monetary value. </P>
    1631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1589
    16321590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    1633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1591
    16351592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    1636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1593
    16371594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    1638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1595
    16401596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several distinctive types have been developed in various regions. Most have lost the ability to fly any distance, but they retain a characteristic boatlike posture and a labored, waddling walk. The Indian Runner, however, has an almost erect stance that permits it to walk and run with apparent ease.</P>
    1641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1597
    16421598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks range in body size from the diminutive Call, weighing less than I kg, to the largest meat strains (Pekin, Rouen, and Aylesbury, for example) weighing as much as 4.5 kg. For intensive conditions, the Pekin is the most popular meat breed around the world. In confinement it grows rapidly - weighing 2.5-3 kg at a market age of 78 weeks. In addition, it is hardy, does not fly, lays well, and produces good quality (but somewhat fatty) meat.</P>
    1643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1599
    16441600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Khaki Campbell breed is an outstanding egg producer, some individuals laying more than 300 eggs per bird per year.</P>
    1645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1601
    16461602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwan Tsaiya (layer duck) is also a particularly efficient breed. It weighs 1.2 kg at maturity, starts laying at 120-140 days, and can produce 260-290 eggs a year. Its small body size, large egg weight, and phenomenal egg production make Brown Tsaiya the main breed for egg consumption in Taiwan. More than 2.5 million Brown Tsaiya ducks are raised annually for egg production.2</P>
    1647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1603
    16481604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    1649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1605
    16511606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic duck is distributed throughout the world; however, its greatest economic importance is in Southeast Asia, particularly in the wetland-rice areas. For example, about 28 percent of Taiwan's poultry are- ducks. In parts of Asia, some domestic flocks have as many as 20,000 birds. One farm near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, rears 40,000 ducks.</P>
    1652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1607
    16531608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    1654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1609
    16561610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although ducks are abundant, some Western breeds are becoming rare. Indigenous types are little known outside their home countries and have received little study, so their status is uncertain.</P>
    1657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1611
    16581612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    1659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1613
    16611614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These adaptable creatures thrive in hot, humid climates. However, during torrid weather they must have access to shade, drinking water, and bathing water.</P>
    1662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1615
    16631616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are well adapted to rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other aquatic locations. Moreover, they can be raised successfully in estuarine areas. Most ocean bays and inlets teem with plant and animal life that ducks relish, but (unlike wild sea ducks) domestic breeds have a low physiological tolerance for salt and must be supplied with fresh drinking water. </P>
    1664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1617
    16651618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    1666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1619
    16681620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks search for food underwater, sieve organic matter from mud, root out morsels underground, and sometimes catch insects in the air. Their natural diet is normally about 90 percent vegetable matter (seeds, berries, fruits, nuts, bulbs, roots, succulent leaves, and grasses) and 10 percent animal matter (insects, snails, slugs, leeches, worms, eels, crustacea, and an occasional small fish or tadpole). They have little ability to utilize dietary fiber. Although they eat considerable quantities of tender grass, they are not true grazers (like geese), and don't eat coarse grasses and weeds at all. Sand and gravel is swallowed to serve as "grindstones" in the gizzard.</P>
    1669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1621
    16701622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When protected from accidents and predation, ducks live a surprisingly long time. It is not unusual for one to continue reproducing for up to 8 years, and there are reports of exceptional birds living more than 20 years.</P>
    1671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1623
    16721624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite large differences in size, color, and appearance, all domestic breeds interbreed freely. Eggs normally take 28 days to incubate, brooding and rearing is performed solely by the female.</P>
    1673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1625
    16741626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on breed, a female may reach sexual maturity at about 20 weeks of age. Most begin laying at 20-26 weeks, but the best egg- laying varieties come into production at 16-18 weeks and lay profitably for 2 years.</P>
    1675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1627
    16761628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    1677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1629
    16791630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally well known that ducks are shy, nervous, and seldom aggressive towards each other or humans. Skilled and enthusiastic swimmers from the day they hatch, they spend many hours each day bathing and frolicking in any available water. However, most breeds can be raised successfully without swimming water.</P>
    1680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1631
    16811632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild ducks normally pair off, domestic drakes will mate indiscriminately with any females in a flock. In intensively raised flocks, I male to 6 females, and in village flocks, 1 male for up to 25 females, results in good fertility.</P>
    1682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1633
    16831634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most domestic ducks, particularly the egg-laying strains, have little instinct to brood. If not confined, they will lay eggs wherever they happen to be - occasionally even while swimming. To facilitate egg collection, some keepers confine ducks until noon. </P>
    1684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1635
    16861636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p96a.png"></center><br>
    16871637 Figure</P>
    1688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1638
    16891639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    1690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1640
    16921641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a meat source, ducks have major advantages. Their growth rate is phenomenal during the first few weeks. (Acceptable market weights can be attained under intensive management with birds as young as 6-7 weeks of age.) Yet, even in older birds, the meat remains tender and palatable.</P>
    1693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1642
    16941643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs from many breeds are typically 20-35 percent larger than chicken eggs, weighing on average about 73 g. They are nutritious, have more fat and protein, and contain less water than hen's eggs. They are often used in cooking and make excellent custards and ice cream. Eggs incubated until just before the embryos form feathers produce a delicacy known as balut in the Philippines. Salted eggs are popular in China and Southeast Asia.</P>
    1695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1644
    16961645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feathers and down (an insulating undercoat of fine, fluffy feathers) are valuable by-products. Down is particularly sought as a filler for pillows, comforters, and winter clothing.</P>
    1697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1646
    16981647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a special fondness for mosquito and beetle larvae, grasshoppers, snails, slugs, and crustaceans, and therefore are effective pest control agents. China, in particular, uses ducks to reduce pests in rice fields.3 Its farmers also keep ducks to clear fields of scattered grain, to clear rice paddy banks of burrowing crabs, and to clear aquatic weeds and algae out of small lakes, ponds, and canals. This not only improves the conditions for aquaculture and agriculture, it also fattens the ducks.</P>
    1699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1648
    17001649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    1701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1650
    17031651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, droving is a traditional form of duck husbandry, much as it was in medieval Europe. The birds are herded along slowly, foraging in fields or riverbanks as they march to market. The journey might cover hundreds of kilometers and take as long as six months.</P>
    1704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1652
    17051653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process, however, is generally declining, and most ducks are raised under farm conditions where they scavenge for much of their feed. Throughout Southeast Asia, ducks have been integrated with aquaculture.</P>
    1706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1654
    17071655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can be raised on almost any kitchen wastes: vegetable trimmings, table scraps, garden leftovers, canning refuse, stale produce, and stale (but not moldy) baked goods. However, for top yields and quickest growth, protein-rich feeds are the key. Commercial duck farms rely on such things as fish scraps, grains, soybean meal, or coconut cake. Agricultural wastes such as sago chips, palm-kernel cake, and palm-oil sludge are being used in Malaysia.4</P>
    1708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1656
    17091657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a very high requirement for niacin (a B vitamin). If chicken rations are used, a plentiful supply of fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy legs," a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
    1710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1658
    17111659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    1712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1660
    17141661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all domestic animals, ducks are among the most versatile and useful and have multiple advantages, including:</P>
    1715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1662
    17171663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Withstanding poor conditions;</P>
    1718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1664
    17191665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Producing food efficiently;</P>
    1720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1666
    17211667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Utilizing foodstuffs that normally go unharvested;</P>
    1722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1668
    17231669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to control pests; and</P>
    1724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1670
    17251671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to fertilize the soil.</P>
    1726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1672
    17281673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, they are readily herded (for instance, by children).</P>
    1729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1674
    17301675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent foragers, they usually can find all their own food, getting by on only a minimum of supplements, if any. Raising them requires little work, and they provide farmers with food or an income from the sale of eggs, meat, and down.</P>
    1731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1676
    17321677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can grow faster than broiler chickens if they have adequate nutrients. Like guinea fowl and geese, they are relatively resistant to disease. They also have a good tolerance to cold and, in most climates, don't need artificial heat.</P>
    1733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1678
    17351679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING NEW DUCKS</P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1680
    17381681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many species of ducks adapt readily to captivity; it is surprising, therefore, that only the mallard and the muscovy have been domesticated so far. Several wild tropical species seem especially worth exploring for possible future use in Third World farms, Because of the year-round tropical warmth, their instinct to migrate is either absent or unpronounced, and the heavy layer of fat (a feature of temperate-climate ducks that consumers in many countries consider a drawback) is lacking. Moreover, because of uniform daylength, they are ready to breed at any time of the year. Candidates for domestication as tropical ducks include:</P>
    1739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1682
    17401683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna species). These large, colorful, gooselike birds are noted for their beautiful, cheerful whistle.* They are long-necked perching ducks that are found throughout the tropics. By and large, they are gregarious, sedentary, vegetarian, and less arboreal than the muscovy - all positive traits for a poultry species.</P>
    1741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1684
    17421685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The black-bellied whistling duck (D. auturunalis) seems especially promising. It is common throughout tropical America (southwestern United States to northwestern Argentina) and is sometimes kept in semicaptivity. Occasionally, in the highlands of Guatemala, for instance, Indians sell young ones they have reared as pets. When hand reared, the birds can become very tame. * * They eat grain and other vegetation, require no swimming water, and will voluntarily use nest boxes. In the wild, they "dump" large numbers of eggs so that even if substantial numbers were removed for artificial hatching, the wild populations should not be affected.</P>
    1743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1686
    17441687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater wood ducks (Cairina species). The muscovy (C. moschata) was domesticated by South American Indians long before Europeans arrived (see page 124). Its counterparts in the forests of Southeast Asia and tropical Africa are, however, untried as domesticates. The white-winged wood duck (C. scutulata) is found from eastern India to Java. Hartlaub's duck (C. hartlaubi) occurs in forests and wooded savannas from Sierra Leone to Zaire. Both are rare in captivity, but might well prove to be future tropical resources. Both are strikingly similar to muscovies in size and habits, being large, phlegmatic, sedentary, and omnivorous. </P>
    1745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1688
    17461689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    1747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1690
    17491691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators are the most important cause of losses in farm flocks. Ducks are almost incapable of defending themselves, and losses from dogs and poachers can be high. Locking them in at night both protects the birds and prevents eggs from being wastefully laid outside.</P>
    1750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1692
    17511693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks do suffer from some diseases, mainly those traceable to mismanagement such as poor diet, stagnant drinking water, moldy feed or bedding, or overcrowded and filthy conditions. Of all poultry, they are the most sensitive to aflatoxin, which usually comes from eating moldy feed. They are also susceptible to cholera (pasteurellosis) and botulism, either of which may wipe out entire flocks. Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) and duck virus hepatitis also can cause severe losses.</P>
    1752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1694
    17531695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not carefully managed, ducks can become pests to some crops, especially cereals.</P>
    1754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1696
    17551697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, ducks tend to be extremely poor mothers and can be helped by using broody chicken hens or female muscovies as surrogate mothers.</P>
    1756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1698
    17571699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major limitations to large-scale, intensive production are mud, smell, and noise.</P>
    1758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1700
    17591701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering ducks is much more difficult than defeathering chickens because of an abundance of small pinfeathers and down feathers.</P>
    1760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1702
    17611703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    1762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1704
    17641705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds already function so well that no fundamental research needs to be done. Nonetheless, there are a number of topics that could improve their production.</P>
    1765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1706
    17661707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, different types of low-cost systems need to be explored and developed. These must be low-input systems since cash is a limiting factor for most subsistence farmers. One possibility is the integration of duck and fish farming.</P>
    1767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1708
    17681709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of all breeds is needed to determine their status and likelihood of extinction.</P>
    1769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1710
    17701711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One need in countries that already have ducks is to encourage the consumption of duck meat. Indonesia, for instance, has 25 million egg-producing ducks, but little duck meat is consumed.</P>
    1771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1712
    17721713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on economically significant diseases is needed. </P>
    1773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1714
    17751715<B><P></P>
    17761716<!--
    … …  
    17811721  </Description>
    17821722-->
    1783 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1723</B>
    17841724<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g010a.png"></center><br>
    17851725 Brown Chinese Geese</P>
    1786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1726
    17871727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although geese (Anser spp.) were one of the first domesticated animals, they have yet to receive the level of commercial or industrial exploitation of chickens or even ducks. Thus, their global potential is far greater than is generally recognized today.</P>
    1788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1728
    17891729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are easily managed and well suited to small-farm production; they are among the fastest growing avian species commonly raised for meat, and they have immediate application in many developing countries.</P>
    1790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1730
    17911731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are especially appropriate for providing farmers a supplemental income. With little extra work they supply nutritious meat, huge eggs, and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and feathers for bedding and clothing. Moreover, their strident voices sound the alarm when strangers or predators approach. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshy lands and are completely at home in warm shallow waterways. Nevertheless, they can thrive away from water. In fact, wherever pasture is available geese readily adapt to captivity.</P>
    1792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1732
    17931733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are grazers, and can be raised almost exclusively on pasture. They are excellent foragers, and on succulent grass can find most or all of their own food. With their powerful bills they pull up grasses and underwater plants and probe soil and water for roots, bulbs, and aquatic animals. Their long necks make them adept at gleaning weeds from hard-to-reach places - such as fence rows, ditches, and swampy areas that baffle larger livestock. They will also feast on vegetable trimmings, garden and table leftovers, canning refuse, and stale baked goods. Like other poultry, they pick up shattered grains of rice, wheat, barley, and other crops, which can reduce the bothersome problem of weeds volunteering in subsequent years.</P>
    1794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1734
    17951735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are available worldwide. In most climates, they require little or no housing. Given reasonable care and protection from predators, mortality can be extremely low. </P>
    1796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1736
    17971737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    1798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1738
    18001739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    1801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1740
    18021741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    1803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1742
    18051743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese come in an assortment of colors, sizes, and shapes. There are two main types, however. Descendants of the wild greylag goose (Anser anser) make up the domestic breeds common in North America and Europe, including the Embden, Toulouse, Pilgrim, American Buff, Pomeranian, Sebastopol, and Tufted Roman breeds. These are generally best suited to temperate climates. On the other hand, descendants of the wild "swan goose" (Anser cygnoides) make up the geese of Asia, including the Chinese and "African" types. These breeds seem better suited to hot climates.</P>
    1806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1744
    18071745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to these, many European and Asian countries have their own local breeds and types, and there are even several wild species that show some potential for captive production.</P>
    1808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1746
    18091747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long legs and webbed toes, geese are equally at home walking or swimming. Avid walkers, they march long distances to find forage, but return home at dusk. Accomplished and graceful swimmers, geese are able to take to water soon after they hatch. Despite their large size, some domestic breeds - especially the leaner ones - have retained the ability to fly.</P>
    1810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1748
    18111749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    1812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1750
    18141751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are found worldwide, but goose farming is nationally important only in Asia and Central Europe.</P>
    1815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1752
    18161753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    1817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1754
    18191755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are not threatened, although much local variation among the breeds is being lost.</P>
    1820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1756
    18211757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    1822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1758
    18241759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most geese adapt well to hot climates - as long as some shade is available. Their waterproof feathers help them adapt well to high rainfall regions. They also tolerate extreme cold. (For instance, in Canada, geese are wintered outdoors in subfreezing temperatures, with merely 'e simple shelter from wind.)</P>
    1825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1760
    18261761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For tropical developing countries, the Chinese type, which is widely kept in Southeast Asia, is especially promising. Smaller than most geese (although ganders can weigh over 5 kg), they are the best layers, the most active foragers (making them economical and useful as weeders), the most alert and "talkative," and they produce the leanest meat. Some European breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, have also been used in the tropics with notable success. </P>
    1827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1762
    18281763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
    18291764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Temperate Zones)</P>
    1830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1765
    18321766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today's domestic geese are descended from two species: the greylag (Anser anser) and the swan goose (Anser cygnoides). These were domesticated in Europe and China, respectively. Their domestication occurred in ancient times, long before people knew about genetics, microorganisms, veterinary science, or behavior modifications such as imprinting. Today, armed with such knowledge, more geese may be amenable to domestication. Most of the 15 other wild species adapt to captivity. Compared to most birds, geese spend much time walking and swimming and are less inconvenienced by pinioning (removing the tip of the wing). Thus, they can be kept outdoors rather than in cages.</P>
    1833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1767
    18341768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both of the ancestors of today's domestic geese are native to the northern temperate zone. Two more wild species that might make useful domesticates are:</P>
    1835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1769
    18361770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Canada goose (Branta canadensis). North America. People feeding these birds in city parks and wildlife refuges are causing many local flocks to develop. These birds no longer migrate. They are increasing in numbers each year and are well on the way to de facto domestication.</P>
    1837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1771
    18381772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- American swan goose (Coscoroba coscoroba). Southern South America. Although most closely allied to swans in shape and physiology, this bird resembles a muscovy (see page 124) in size and behavior. Its calm disposition, as well as its attractive red feet and bill that accent its white plumage, have made it much sought as an ornament for parks.</P>
    1839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1773
    18401774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    1841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1775
    18431776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its diet, the goose utilizes large quantities of tender forage. It can break down plant-cell walls and digest the contents. Although it has no crop for storing food, there is an enlargement at the end of the gullet that serves as a temporary storage organ. Sand and small gravel are swallowed to aid the gizzard in grinding hard seeds and fibrous grasses. Research has shown that geese can digest 15-20 percent of the fiber in their diet, which is 3-4 times the amount that other poultry species can digest.</P>
    1844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1777
    18451778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural diet consists of grasses, seeds, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits, normally supplemented with a little animal matter (mainly insects and snails) picked up incidentally. Most feeding takes place on land. They characteristically feed for prolonged periods, even at night.</P>
    1846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1779
    18471780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females may lay for 10 years or more. It is generally believed that reproduction is best in the second year and that it remains good until the fifth year. Geese outlive other types of poultry; life spans of 1520 years are common.</P>
    1848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1781
    18491782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eggs incubate in 27-31 days. The incubation time is more variable than in most poultry species, perhaps because geese have not been subjected to the selection pressure that is imposed by artificial incubators.</P>
    1850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1783
    18511784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    1852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1785
    18541786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most intelligent birds, the goose has a good memory and does not quickly forget people, animals, or situations that have frightened it. While personalities and habits vary among individual specimens, there are common behavioral patterns, such as the pecking order, that allow individuals to live peaceably together.</P>
    1855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1787
    18561788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless conditions are crowded or there are too many males, geese normally live harmoniously both with themselves and with other creatures. The bond between male and female is strong. Changing mates is difficult, although most geese will eventually accept a new mate after a period of "mourning."</P>
    1857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1789
    18581790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese nest on the ground and prefer the water's edge, but they adapt readily to man-made nesting boxes. The gander usually stands guard while the goose incubates the eggs. He then assists in rearing the goslings. Most geese become irritated if intruders approach their nest or goslings, and will even attack people and large dogs. </P>
    1859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1791
    18601792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    1861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1793
    18631794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously noted, these birds provide meat, eggs, fat, and down. The meat is lean, flavorful, and of outstanding quality. The fat accumulates between the skin and the flesh and can be rendered into a long-lasting oil. The eggs are large and taste much like chicken eggs. The "down" (the small, fluffy feathers that lie next to the body of adult birds) is the finest natural insulating material for clothing and bedding, and can fetch a premium price. Worldwide markets exist for both down and other goose feathers. In France, in particular, some geese are raised for their livers (foie gras).</P>
    1864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1795
    18651796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese can control many types of aquatic weeds in shallow water as well as grass and some types of palatable broad-leaf weeds on the banks of lakes, ponds, and canals. They can also be used as ''lawn mowers" and "weeders" among cotton, fruit trees, and other crops (see sidebar).</P>
    1866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1797
    18671798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elongated necks not only allow geese to reach many different foods, they also help them keep a watchful eye on the surroundings. With their exceptional eyesight they can see great distances, and the position of the eyes gives them a wide field of vision. Geese are among the most alert of all animals, and strangers cannot calm them into silence. In the high Andes, in Southeast Asia, and in many other locations, they replace guard dogs. In Europe, they are used to guard whiskey warehouses and sensitive military installations (see page 111).</P>
    1868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1799
    18691800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    1870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1801
    18721802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of caring for adult geese vary according to climate, breed, and people's experiences and needs. Overall, however, the birds cause little trouble and require little expense. They range freely without restriction, feeding themselves and returning home of their own accord. They have strong flocking instincts and can readily be herded from one area to another.</P>
    1873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1803
    18741804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all young poultry, goslings are fragile. The highest mortality is caused by predators. Until the goslings are 6-10 weeks old, it is prudent to confine the parents and their young at night in a secure pen or building.</P>
    1875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1805
    18761806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are the only domestic fowl that can live and reproduce on a diet of grass. They cannot remain healthy on coarse dry fodder, but when grass is succulent they need little else other than drinking water. Many legumes also make excellent goose forage.</P>
    1877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1807
    18781808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, eggs can be laid year-round. The production seldom exceeds 40 eggs per year, although with feed supplement and simple management, the Chinese breed may yield more than 100 eggs. Geese go broody quickly. To break up broodiness, the goose can be confined for 4 6 days away from, but in sight of, the ganders.</P>
    1879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1809
    18801810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goslings grow rapidly and can reach market size as early as 10-12 weeks; most geese, however, are marketed at 20-30 weeks of age, when they may weigh from 5 to 7 kg, depending on type and breed. Some young birds (also called green or junior geese), force-fed for rapid growth, are marketed at 4-6 kg when they are 8-10 weeks old.</P>
    1881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1811
    18821812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If fed a good diet to maximize growth and if slaughtered at, say, 10 weeks, the Embden, Chinese, or African will have a carcass low in fat. However, the carcass normally has much more fat than other poultry.</P>
    1883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1813
    18841814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese must have a constant supply of reasonably clean drinking water during daylight hours. Although swimming water is not necessary, it promotes cleaner and healthier birds because they find it easier to care for their plumage.</P>
    1885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1815
    18861816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
    18871817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Tropics)</P>
    1888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1818
    18901819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese of the tropics have seldom if ever been considered for domestication, but they might provide poultry of considerable value. Presumably they are more heat tolerant and lack the layers of subcutaneous fat (which the ancestors of today's geese needed for warmth in the Arctic). They might thus produce lean birds that would fetch premium prices because excessive fat is the major drawback of today's commercial geese. Examples of tropical species that might be domesticable are:</P>
    1891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1820
    18921821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Egyptian goose (AIopochen aegyptiacus). Found throughout the African tropics, this bird is already partly domesticated. However, it is bad tempered and quarrelsome and, so far, this has limited its utility. It has therefore been kept only under semidomestication, without intensive breeding.</P>
    1893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1822
    18941823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nene (Branta sandvicensis). A native of the Hawaiian Islands, this is one of the most endangered species on earth. So few specimens are in existence that farming enterprises cannot now be envisaged. Yet, should this bird prove amenable and suitable, the possibility of an economic future could boost efforts to build up its now meager populations.</P>
    1895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1824
    18961825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). India and Central Asia. These smallish geese are handsome, dainty, and have a musical horn-like call. They have distinct black bars across the nape, which gives them their popular name. Hand-reared specimens breed well in captivity. Despite heavy hunting they are still abundant.</P>
    1897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1826
    18981827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Northern spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis gambensis). Tropical Africa (Senegal to Zimbabwe). This large bird is a ground nester, but it has long bony spurs on the wings that enable it to easily protect its eggs and young from predators.</P>
    1899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1828
    19001829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Semipalmated (magpie) goose (Anseranas semipalmata). Australia and New Guinea. One of the most aberrant and primitive of all waterfowl, this long-legged sturdy-billed bird has only partially webbed feet. It perches high in trees and has a loud ungooselike whistling call. </P>
    1901 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1830
    19021831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WADDLING WORK FORCE</P>
    1903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1832
    19051833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because geese relish grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, some enterprising U.S. farmers in the 1950s began using them to rid cotton fields of grassy weeds, which are difficult to kill with herbicides. The geese were put into the fields as soon as the crop came up. A brace of birds kept an acre of cotton weeded; a gaggle of 12 would gobble as many weeds as a hard-working man could clear with a hoe.</P>
    1906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1834
    19071835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method of clearing fields was so effective that by 1960 more than 175,000 geese honked their way across the carefully tended farmland, mainly in the Southwest. Seven days a week, rain or shine, the feathered field hands slaved uncomplainingly from daybreak to dusk, even putting in overtime on moonlit nights. Many toiled so diligently that they worked themselves out of a job.</P>
    1908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1836
    19091837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The geese cleared the fields more cheaply than hoe hands. They left the crop untouched and ate only the succulent young weeds. They did not damage crop roots (as hoes or tractors can), and they were safe and selective, unlike many herbicides. On top of all that they spread fertilizer for the farmer, and ultimately provided him meat for the market.</P>
    1910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1838
    19111839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, farmers found that geese could be used to weed nearly all broad-leafed crops: asparagus, potatoes, berry fruits, tobacco, mint, grapes, beets, beans, hops, onions, and strawberries, for example. Geese were used in vineyards and fruit orchards to eat both weeds and the fallen fruits that could otherwise harbor damaging insects. They were employed in fields producing trees for the forest industry and flowers for florists shops. Some growers turned goslings loose in cornfields to consume the "suckers" (cone, after all, is a grass) as well as the grain left on the ground. This eliminated the problem of corn as a weed when different crops were later planted in those fields.</P>
    1912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1840
    19131841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1970s when cotton acreage dropped and herbicides selective for the troublesome grasses were developed, the use of geese declined. But today, some organic farmers are returning to the practice. From February to June in the Pacific Northwest, fields are resounding once more to the old-fashioned racket of White Chinese geese. </P>
    1914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1842
    19151843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    1916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1917 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1844
    19181845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature geese are independent creatures. When kept in small flocks and allowed to roam the farmyard or field, they require less attention than any other domestic bird with the possible exception of guinea fowl. In areas where grass is green for much of the year, they can be raised on less grain or concentrated feed than any other domestic fowl.</P>
    1919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1846
    19201847<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durability is one of their most attractive features. Along with ducks, geese seem to be the most resistant of all poultry to disease, parasites, and cold or wet weather. They also do well in hot climates as long as drinking water and deep shade are available.</P>
    1921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1848
    19221849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth is not only rapid, it is also efficient. If managed properly, goslings can produce I kg of body weight for every 2.25-3.5 kg of concentrated feed consumed.</P>
    1923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1850
    19241851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not usually thought of as prolific layers. However, as noted, some strains of the Chinese breed will yield well over 100 eggs per goose per year. At 140-170 g per egg, that compares favorably with the output of laying chickens. </P>
    1925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1852
    19261853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
    19271854 figure</P>
    1928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1855
    19291856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    1930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1857
    19321858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are messy and their loud trumpeting is often irritating. However, unless they have been teased or mistreated or if they are nesting or brooding young, they are not aggressive. But kilo for kilo, they are stronger than most animals, and a harassed or angry adult can express its displeasure effectively with powerful bill and pounding wings.</P>
    1933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1859
    19341860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessive concentrations of geese on ponds or along creeks encourages unsanitary conditions, muddies water, hastens bank erosion, and destroys plant life. Where sanitation is poor, salmonellosis can devastate geese and be transmitted, via meat and eggs, to humans. Coccidiosis and gizzard worm are other infections.</P>
    1935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1861
    19361862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering geese is more difficult than plucking chickens because there are two coats (feathers and down) to remove.</P>
    1937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1863
    19381864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some situations, geese may need a diet supplement (such as grain) if they are grazing vegetation exclusively. A balance must be struck: too much supplement and they will quit foraging and become too fat; too little and they grow slowly and may suffer malnutrition.</P>
    1939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1865
    19401866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not fully mature until two years of age. Their overall reproductive rate, therefore, is lower than that of other poultry. </P>
    1941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1867
    19421868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    1943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1869
    19451870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers worldwide should begin studies to clarify the role that geese could play in helping to feed Third World nations. Studies might include:</P>
    1946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1871
    19481872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices for tropical areas;</P>
    1949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1873
    19501874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding and management for increased egg production;</P>
    1951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1875
    19521876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incubation techniques;</P>
    1953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1877
    19541878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition supplementation (for example, vitamins, minerals, energy, specific amino acids) needed by grazing geese;</P>
    1955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1879
    19561880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Physiology of digestion and reproduction;</P>
    1957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1881
    19581882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Clarifying the inheritance of various traits;</P>
    1959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1883
    19601884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic selection for specific meat, eggs, growth factors, or disease resistance;</P>
    1961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1885
    19621886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Comparative studies of the relative efficiency (especially of feed utilization) of the various types and breeds for specific climates in underdeveloped countries;</P>
    1963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1887
    19641888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weeding tropical crops with geese; and</P>
    1965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1889
    19661890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studying diseases and cross-infection with other birds. </P>
    1967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1968 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1891
    19691892<B><P></P>
    19701893<!--
    … …  
    19751898  </Description>
    19761899-->
    1977 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1900</B>
    19781901<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g011a.png"></center><br>
    19791902 FIGURE</P>
    1980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1903
    19811904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World villages, the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) could become much more valuable than it is today. The bird thrives under semi-intensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention. It retains many of its wild ancestor's survival characteristics: it grows, reproduces, and yields well in both cool and hot conditions; it is relatively disease free; it requires little water or attention; it is almost as easily raised as chickens and turkeys; and it is a most useful all-round farm bird.</P>
    1982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1905
    19831906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl's potential to increase meat production among hungry countries should be given greater recognition. The birds are widely known in Africa and occur in a few areas of Asia, but they show promise for use throughout all of Asia and Latin America and for increased use in Africa itself. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe - notably in France - show excellent characteristics for industrial-scale production. Also, many semidomestic types in Africa deserve increased scientific assessment as scavenger birds.</P>
    1984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1907
    19851908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat from domestic guinea fowl is dark and delicate, the flavor resembling that of game birds. It is a special delicacy, served in some of the world's finest restaurants. Several European countries eat vast amounts. Annual consumption in France, for example, is about 0.8 kg per capita.'</P>
    1986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1909
    19871910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl also produce substantial numbers of eggs. In Africa, these are often sold hard-boiled in local markets. In the Soviet Union, they are produced in large commercial operations. In France, guinea fowl strains have been developed that not only grow quickly but lay as many as 190 eggs a year.</P>
    1988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1911
    19891912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Europe, virtually all guinea fowl are raised as free-ranging birds. These find most of their feed by scratching around villages and farmyards. Their cost of production is small, and they yield food for subsistence farmers. In Europe, on the other hand, most are raised in confinement, with artificial insemination, artificial lighting, and special feeding. In the main, this is to produce meat for luxury markets.</P>
    1990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1913
    19911914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl production is beginning to increase all over the world. During the last 20 years, for example, many of Europe's chicken farmers and breeders, wishing to diversify, have switched to this bird. The United States is now studying ways to establish industrial production, and both Japan and Australia are increasing their flocks. Nonetheless, there is still a vast untapped future for this bird.</P>
    1992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1915
    19931916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    1994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1917
    19961918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide. This species is robust and resilient and adapts to many climates.</P>
    1997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1919
    19981920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    1999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1921
    20011922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are somewhat larger than average scavenger-type chickens: adults weigh up to 2.5 kilograms. They have dark-grey feathers with small white spots. Their heads are bare with a bony ridge (helmet) on top, which makes them look something like vultures. The short tail feathers usually slope downwards.</P>
    2002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1923
    20031924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chicks, known as "keels," resemble young quail. They are brown striped with red beaks and legs. The sexes are indistinguishable until eight weeks of age. After that, the males' larger helmets and wattles and the cries of the different sexes can be identified. Both sexes give a one-syllable shriek, but females also have a two-syllable call.</P>
    2004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1925
    20051926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the chicken, the guinea fowl is a gallinaceous species and possesses the characteristic sternum with posterior notches and a raised "thumb."</P>
    2006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1927
    20071928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among domestic types are pearl, white, royal purple, and lavender. Pearl is the most common, and is probably the type first developed from the wild West African birds. Its handsome feathers are often used for ornamental purposes. The white is entirely white from the time of hatching and has a lighter skin. </P>
    2008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1929
    20091930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
    20101931 figure</P>
    2011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1932
    20121933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    2013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1934
    20151935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe dominates industrial production. France, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Hungary all raise millions of guinea fowl under intensive conditions, just as they raise chickens. Elsewhere, guinea fowl have become established as a semidomesticated species on small family farms. Native flocks are found about villages and homes in parts of East and West Africa, and free-ranging flocks can be seen in many parts of India, notably Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. During the slavery era, they were introduced from Africa to the Americas to be used for food. In Jamaica, Central America, and Malaysia, the birds have reverted to the wild state and are treated as game.</P>
    2016 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1936
    20171937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    2018 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1938
    20201939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are abundant; in most places even wild populations are not threatened.</P>
    2021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1940
    20221941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    2023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2024 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1942
    20251943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are native to the grasslands and woodlands of most of Africa south of the Sahara where they occupy all habitats except dense forests and treeless deserts. Being native also to temperate South Africa, they appear to have an inherent adaptability to both heat and cold. However, in cool climates, regardless of daylength, they will not begin egg production until temperatures exceed 15&Yacute;C. </P>
    2026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1944
    20271945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    2028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2029 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1946
    20301947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl accept many foods: grains, leaves, ant eggs (for which they will tear anthills open), and even carrion.</P>
    2031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1948
    20321949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, they lay their first egg at about 18 weeks of age. Unlike many wild birds, which produce a single clutch a year, guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sets in.2 Free-range "domestic" guinea hens lay up to 60 eggs a season. And well-managed birds under intensive management lay close to 200. The eggs weigh approximately 40 g. Shells are stronger than those of chickens and are usually brown, but can be white or tinted.</P>
    2033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1950
    20341951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea hen goes broody after laying, which can be overcome by removing most of the eggs. A clutch of 15-20 is common. The incubation period is 27 days.</P>
    2035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1952
    20361953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    2037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2038 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1954
    20391955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds never become "tame," but neither do they leave the premises. Although they stray farther than chickens do, they always return. They like to hide their eggs in a bushy corner, often in hollows scratched in the ground. They can fly, although even in the wild they do not fly far. They prefer to roost on high branches and (unless pinioned) can be hard to catch during the day.</P>
    2040 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1956
    20411957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild guinea fowl live in groups, they are monogamous by nature and tend to bond in pairs. However, in domestication a single male may serve four or more females.</P>
    2042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1958
    20431959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    2044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1960
    20461961<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, guinea fowl are valuable sources of both meat and eggs. They can also be used to control insect pests on vegetable crops.3</P>
    2047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1962
    20481963<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are good "watch animals"; they have fantastic eyesight, a harsh cry, and will shriek at the slightest provocation. Their agitation on sighting dogs, foxes, hawks, or other predators have saved the lives of many a chicken, duck, and turkey. They are brave and will attack even large animals that threaten them.4 </P>
    2049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1964
    20501965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    2051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1966
    20531967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl can be kept in confinement using the methods for raising battery chickens. In this system, breeding stock are housed in cages and artificially inseminated. It gives the best egg production and fertility but requires housing, equipment, and skilled labor.</P>
    2054 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1968
    20551969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds can also be kept in a semidomestic state in and around the farmyard. In such cases they are penned until they are 12 weeks old. Unaccustomed to foraging for natural food, they constantly return to their artificial food supply. Eventually, however, they learn to subsist by scavenging.</P>
    2056 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1970
    20571971<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds have been called "the worst parents in the world," and are almost incapable of looking after their keets.5 Because the females are such indifferent mothers, the eggs are best hatched in incubators or under other birds, to avoid the keets' being lost by their natural mothers. In many African countries, eggs are hatched under chickens.</P>
    2058 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1972
    20591973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keets are often kept indoors until they are 3-4 weeks old to protect them from predators and wet weather. Sexual maturity can be delayed to as late as 32 weeks of age by holding the birds in windowless housing and controlling the lighting. This improves egg size and hatchability and reduces early mortality. </P>
    2060 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1974
    20621975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUINEA FOWL AND THE ANCIENTS</P>
    2063 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1976
    20651977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earliest reference to guinea fowl can be found in murals in the Pyramid of Wenis at Saqqara in Egypt, painted about 2400 B.C. Aviaries were quite fashionable at the time, and wealthy landowners maintained guinea fowl within their walled gardens. A thousand years later, by the time of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1475 B.C.), the junglefowl (the ancestor of the chicken) had arrived, and from then on it was raised on a substantial scale. Records of this period refer to "walk-in" incubators, constructed of mud bricks and heated by cameldung fires. The largest could hold up to 90,000 eggs (mainly from junglefowl but some from guinea fowl) and hatching rates of up to 70 percent were claimed.</P>
    2066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1978
    20671979<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 400 B.C., guinea fowl were well established on farms in Greece. Later, they rose to importance in ancient Rome. Pliny the elder (in his Natural History, published 77 A.D.) stated that they were the last bird to be added to the Roman menu and that they were in great demand, both eggs and flesh being considered great delicacies. The emperor Caligula offered them as sacrifices to himself when he assumed the title of deity.</P>
    2068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1980
    20691981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl then died out in Europe but was reintroduced by the Portuguese navigators returning from their African explorations in the late 1400s. They gave it the name pintada or "painted chicken" and this changed to pintade in French, while the name "Guinea fowl" (fowl from Africa) stayed in English, and gallina de Guinea in Spanish. Coincidentally, guinea fowl and turkeys were both introduced to England between 1530 and 1550, and the English, smitten with the original French misnomers, were left sorting out "Ginny birds" and "Turkey birds" for the remainder of the century. Both birds were adopted with great enthusiasm, and within 150 years they had utterly displaced the peafowl and swan as the major table birds for festive occasions.</P>
    20701982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted from R.H.H. Belshaw, 1985 Guinea Fowl of the World</P>
    2071 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1983
    20721984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    2073 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1985
    20751986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with the farmyard chicken the guinea fowl's advantages are:</P>
    2076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2077 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1987
    20781988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low production costs;</P>
    2079 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1989
    20801990<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Premium quality meat;</P>
    2081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1991
    20821992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater capacity to utilize green feeds;</P>
    2083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1993
    20841994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to scavenge for insects and grains;</P>
    2085 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1995
    20861996<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to protect itself against predators; and</P>
    2087 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1997
    20881998<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better resistance to common poultry parasites and diseases (for example, Newcastle disease and fowlpox).</P>
    2089 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1999
    20912000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, this semidomestic bird, which has been farmed for centuries, retains the characteristics (feather morphology, hardiness, social behavior) of its wild ancestor - even when subjected to the most modern intensive-rearing methods employing battery cages and artificial insemination. Thus, it thrives under semicaptive conditions and needs little special care. The birds forage well for themselves and do not require much attention; their meat is tasty and they produce substantial numbers of eggs. Unlike chickens, they don't scratch to get insects out of the soil, so they are less destructive to the garden.</P>
    2092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2001
    20932002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    2094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2095 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2003
    20962004<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In backyard production the guinea fowl is supreme, but when produced intensively it costs more to raise than chickens. In Europe, for instance, day-old keets cost about twice as much as day-old broiler chicks. (The major reason is that guinea fowl produce fewer hatching eggs and require a longer feeding period.) Guinea fowl are also more expensive to feed. Their feed conversion (for meat production at the marketing age) is about 3.3-3.6 as compared with a broiler's feed conversion of 1.8-1.9. Moreover, guinea fowl take about twice as long to reach marketable size: they are marketed for meat at age 12-14 weeks, compared with 7-8 weeks for the broilers. Therefore, the selling price of guinea fowl in the Western world is up to twice that of broilers.</P>
    2097 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2005
    20982006<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are nervous and stupid. They can be difficult to catch' and when panicking they can easily suffocate their keets.</P>
    2099 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2007
    21002008<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are susceptible to some of the common diseases of chickens and turkeys. Salmonella is the most prevalent, but others are pullorum disease, staphylococcus, and Marek's disease. </P>
    2101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2009
    21022010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE GUINEA FOWL'S WILD COUSINS</P>
    2103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2011
    21052012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated guinea fowl is descended from just one subspecies of the family's seven known species and numerous subspecies. Some of the others may also have promise as poultry. They, too, generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forests in Africa. All feed on vegetable matter such as seeds, berries, and tender shoots, and on invertebrates such as slugs. They rarely fly except to roost. They acclimatize well are easy to maintain in captivity, and can survive long periods away from water.** Their disposition is tame and nonaggressive, and they mix well with other birds.</P>
    2106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2013
    21072014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild subspecies closely related to the domestic guinea fowl that might make future poultry in their own right include the following:</P>
    2108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2015
    21102016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray-breasted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata). This subspecies is the principal ancestor of domestic guinea fowls. It is found throughout West Africa and probably has many valuable genetic traits. There is much variation in the size and other characteristics among the various individuals. People along the Gambia, Volta, and Niger rivers have long traditions of breeding these birds.</P>
    2111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2017
    21122018<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tufted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris meleagris). This subspecies is quite large and has black plumage thickly spotted with white dots. It is the probable ancestor of the birds reared in ancient Egypt and in the Roman empire (see page 120). Hill farmers in the southern Sudan sometimes breed them in captivity.</P>
    2113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2019
    21142020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mitred guinea fowl (Numida meleagris mitrata). Probably the most popular game bird in East Africa, this type has a bright blue-green head and red wattles. It was once a common sight in the wild but it has now been decimated by overhunting. It is now most numerous in the Masai lands of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been kept in a semidomesticated form in Zanzibar for several centuries. Zoos and aviaries around the world have imported it, and it has bred well for them.</P>
    2115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2021
    21162022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild guinea fowl that are different species from the domestic one but that are still worth considering as potential poultry include the following:</P>
    2117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2023
    21182024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Black guinea fowl (Phasidus niger or Agelastes niger). This bird of the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa is the size of a small chicken. It has sooty black plumage, a naked head, and a pink or yellow neck. It is seldom hunted because the meat tastes dreadful but this is probably because of a particularly pungent fungus they eat in the forest. Raised on fungus-free forages, these birds are probably very palatable. </P>
    2119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2025
    21202026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crested guinea hen (Guttera spp.). Three species. These strange-looking birds have a thick mop of inky black feathers above their black, naked faces. Widely distributed in the thickly forested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the other species, they prefer the rainforest. They have a musical trumpeting call. At least one species has bred well in Europe. For example, a flourishing colony has been established in the Walsrode Bird Park in Germany.</P>
    2121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2027
    21222028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum). The largest of all guinea fowl, this species is found in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, and East Africa. One of the most striking looking of all birds, its head is bare and blue, its body black with white spots, and its breast bears long bright cobalt-blue patches on either side. This has been reared as an aviary bird in both Europe and America and might make a useful domesticate.</P>
    2123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2029
    21242030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    2125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2031
    21272032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies involved in international economic development should undertake guinea fowl assessment trials, evaluations, and coordinated introductions to stimulate programs for small farmers and for industries in dozens of countries.</P>
    2128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2033
    21292034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeders have been working to improve guinea fowl only since the 1950s. There is a need for more information on growth rate, health, egg production, feed conversion, body weight, carcass yield, laying intensity, fertility, hatchability, and egg weight - especially under free-ranging conditions.</P>
    2130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2035
    21312036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry research should also be directed towards feeds and feeding systems for growing and breeding stock. Other efforts are needed to increase the hatchability of eggs under natural conditions (under guinea hens or surrogate mothers), and to identify the best lighting regimes (both sexual maturity and rate of lay are influenced by changes in daylength).</P>
    2132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2037
    21332038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl that has become an important domesticated bird throughout the civilized world is descended from just one of seven known species in the family. These birds generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forest in Africa and Madagascar, and some of the others may also have promise as poultry (see sidebar opposite). </P>
    2134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2039
    21362040<B><P></P>
    21372041<!--
    … …  
    21422046  </Description>
    21432047-->
    2144 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2048</B>
    21452049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g012a.png"></center><br>
    21462050 FIGURE</P>
    2147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2051
    21482052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy (Cairina moschata), a unique ducklike species of the South American rainforest, belongs to a small group of waterfowl that perch in trees. In poultry science, however, it is normally grouped with domestic ducks for lack of a better classification.</P>
    2149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2053
    21502054<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in France, Italy and Taiwan muscovies have received little modern research. But their promise can be judged from the fact that they account for 50 percent of the duck meat consumed in France - about 60,000 tons per year - and they are often consumed in Italy and Taiwan as well.</P>
    2151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2055
    21522056<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World subsistence farming, muscovies have excellent possibilities. There is probably no better choice for a meat bird that requires minimal care and feed. Tame, quiet, and able to forage for much of their keep, they are inherently hardy, vigorous, and robust. They have heavily fleshed breasts and are highly prized for their meat, which is dark, more flavorful, and less fatty than that of common ducks. An average muscovy gives more meat than a chicken of the same age, and it also survives hot, wet environments better. In addition, muscovies are better parents than the domestic duck. Females are probably the best natural mothers of any poultry species, as measured by their success at incubating their eggs and caring for their young.</P>
    2153 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2057
    21542058<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, this bird deserves more attention than it has received so far in Third World livestock projects. Dispersed around the warm and hot regions of the world, muscovies already exist in small numbers in backyards and villages, much like the domestic chicken in previous centuries. Despite a lack of research, the present unimproved stocks are already impressive meat yielders. Used more widely and more intensively, they could contribute much to poor people's meat supplies. </P>
    2155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2059
    21562060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossing the muscovy with the common duck produces a hybrid that combines many of the advantages of both. This cross, known as "mulard," or "mule duck" in English, is raised in France for its liver and meat and is produced in quantity in Taiwan (see sidebar, page 132). It, too, has a major future role.</P>
    2157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2061
    21582062<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    2159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2063
    21612064<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are suitable for use almost anywhere that chickens can be kept. Moreover, their tropical ancestry and inherent robustness give them an advantage in hot and humid climates.</P>
    2162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2065
    21632066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    2164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2067
    21662068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although a muscovy somewhat resembles a goose, it is one of the greater wood ducks of tropical South America. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times, most likely in the rainforests of Colombia. Related wild types, looking very much like the muscovy, still occur in South American wetlands, particularly mangrove swamps.</P>
    2167 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2069
    21682070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males have mature live weights of 5 kg and females about 2.5 kg. Both have broad and rounded wings. The adults have patches of bare skin around the eyes, rather than feathers. Much of this is covered in "caruncles," which superficially resemble warty outgrowths. The feet have sharp claws. Both sexes raise a crest of feathers when alarmed.</P>
    2169 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2071
    21702072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much color variation among the various muscovy populations including types that are called white, colored, black, blue, chocolate, silver, buff, and pied.2 The most common types (they are not considered breeds) are the white and the colored. The white produces a cleaner looking carcass, but the colored is the most popular meat type in France. Its plumage is an iridescent greenish black, except for white forewings.</P>
    2171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2073
    21722074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    2173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2075
     2076
    21752077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The native range of the muscovy's probable wild ancestor covers much of Central America and northern South America. The domestic form also occurs over most of Latin America - from southern Chile to the northern limits of traditional culture in lowland Mexico - including the Caribbean, where it was present shortly after Columbus landed.3 The birds can be observed among the domestic fowl in the high Andes, for example, and are feral in southern coastal areas of the United States.</P>
    2176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2078
    21772079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried across the Atlantic, probably in the early 1500s, the domesticated muscovy spread quickly in Europe, and thence to North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Today, it finds favor with the food-loving French as "canard de Barbarie," and France has the greatest concentration of muscovies in Europe.</P>
    2178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2080
    21792081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down the centuries the muscovy became popular in tropical Asia (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) and in China and Taiwan. Throughout Indonesia (where it is known as "entok") it is popular with villagers for incubating eggs from ducks, geese, and chickens. It is now spreading into Oceania, and has recently gained particular favor in the Solomon Islands.</P>
    2180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2082
    21812083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are also known in Africa and can be found in many villages, especially in West Africa.</P>
    2182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2084
    21832085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    2184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2086
    21862087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered.</P>
    2187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2088
    21882089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    2189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2090
    21912091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild muscovies occur mainly along tropical jungle streams, but domestic muscovies are found in many environments from the heat of Central America to the cold of Central Europe. They also tolerate dry conditions, but they thrive best where climates are both hot and wet.</P>
    2192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2092
    21932093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    2194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2094
    21962095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies utilize high-fiber feeds better than chickens and common ducks, and eat larger quantities of grass. They also consume other green vegetation and readily snap up any insects they can find. If quality forage is available, only a small daily ration of grain or pellets is required for them to reach peak production.</P>
    2197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2096
    21982097<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy females normally hatch and raise large broods efficiently. It is not unusual to see them with a dozen or more fragile ducklings in tow - many of them adopted from other species. They bravely protect their young and have been known to beat off cats, dogs, foxes, and other marauders.</P>
    2199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2098
    22002099<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, muscovies are healthy and live and breed for many years. They suffer few diseases, especially when free ranging. However, they seem to be more susceptible to duck virus enteritis (duck plague) than common ducks.</P>
    2201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2100
    22022101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
    22032102 figure</P>
    2204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2103
    22062104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    2207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2105
    22092106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While appearing to be slow and lethargic, muscovies can be quick and agile when one tries to catch them. Females are strong fliers and readily clear a standard fence. Males frequently become so ponderous that they cannot get airborne without an elevated perch or the aid of a strong wind. Although they forage over a larger area than chickens, they generally neither decamp nor wander as far as common ducks.</P>
    2210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2107
    22112108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated muscovies are either solitary or live together in small family groups, but sometimes in winter they flock together on bodies of water. They swim and dive well.</P>
    2212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2109
    22132110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds seldom make loud noises. A drake's voice resembles a muffled "puff"; females are almost mute. However, both can hiss or make a soft sound not unlike that of sleigh bells.</P>
    2214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2111
    22152112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is polygamous (a young male will try to mate with almost any fowl, including chickens). Mating can occur on land or in water. Males are pugnacious and tolerate no opposition. Because of this, they do not do well in close confinement.</P>
    2216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2113
    22172114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BETTER FLY TRAP</P>
    2218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2115
    22202116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is a voracious omnivore that is particularly fond of insects. For years, some Canadian farmers have sworn that a few muscovies took care of all fly problems on their farms. In 1989, Ontario biologists Gordon Surgeoner and Barry Glofcheskie (see Research Contacts) decided to put this to the test.</P>
    2221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2117
    22222118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with laboratory trials, the entomologists first put a hungry five-week-old muscovy into a screened cage with 400 living houseflies. Within an hour it had eaten 326. Later, they placed four muscovies in separate cages containing 100 flies each. Within 30 minutes over 90 percent of the insects were gone. It took flypaper, fly traps, and bait cards anywhere from 15 to 86 hours to suppress the populations that much.</P>
    2223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2119
    22242120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving to fleld tests, the researchers placed pairs of twoyear-old muscovies on several Ontario farms. Videotapes showed the birds snapping at houseflies and biting flies about every 30 seconds and being successful on 70 percent of their attempts. With that efficiency, they achieved 80-90 percent fly control in enclosures such as calf rooms or piggeries. The birds were given only water and had to scavenge for all their food. Females seemed to eat about 10 percent more flies than males, and individuals of any age between eight days and two years were equally effective.</P>
    2225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2121
    22262122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fit the practical needs for farmyard fly control. They stayed close to piglets and calves, to which flies are particularly attracted. They even snatched flies off the hides of resting animals without waking them up. On one farm, the birds huddled between sleeping piglets and were accepted by the sow lying beside them. This was noteworthy because most fly-catching devices (chemical, electrical, or mechanical) must be kept far from animals.</P>
    2227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2123
    22282124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the Canadians, the economic advantages are clear. A 35-cow dairy needs $150-$590 worth of chemicals for controlling flies during the fly season; muscovy chicks, on the other hand, cost less than $2 each, eat for free, and can be sold for a profit of 200-400 percent.</P>
    2229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2125
    22302126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers point out that employing muscovies does not eliminate all need for insecticides, but it reduces the amounts required. And muscovies are biodegradable, will not cause a buildup of genetic resistance, and taste better than flypaper. Indeed, their meat is excellent, and the naturally mute birds seldom make any noise.</P>
    2231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2127
    22322128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reportedly, muscovies are kept in some houses in South America to control not only flies, but also roaches and other insects.</P>
    2233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2129
    22342130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    2235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2131
    22372132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is generally raised only for its meat, which is of excellent quality and taste. In stews it is hard to distinguish from pork; cured and smoked it is similar to lean ham.4 The fat content is low.</P>
    2238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2133
    22392134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy eggs are as tasty as other duck eggs, and a muscovy female can supply a large number if she is kept from sitting.</P>
    2240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2135
    22412136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are useful for clearing both terrestrial and aquatic weeds.5</P>
    2242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2137
    22432138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down feathers are used, like those of other ducks, in clothing and comforters.</P>
    2244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2139
    22452140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    2246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2141
    22482142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies may be raised like common ducks. An ideal grouping is one male to five or six females. </P>
    2249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2143
    22502144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in Taiwan, France, Hungary, and a few other European countries, they exist predominantly in small flocks in farmyards and village ponds. However, they can be reared under intensive conditions in a shed or pen that is well lighted and equipped with low roosts and bedding. Under such conditions, they may be fed diets recommended for rearing common ducks or given coarse feeds, including whole grain. If chicken rations are used, fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy" legs, a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
    2251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2145
    22522146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they thrive in areas where there is abundant water, they do not require access to swimming water. They prefer to nest under cover and will use nesting boxes. A normal clutch size is 9-14 eggs; however, clutches of up to 28 can occur. There may be 4 clutches annually, and (when the hen does not have to brood the ducklings) some muscovies have laid 100 eggs in a year.6</P>
    2253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2147
    22542148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The egg weight, which increases with the female's age, ranges from 65 to 85 g. The eggs require 33-35 days to hatch, a week longer than the common duck's. Hatching success of 75 percent or more is common.</P>
    2255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2149
    22562150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with domestic ducks early growth is slow, which is perhaps why muscovies have not enjoyed wider industrial use. However, after the slow period they grow rapidly and, because they forage on a broader range of vegetation than common ducks, they can scavenge a large proportion of their diet at little or no cost.</P>
    2257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2151
    22582152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised intensively, females average 2 kg and males 4 kg at 11-12 weeks of age. Females may reach sexual maturity by 28 weeks of age; males require a month more.</P>
    2259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2153
    22602154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MULE DUCK OF TAIWAN</P>
    2261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2155
    22632156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Europe, hybrids between muscovies and common ducks are reared for fattening. However, Taiwan has made the most outstanding use of this "mule duck." Thanks in part to this muscovy hybrid, Taiwan's duck industry has grown rapidly in the last decade. The total value of duck products now exceeds $346 million per year. Much of the boom in duck production is due to improved feeding disease control and management systems, but much is also due to the performance of the mule duck. </P>
    2264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2157
    22652158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This hybrid is now Taiwan's major meat-duck breed, and about 30 million are consumed each year. Indeed, the duck industry has been so successful that Taiwan is increasingly exporting frozen duck breast and drumstick meat to Japan. It now provides 24 percent of the duck meat eaten in Japan— most of it coming from mule ducks. Also, Taiwan is exporting partially incubated mule-duck eggs throughout Southeast Asia. And mule ducks supply most of the raw material for Taiwan's large feather industry.</P>
    2266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2159
    22672160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan farmers have been producing mule ducks for 250 years, but the recent jump in production is due to the use of artificial insemination to overcome the natural reticence of the different species to mate. Fortunately, artificial insemination is well developed and is a standard part of farming practice in Taiwan.</P>
    2268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2161
    22692162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mule ducks are successful because they have less fat than a broiler chicken and they grow faster. Indeed, they can reach a market weight of 2.8 kg at 65 - 75 days of age, depending upon the weather, season, and management. In part, this fast growth is because they are sterile and waste no energy in preparing for a sexual existence or in laying eggs.</P>
    2270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2163
    22712164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual cross employs a muscovy male and a domesticduck female. The domestic breeds most employed for muleduck production are White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Tsaiya female), Large White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Kaiya female) and colored Kaiya. Both sexes of the hybrid offspring weigh about the same.</P>
    2272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2165
    22732166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between a muscovy hen and a domestic drake are much rarer (traditionally, this was because of the different mating behavior of the two species, but even with artificial insemination available they are not much used) and the males of these hybrids are much heavier than the females. Females of this cross do lay eggs, but the eggs are small (about 40 g) and their embryos do not develop.</P>
    2274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2167
    22752168<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are almost 300 duck-breeding farms in Taiwan, annually producing more than 600,000 female domestic ducks for use in producing mule ducks. Some farmers combine duck raising with fish farming. The excrete of 4,000 ducks on one hectare of pond can provide 30,000 tilapia with 20 percent of their feed. It helps the farmer get rid of waste as well as giving him fresh fish to sell. </P>
    2276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2169
    22772170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    2278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2171
    22802172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the muscovy is an extremely good forager and thrives under free-ranging conditions. Unlike other ducks, it grazes on grass and leaves and will maintain itself on pasture. Apparently, it can digest bran and other fibrous feeds better than common ducks can.</P>
    2281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2173
    22822174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The males are larger than all but the largest strains of table duck. They have exceptionally broad, well-muscled breasts and provide one of the leanest meats of any waterfowl.</P>
    2283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2175
    22842176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is apparently more resistant to diseases that regularly decimate other poultry. This is one reason why villagers favored them: when chickens die, muscovies often survive.</P>
    2285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2177
    22862178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's strong parental qualities help assure the survival of ducklings with a minimum of human intervention. Her ability to incubate and hatch most other poultry eggs is an added advantage to small farmers who have neither the capital to buy, nor the knowledge to operate, artificial incubators.</P>
    2287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2179
    22882180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike other ducks, muscovies are not easily alarmed, and fright does not affect their egg production and laying. Indeed, they are so phlegmatic that automobiles can be major causes of death.</P>
    2289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2181
    22902182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    2291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2183
    22932184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are a tropical species, these birds are much less tolerant of cold than common ducks and require more protection from freezing weather.</P>
    2294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2185
    22952186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's feed conversion is not as good as the chicken's. Also, compared with some other meat-duck breeds, muscovies have a slower rate of growth and require about 4 6 weeks longer to attain maximum development of breast muscles.</P>
    2296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2187
    22972188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be difficult to handle. If their legs are free, the handler may be badly lacerated by the claws.</P>
    2298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2189
    22992190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although adults have a fair homing ability, muscovies may wander away when local forage is sparse, and young birds may be carried long distances downstream, never to return.</P>
    2300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2191
    23012192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they feed on greenery, they can devastate gardens if the plants are very young.</P>
    2302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2193
    23032194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be unsuspected carriers of poultry diseases, so that healthy-looking muscovies may infect the other species.</P>
    2304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2195
    23052196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    2306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2197
    23082198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry scientists should unite in efforts to advance technical knowledge and public appreciation of this bird. Governments and researchers should begin evaluations of local varieties and their uses and performances. The experiences of France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and Taiwan should be gathered and made available for a worldwide readership.</P>
    2309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2199
    23102200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that the many muscovy varieties within the countries of Latin America - where the bird has a centuries-long history of domestication - be maintained and studied. Many superior varieties and specimens may be awaiting discovery.7</P>
    2311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2201
    23122202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's nutritional requirements, range and confined systems of management, and disease vulnerability are poorly understood and need study. Especially needed are ways to increase growth rate. </P>
    2313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2203
    23152204<B><P></P>
    23162205<!--
    … …  
    23212210  </Description>
    23222211-->
    2323 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2212</B>
    23242213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g013a.png"></center><br>
    23252214 FIGURE</P>
    2326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2215
    23272216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons (Columba livia)1 are durable birds that can be raised with little effort. Able to survive in inhospitable climates, they fend for themselves - often ranging over many square kilometers to locate seeds and edible scraps. They have been raised for centuries, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In parts of North America and Europe, they are produced as a delicacy for the gourmet market. But raising pigeons for food is not nearly as widespread as it could be; indeed, in modern times its potential has hardly been touched. Farmed pigeons are particularly promising as urban microlivestock because they require little space and thrive in cities.</P>
    2328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2217
    23292218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigeons (squab) grow at a rapid rate. Their meat is finely textured, has an attractive flavor, and is often used in place of game fowl. Tender and easily digested, it commands premium market prices. In many areas, the continuing demand is unfilled.</P>
    2330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2219
    23312220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are traditionally raised in dovecotes - "houses" that protect the birds from the elements and from predators. This system allows free-ranging flight and requires almost no human intervention. Dovecotes are a good source of both squab and garden manure, and they continue to be used, especially in Egypt. On the other hand, pigeons can also be raised in confinement - usually in enclosed yards - with all their needs supplied by the farmer. There are, for example, pigeon farms in the United States with up to 35,000 pairs of breeding birds.</P>
    2332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2221
    23332222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon production may never rise enough to compete with commercial poultry as a major source of food, but for Third World villages these birds could become a significant addition to the diet as well as a source for substantial supplemental income. </P>
    2334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2223
    23352224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    2336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2225
    23382226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    2339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2227
    23402228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    2341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2229
    23432230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons have small heads, plump, full-breasted bodies, and soft, dense plumage. They weigh from about 0.5 to nearly I kg. A few large breeds (Runts, for instance, which commonly weigh 1.4 kg) are the size of small domestic chickens.</P>
    2344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2231
    23452232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many breeds have been developed for meat production. They produce squab that grow quicker and have larger breasts than unselected birds.</P>
    2346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2233
    23472234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    2348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2235
    23502236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the common pigeon - domestic, wild, or feral -  is thought to be the rock pigeon or rock dove of Europe and Asia. Today its domestic descendants are bred in virtually every country, and those that have gone feral (reverted to the wild) occur in most of the world's cities and towns.</P>
    2351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2237
    23522238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    2353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2239
    23552240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are abundant. However, as with most other domestic species there is concern over the decline and loss of certain breeds. Societies have been organized (notably in the United Kingdom) to preserve rare types.</P>
    2356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2241
    23572242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
    23582243 Natural habitat of the rock dove ancestor of the domestic pigeon</P>
    2359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2244
    23602245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    2361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2246
    23632247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic pigeon can be raised equally well in temperate and tropical zones. Indeed, this adaptable species can be kept anywhere that wild pigeons exist, including arid and humid regions. It should be noted, however, that cold climates do not favor squab production and hot climates promote vermin and disease.</P>
    2364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2248
    23652249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    2366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2250
    23682251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigeon's natural diet consists mostly of seeds, but includes fruits, leaves, and some invertebrates. Feral pigeons consume a wide array of materials, including insects, bread, meat scraps, weed seeds, and many kinds of spilled grains at mills, wharves, railway yards, grain elevators, and farm fields.</P>
    2369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2252
    23702253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the first four or five days of life, the young are fed "crop milk." This substance, common to pigeons and doves,2 is composed of cells from the lining of the crop and is very high in fats and nutritional energy. The phenomenal growth rate of young squab has been attributed to crop milk and to its early replacement (within 8-10 days) with concentrated foods, regurgitated by both parents. The parents feed the squab for about four weeks before pushing it out of the nest to prepare for the next clutch.</P>
    2371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2254
    23722255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic birds, sexual maturity (as measured by age at first egg) is reached at 120-150 days. Life span can be 15 years, although growth and egg production decline rapidly after the third year.</P>
    2373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2256
    23742257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    2375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2258
    23772259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild pigeons often nest on cliff sides. Domestic pigeons prefer to nest around buildings, in nooks and shelves and under the eaves - that is, in "pigeonholes."</P>
    2378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2260
    23792261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic varieties, the pair-bond often lasts until severe illness or death. Sometimes, however, a vigorous male will "invade" a nest and mate with the females there. Both sexes take nearly equal part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Typically, there are two eggs to a clutch. Eight clutches a year is not uncommon for a breeding pair. The incubation period is 17-19 days.</P>
    2380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2262
    23812263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most birds, pigeons drink by inserting their beaks into water and sucking up a continuous draft. </P>
    2382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2264
    23832265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Courtship is characterized by cooing, prancing, and displays of spread, lowered tail feathers. "Bow and coo" exhibitions are unique to pigeons and doves and differ among species.</P>
    2384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2266
    23852267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    2386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2268
     2269
    23882270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are usually raised exclusively for meat. The squab are harvested just before full feather development and before the youngster has started to fly, usually at 21-30 days of age. At this time the ratio of flesh to inedible parts is highest; once flying begins, the meat becomes tougher. Weight depends upon breed, nutrition, and other factors, but usually ranges from 340 to 680 g.</P>
    2389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2271
    23902272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are extensively used for scientific research, notably in physiology and psychology. They are also widely kept as pets for plumage and for racing. The pigeon's unique homing ability was recognized in Roman times, and the birds have been trained to return to the dovecote from as far away as 700 km. Even today, homing pigeons are used to carry messages, especially during war.</P>
    2391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2273
    23922274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    2393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2275
     2276
    23952277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are easily trained to recognize "home." The wing feathers are clipped and the birds are fed close to the dovecote; by the time they refledge, their homing instinct has been developed. Alternatively, newly captured pigeons may be trained by confining them to the dovecote for at least one week. At first, a little grain is provided in the morning (this is to ensure the birds will return to the coop). The birds can obtain the rest themselves.</P>
    2396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2278
    23972279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any waterproof house that is easy to clean is suitable for keeping pigeons. Many traditional dovecotes are built of earthenware pots. In Asia and Europe, wooden pigeon towers are generally used.</P>
    2398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2280
    23992281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike chickens, pigeons do not prefer communal roosts. Instead, they prefer nesting shelves, of which there should be two for each breeding pair. The shelves are usually placed in dark corners and are fitted with low walls to keep eggs from rolling out.</P>
    2400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2282
    24012283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grit is important in the diet, both to provide minerals and to allow the birds to grind feed in their gizzards.</P>
    2402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2284
    24032285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial squab breeds are often kept permanently in pens, a process that requires care and experience. Growers expect an average of 12-14 squab per pair per year, although much depends on environment and management. </P>
    2404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2286
    24052287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds need fresh water daily and water for bathing at least weekly. Since they feed their young by regurgitation, the adults must have a continuous supply of clean drinking water. Orphan squab can be fed egg yolk until old enough to consume adult feeds.</P>
    2406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2288
    24072289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all poultry, confined pigeons must be provided enough supplemental feed to ensure a balanced diet. A mixture of whole grains can be fed for maximum production. It is important that grains be dry and free of mold (pigeons will not thrive on mash). Peas, beans, or similar pulses make good supplements.</P>
    2408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2290
    24092291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRIER PIGEONS</P>
    2410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2292
     2293
    24122294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most people consider message-carrying pigeons to be a quaint anachronism. But in a few countries (both developed and developing) carrier pigeons are making a comeback, and in the future they may be used routinely once again.</P>
    2413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2295
    24142296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New techniques are making this process far more practical than before. For example, in the past the pigeons would be flown in one direction only. They were transported away from home and at the appropriate time released to find their way back. That was very limiting. But it has since been found that pigeons can be trained to carry messages in two directions: flying from one point to another and then back again. They will do it twice a day, and with almost perfect reliability. The key is to place the feeding station at one end and the nest at the other. This limits the pigeon's range, but they still can handle round-trip distances up to 160 km.</P>
    2415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2297
    24162298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a little ingenuity, there is no need for a person to monitor the stations to receive the messages as the bird arrives. One simple technique is to arrange the station with one-way doors - one opening inwards, the other outwards. Placing a bar across the outward door means that the bird cannot get out until someone releases it. Thus the message can always be retrieved.</P>
    2417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2299
    24182300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been employed in Puerto Rico and Guatemala, but it could be used almost anywhere. In many parts of the Third World, in particular, there are remote areas with no phones and with hilly, rough terrain where delivering messages can take hours of strenuous travel. Some locations are subject to unexpected isolation by natural calamities or military or terrorist actions.</P>
    2419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2301
    24202302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Puerto Rico, for instance, we kept pigeons in a village 32 km from the capital. The pigeons could get downtown in 20-30 minutes. It took us 1.5-2 hours each way by road. What was easy for the birds was a major trip for us. Pigeons carried the villagers' requests for certain foods and medicines. Our contact in the city then sent up the supplies by bus. The birds never let us down.</P>
    2421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2303
    24222304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrier pigeons are useful for more than just flying far and fast. They have been bred for racing and their large pectoral muscles make them excellent meat producers - much better than the common pigeons normally raised for food. A pair of carriers typically will raise 12 - 16 young each year, and those not needed for message carrying can be butchered at 28 days of age - yielding meat that is nutritious and considered a delicacy in many countries.</P>
    2423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2305
    24242306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Holderread</P>
    2425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2307
     2308
    24272309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every day on the northwest coast of France, Petit Gendamme, a black and white carrier pigeon, flies on average 23 km between hospitals on his blood delivery route. Trussed in tiny hand-sewn harnesses, he and a flock of carrier pigeons set out (except during the hunting season) with little red tubes of blood secured to their breasts.</P>
    2428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2310
    24292311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"It's a simple, effective, and cost-saving transport system," said Yves Le Henaff, head of the Avranches Hospital laboratory, Cotentin, France, a central blood-testing center that serves a number of isolated medical centers along the coast.</P>
    2430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2312
    24312313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service becomes particularly valuable during the summer tourist rush, when travellers flock to the seashore to visit nearby Mont Saint Michel, crowding the small country roads and increasing the risk of traffic accidents.</P>
    2432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2314
    24332315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds' average flight time between the hospitals of Avranches and Granville, for example, a distance of about 27 km, is 20 minutes, including the time for harnessing up. And with a favorable western wind their best time can reach 11 minutes.</P>
    2434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2316
    24352317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While gasoline costs the equivalent of $0. 75 a lifer in France, hospital officials say that a few grains of corn is all it takes to run this operation. According to Le Henaff, who supervises the carrier pigeon operation, the hospital is saving up to $46 a day on gas and auto maintenance.</P>
    2436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2318
    24372319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-year-old Le Henaff got the idea five years ago from an article in a scientific journal describing a similar experiment in Britain. A year later, he and an associate called on the local seamstress to design a light harness that could hold a tube, which, when filled, weighs approximately 39 g.</P>
    2438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2320
    24392321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flock now consists of 40 veteran fliers and 20 carrier pigeons in training.</P>
    2440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2322
    24412323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what if the winged creatures stray en route? Le Henaff has devised a fall-back option: two pigeons carry two different test tubes containing the same blood sample.</P>
    2442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2324
    24432325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fly every day of the year with the exception of the three-month autumn hunting season. Since the beginning of the experiment four years ago, there have been two casualties. Le Henaff believes the birds probably met their fate in some Normand's oven.</P>
    2444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2326
    24452327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes weather is a factor, and heavy fog can keep the delivery team grounded.</P>
    2446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2328
    24472329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the new job seems to benefit the pigeons, too. Unlike sickly city pigeons, whose average life span is about four years, well-cared-for carrier pigeons can live up to 15 years, Le Henaff said. "And how many people do you know who are willing to stay with the same outfit for that long?"</P>
    24482330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sabine Maubouche</P>
    24492331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Washington Post</P>
    24502332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">December 2, 1986</P>
    2451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2333
    24522334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    2453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2335
     2336
    24552337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under extensive conditions - where the birds are released each day to feed themselves - almost no land is needed. Under intensive conditions, where the birds spend their lives in confinement, a mere half hectare can be enough space to raise 2,000 pairs.</P>
    2456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2338
    24572339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free-ranging pigeons forage over a wider area than most domestic fowl because they fly out to find their feed. Nutrient requirements3 are similar to those of chickens and other fowl (making allowance for the energy needed for flying), so commercial feed and other supplements - if needed at all - are generally available.</P>
    2458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2340
    24592341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dovecote culture, pigeons require little or no handling. They brood the young with little intervention. Although not continuous, the production of meat from these fast-growing, rapidly reproducing birds is more sustained than with most livestock.</P>
    2460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2342
    24612343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nowhere are there taboos against consuming pigeon meat. Prices received for squab are normally high, and in most places the demand is constant. The only limitation in some areas is the absence of an effective market, which is usually easy to create.</P>
    2462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2344
    24632345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squab contains a larger proportion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective tissue than most meats and is therefore good for invalids and people with digestive disorders.</P>
    2464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2346
    24652347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As many hobbyists can testify, raising pigeons can be gratifying.</P>
    2466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2348
    24672349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    2468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2350
     2351
    24702352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are subject to few diseases. However, worms, lice, diarrhea (coccidiosis), canker (trichomoniasis), and salmonella (paratyphoid) occur at some time in most domestic breeds. Salmonella exists in low levels in most flocks and will flare up if birds are stressed. Treatments recommended for domestic chickens are usually suitable for pigeons. </P>
    2471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2353
    24722354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By flying over a wide area and eating grains and other foods, pigeons can cause conflicts with farmers. Indeed, in the 13th century the aristocracy's pigeons became a major grievance of the peasants who saw their seed devoured. On the other hand, "croppers" (breeds with large crops) were developed to steal grain from the lord's fields. The pigeon returned home and his crop was emptied of the grain, which was used by the peasant to make bread.</P>
    2473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2355
    24742356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds can become nuisances. They leave droppings in annoying places, some people find them too noisy, and a few people are severely allergic to "pigeon dust."</P>
    2475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2357
    24762358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every conceivable type of predator can be expected; therefore, precautions must be taken. The dovecote must be well protected against rats, which are the principal enemy of the eggs and the squabs.</P>
    2477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2359
    24782360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesting birds need a high-protein diet to raise squab at the high rates of gain that are possible.</P>
    2479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2361
    24802362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    2481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2363
     2364
    24832365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers should study the increased role pigeons might play in Third World economic development. Nothing comparable to the sophisticated selection employed with the domestic chicken has so far been attempted. Given such attention the gains could be great.</P>
    2484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2366
    24852367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among pressing research needs are:</P>
    2486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2368
     2369
    24882370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding. This needs to be better understood. For example, the effects of hybridization and inbreeding need clarification.</P>
    2489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2371
    24902372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Environmental limits. Little work has been done outside the temperate regions.</P>
    2491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2373
    24922374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases. These deserve increased attention.</P>
    2493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2375
     2376
    24952377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the potential of "dovecotes" for wild pigeons. Numerous local species are well adapted to local conditions, and these deserve to be tested for "domestication."4 Many wild species quickly lose their fear of man, and in time they can even become too fat to fly. Wild pigeons are already found throughout the humid tropics and are trapped for meat and rearing in New Guinea and other places. They are already an important food source for many subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators, and with some dovecote management could provide a greater, more dependable source of food and income. The potential for domesticating local pigeon species, especially those suited to the tropics, deserves exploration. </P>
    2496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2378
     2379
    24982380<B><P></P>
    24992381<!--
    … …  
    25042386  </Description>
    25052387-->
    2506 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2388</B>
    25072389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g014a.png"></center><br>
    25082390 FIGURE</P>
    2509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2391
    25102392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to Asia and Europe, quail' (Coturnix coturnix2) have been farmed since ancient times, especially in the Far East. They reproduce rapidly and their rate of egg production is remarkable. They are also robust, disease resistant, and easy to keep, requiring only simple cages and equipment and little space. Yet they are not well known around the world and deserve wider testing.</P>
    2511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2393
    25122394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are so precocious that they can lay eggs when hardly more than 5 weeks old. It is said that about 20 of them are sufficient to keep an average family in eggs year-round. Quail eggs are very popular in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also boiled, shelled, and either canned or boxed like chicken eggs. Quail eggs are excellent as hors d'oeuvres and they also are used to make mayonnaise, cakes, and other prepared foods.</P>
    2513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2395
    25142396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In France, Italy, the United States, and some countries in Latin America (Brazil and Chile, for example) as well as throughout Asia, it is the meat that is consumed. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One company in Spain annually processes 20 million quail for meat.</P>
    2515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2397
    25162398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the domesticated strains seem to have originated in China, and migrating Chinese carried them throughout Asia. Today, millions of domestic quail are reared in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indochina, Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in Brazil and Chile. </P>
    2517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2399
    25182400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial production is carried out, as in the chicken industry, in specialized units involving hatcheries, farms, and factories that process eggs and meat. However, quail have outstanding potential for village and "backyard" production as well. It is this aspect that deserves greater attention.</P>
    2519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2401
    25202402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    2521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2403
     2404
    25232405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    2524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2406
    25252407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    2526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2408
     2409
    25282410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail come in various sizes. The smaller types are used for egg production, whereas the larger ones are better for meat. Adult females of improved meat strains may weigh up to 500 g. </P>
    2529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2411
    25302412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several color varieties. However, mature females are characterized by a tan-colored throat and breast, with black spots on the breast. Mature males, which are slightly smaller than females, have rusty-brown throats and breasts. All mature males have a bulbous structure, known as the foam gland, located at the upper edge of the vent.</P>
    2531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2413
    25322414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, the Pharaoh strain is the bird of choice for commercial production. Other available strains tend to be bred more for fancy than for food.</P>
    2533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2415
    25342416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs are mottled brown, but some strains have been selected for white shells. These eggs are often preferred by consumers and are easier to candle (the process of holding eggs up to a light to check for interior quality and stage of incubation). An average egg weighs 10 g - about 8 percent of the female's body weight. (By comparison, a chicken egg weighs about 3 percent of the hen's body weight.) Quail chicks weigh merely 5-6 g when hatched and are normally covered in yellowish down with brown stripes.</P>
    2535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2417
    25362418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    2537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2419
     2420
    25392421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ancestral wild species is widely distributed over much of Europe and Asia as well as parts of North Africa. Although domestic quail are now available almost everywhere, Japan is probably the world leader in commercial production; quail farms are common throughout its central and southern regions.</P>
    2540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2422
    25412423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    2542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2424
     2425
    25442426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered. </P>
    2545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2427
    25462428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
    25472429 figure</P>
    2548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2430
    25492431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    2550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2432
     2433
    25522434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are hardy birds that, within reasonable limits, can adapt to many different environments. However, they prefer temperate climates; the northern limit of their winter habitat is around 38&Yacute;N.</P>
    2553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2435
    25542436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    2555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2437
     2438
    25572439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A quail's diet in the wild consists of insects, grain, and various other seeds. To thrive and reproduce efficiently in captivity, it needs feeds that are relatively high in protein.</P>
    2558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2440
    25592441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The females mature at about 5-6 weeks of age and usually come into full egg production by the age of 50 days. With proper care, they will lay 200-300 eggs per year, but at that rate they age quickly. The life span under domestic conditions can be up to 5 years. However, second-year egg production is normally less than half the first year's, and fertility and hatchability fall sharply after birds reach 6 months of age, even though egg and sperm production continue. Thus, the commercial life is only about a year.</P>
    2560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2442
    25612443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between the wild and domestic stocks produce fertile hybrids. Repeated backcrossing to either wild quail or domestic quail is successful.</P>
    2562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2444
    25632445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    2564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2446
     2447
    25662448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only females hatch the eggs and raise the chicks. Males go off and court other females when their partners begin the nesting process.</P>
    2567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2449
    25682450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    2569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2451
     2452
    25712453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs taste like chicken eggs. They are often served hard boiled, pickled, fried, or scrambled. Because of their size they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. They provide an alternative for some people who are allergic to chicken eggs. On frying, the yolk hardens before the albumen.</P>
    2572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2454
    25732455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail meat is dark and can be prepared in all of the many ways used for chicken. The two meats are similar in taste, although quail is slightly gamier.</P>
    2574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2456
    25752457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its hardiness, small size, and short life cycle, quail are now commonly used as an experimental animal for biological research and for producing vaccines - especially the vaccine for Newcastle disease, to which quail are resistant. </P>
    2576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2458
    25772459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in raising this adaptable species as a pet. Science teachers find it an excellent subject for classroom projects. </P>
    2578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2460
    25792461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL IN JAPAN</P>
    2580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2462
     2463
    25822464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas of Japan, quail are widely raised for their eggs and meat. However, Japanese originally valued the quail as a songbird. Tradition has it that about 600 years ago people began to enjoy its rhythmic call. In the feudal age, raising song quail became particularly popular among Samurai warriors. Contests were held to identify the most beautiful quail song and birds with the best voices were interbred in closed colonies. Even photostimulation was practiced to induce singing in winter.</P>
    2583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2465
    25842466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 1910, enthusiastic breeders produced the present domestic Japanese quail from the song quail. It was created as a food source and became a part of Japanese cuisine. During World War II it was almost exterminated, but Japanese quail breeders restored it from the few survivors and from birds imported from China. The original song quail, however, were lost. In the 1960s, commercial quail flocks rapidly recovered and Japan's quail population again reached its prewar level of about 2 million birds. </P>
    2585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2467
    25862468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A QUAIL IN EVERY POT: AN OLD DELICACY FINDS A NEW PUBLIC</P>
    2587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2469
     2470
    25892471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For centuries, quail were considered a great delicacy: a dish that only eminent chefs would cook and diners with an appreciative palate could enjoy. These small migratory birds, which are found in one variety or another throughout the world, were available until recently almost exclusively to hunters in the wild.</P>
    2590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2472
    25912473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But now quail are in danger: in danger of becoming commonplace.</P>
    2592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2474
    25932475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the last few years, quail have gone from being rarefied to a supermarket specialty item. They are on menus in the most elegant restaurants and the most casual cafes and bistros.</P>
    2594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2476
    25952477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why so much interest?</P>
    2596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2478
    25972479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are now available semi-boneless, which makes them faster and easier to cook, and easier to eat as well. The breastbones are removed by hand before the birds are packaged and shipped to stores. The bones in the wings and legs remain.</P>
    2598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2480
    25992481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A stainless-steel V-shaped pin - invented and patented by a restaurant chef who wanted a way to keep quail flat for grilling— is inserted into the breast. The pin can be left there throughout cooking and removed just before serving.</P>
    2600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2482
    26012483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While whole quail might require 45 minutes to cook, the semi-boneless variety can be grilled in less than 10 minutes, or pan-roasted, braised or sauteed in less than 20 minutes.</P>
    2602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2484
    26032485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flavor of farm-raised quail has also helped bring them into the mainstream. Most farm-raised quail have tender meat like the dark meat of chicken, whose flavor is enjoyed by many people.</P>
    2604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2486
    26052487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And at a time when people are searching for foods, specifically animal protein, with low fat and cholesterol, quail fills the bill. The Agriculture Department says that quail skin has about 7 percent fat, about the same as dark meat of roasted chicken without the skin.</P>
    26062488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Banrett Adapted from The New York Times </P>
    26072489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21, 1989</P>
    2608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2490
    26092491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    2610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2492
     2493
    26122494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is necessary to keep quail in battery cages on wire floors because males secrete a sticky foam (from the foam gland) with their feces; on a solid floor, this adheres to the feet and collects dung, leading to crippling and breakage of eggs.</P>
    2613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2495
    26142496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult quail can live and produce successfully if they are allowed 80 cm2 of floor space per bird. However, for reproduction about twice that is needed to allow for mating rituals.3 If properly mated, high fertility rates and good egg hatchability can be expected. To obtain fertile eggs, one male is needed for roughly six females.</P>
    2615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2497
    26162498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs hatch in about 17 days. Chicks require careful attention. Brooding temperatures of between 31 C and 35 C  are needed for the first week and above 21 C for the second week. From the second week on, chicks can survive at room temperature. (These temperatures are similar to those required for common chickens.) In cold climates, supplemental heat may be needed as well as protection from cool drafts.</P>
    2617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2499
    26182500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean water must be provided at all times, with care taken to prevent the chicks from drowning in their water troughs. Shallow trays, jar lids, or pans filled with marbles or stones may be used.</P>
    2619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2501
    26202502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    2621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2503
     2504
    26232505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail production can be started with little money. These easy-care birds can be housed in small, simple, inexpensive cages.</P>
    2624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2506
    26252507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, they are resistant to Newcastle disease.</P>
    2626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2508
    26272509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIX OF ONE, HALF A DOZEN OF THE OTHER</P>
    2628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2510
     2511
    26302512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that chickens can be crossed with quail has been known for some time, but there has been little attempt to develop the fertile hybrids. Now Malaysia has begun a project aimed at producing a new poultry bird - a cross between a cockerel and a hen quail. Zainal Abidin bin Mohd Noor, of the Department of Veterinary Services in Kuala Lumpur, is creating a strain that produces eggs of good quality and meat with the flavor of both parents. The new bird is intermediate in size between chicken and quail which is convenient because it is about right for an individual helping.</P>
    2631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2513
    26322514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crossbreeding is done through artificial insemination. The progeny exhibit a range of appearances, sizes, and plumage colors, depending on the strains of cockerel and quail hens used. In the Malaysian research, cockerels have been local Ayam Kampung Bantam, Hybro, and Golden Comet hybrids. The quails have been local inbred Japanese quail (IJQ) and imported meat strain quail (IMSQ).</P>
    2633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2515
    26342516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trials show that the hybrids derived from the IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro x IMSQ crosses, which weigh 475 g at 10 weeks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290 g during the same period.</P>
    2635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2517
    26362518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type of "tropical game hen" might be a way to introduce hybrid vigor into poultry production.</P>
    2637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2519
    26382520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it the "yamyuh." </P>
    2639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2521
    26402522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    2641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2523
     2524
    26432525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally disease resistant, quail are affected by several common poultry diseases, including salmonella, cholera, blackhead, and lice. They also suffer epidemic mortality from "quail disease" (ulcerative enteritis), which can, however, be controlled with antibiotics.</P>
    2644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2526
    26452527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail seem to require more protein than chickens, and produce best when given feed that is fairly high in protein.4 However, they also perform satisfactorily when fed rations designed for turkeys. They have high requirements for vitamin A, which they do not store.</P>
    2646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2528
    26472529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are not suitable as free-ranging "scavengers." They must be kept confined, which is a major constraint. Unlike chickens or pigeons, they have no homing instinct and will not remain on a given site; if released, they will be lost. In addition, since they nest on the ground, they are highly susceptible to predation; they must be protected, especially where certain animals, the mongoose for example, are common.</P>
    2648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2530
    26492531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial incubation is essential. Natural incubation using the female is futile; the females do not go broody and rarely incubate their eggs. The shells are extremely thin, but the eggs can be incubated under a small chicken hen, such as a bantam.5 The eggs are also subject to minute fractures. However, the shell membrane is extremely tough and unfertilized eggs are generally unaffected, but the cracks cause fertilized embryos to dehydrate and die. This is a serious limitation. Whenever quail husbandry is introduced, artificial incubation should be included.</P>
    2650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2532
    26512533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    2652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2534
     2535
    26542536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail deserve to be included in all poultry research aimed at helping the Third World. Through its international scientific program, Japan, in particular, could apply to developing nations its vast experience with quail farming.</P>
    2655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2537
    26562538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with quail in the tropics (for example, Japanese farmers in the Amazon Basin) and in tropical highlands (for instance, in India, Nepal, or Central Africa) should be collected and assessed to improve understanding of the environmental limits to Third World quail farming.</P>
    2657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2539
    26582540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperation between commercial and laboratory quail breeders should be encouraged. Mutants found at the commercial level would be useful for laboratory work. Conversely, introducing new stocks could help the farmer. In both cases, more genetic diversity might also lead to the production of hybrid vigor, and genetic variability would be conserved.</P>
    2659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2541
    26602542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex-linked genes, if they can be found, would be useful to the commercial quail breeder for the rapid sexing of newly hatched chicks. This could lead to more efficient production techniques, like those in the chicken industry.</P>
    2661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2543
    26622544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although virtually all work to date has been on the Japanese quail, other species and subspecies warrant research and testing. </P>
    2663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2545
     2546
    26652547<B><P></P>
    26662548<!--
    … …  
    26712553  </Description>
    26722554-->
    2673 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2555</B>
    26742556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g015a.png"></center><br>
    26752557 FIGURE</P>
    2676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2558
    26772559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.</P>
    2678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2560
    26792561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.</P>
    2680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2562
    26812563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today's Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.' Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.</P>
    2682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2564
    26832565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively. </P>
    2684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2566
    26852567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.</P>
    2686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2568
    26872569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.</P>
    2688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2570
    26892571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    2690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2572
     2573
    26922574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    2693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2575
    26942576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    2695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2577
     2578
    26972579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.</P>
    2698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2580
    26992581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown "criollo" turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.</P>
    2700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2582
    27012583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    2702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2584
     2585
    27042586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.</P>
    2705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2587
    27062588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    2707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2589
     2590
    27092591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated turkeys are not endangered; there are estimated to be about 124 million in the world. However, the wild Mexican varieties, ancestors to the first domesticated turkeys sent to Europe, may now be endangered since their distribution in southwestern Mexico has been greatly reduced. Certainly, some primitive domestic strains in the uplands of central Mexico are also being depleted. A separate type, independently domesticated by the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States, seems to have disappeared entirely.</P>
    2710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2592
    27112593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    2712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2594
     2595
    27142596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys can be reared virtually anywhere. Their natural habitat is open forest and wooded areas of the North American continent, but in Mexico they are raised from sea level to over 2,000 m altitude, from  rainforest to desert, and from near-temperate climates to the tropics.</P>
    2715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2597
    27162598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
    27172599 The original distribution of the turkey and the occellated</P>
    2718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2600
    27192601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    2720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2602
     2603
    27222604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of diet is broad. Turkeys eat greens, fruits, seeds, nuts,  grasses, berries, roots, insects (locusts, cicadas, crickets, and  grasshoppers, for example), worms, slugs, and snails.</P>
    2723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2605
    27242606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is generally seasonal and is stimulated by increasing  daylength. (A minimum daylength of 12 hours is required.) The birds  can reach sexual maturity at six months of age and may start breeding at  this time. Ten days after first mating, the hen searches out a nest and  commences laying. Industrial birds in temperate climates lay, on  average, 90 eggs a year. The nondescript type of turkey in the tropics  seldom lays more than 20 small eggs (weighing about 60 am) before  going broody.</P>
    2725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2607
    27262608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    2727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2609
     2610
    27292611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic turkeys walk rather than fly, and find almost all their food  on the ground. They can, however, fly short distances to avoid  predators.</P>
    2730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2612
    27312613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial birds have lost many abilities for survival in the wild;  they can no longer exist without human care. However, village types  can do well with little management.</P>
    2732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2614
    27332615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys prefer to make their own nests but can be induced to lay in a  convenient spot if provided with nest boxes.</P>
    2734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2616
    27352617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    2736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2618
     2619
    27382620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are raised almost exclusively for meat. In many countries,  they are a treat for holidays, birthdays, and weddings. In their native  range of Mexico and Central America, the "unimproved" birds are  usually produced as a cash crop for market. They receive little care or  feed, and thus they are almost all profit - providing a significant income  supplement to many rural homes.  </P>
    2739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2621
    27402622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    2741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2623
     2624
    27432625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principles of turkey management (nutrition, housing, rearing' and prevention of disease, for example) are basically the same as those for other poultry.</P>
    2744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2626
    27452627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, turkeys are usually kept under free-ranging conditions around houses and villages. Some shelter and kitchen scraps are occasionally provided. A number of them, however, are confined in backyards as protection from marauders and for shelter against rain and wind.</P>
    2746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2628
    27472629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One male can service up to 12 females. Roomy nests are needed. (As a rule, turkeys require three times the space occupied by chickens.) Most range turkeys are corralled when they begin to lay, so as to protect them from predators. Eggs may be gathered to prevent broodiness and thereby increase production. The eggs may be kept for several days (cool, but not refrigerated) if turned daily, and then may be placed under a chicken hen. (A setting chicken can be used this way to hatch up to nine eggs at a time.) Hatching takes 28 days.</P>
    2748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2630
    27492631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in other birds, newly hatched turkeys (poults) must be kept warm during the first weeks of life. Until they begin foraging and have full access to pasture they are usually fed broken grain or fine mash, as well as finely chopped, tender green feed.</P>
    2750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2632
    27512633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although free-ranging turkeys are simple to raise, confined turkeys require more complex management. The birds need uncrowded, well ventilated conditions and should be on a wire or slatted floor to reduce parasitic infections. Any feeds recommended for chicks are suitable, but the protein content should be somewhat higher; that is, about 27 percent. They can be fed mixed grains, corn, and chopped legume hay. It may be necessary to provide vitamin supplements and antibiotics and take steps to prevent coccidiosis.</P>
    2752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2634
    27532635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"AN INCOMPARABLY FINER BIRD"</P>
    2754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2636
     2637
    27562638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey was domesticated in Mexico some time before the Conquest. It is the one and only important domestic animal of North American origin. When the Spanish arrived, they found barnyard turkeys in the possession of Indians in all parts of Mexico and even in Central America. However, the Aztecs and the Tarascans, originating in west-central Mexico, seemed to have achieved the highest development of turkey culture, and it is probable that turkeys were domesticated in the western highlands, perhaps in Michoacan. Wild turkeys of that region are morphologically very similar to the primitive domestic bronze type. Both the Aztecs and Tarascans kept great numbers of the birds, including even white ones. They paid royal tribute to their respective kings in turkeys, according to the Relacion de Michoacan. The Tarascan king fed turkeys to the hawks and eagles in his zoo. The economy of some highland tribes was based on the cultivation of corn and the raising of turkeys.</P>
    27572639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Starker Leopold</P>
    2758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2640
    27592641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL TURKEY</P>
    2760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2642
     2643
    27622644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The modern domesticated turkey is thought to be descended from two differing wild subspecies, one found in Mexico and Central America and the other in the United States. The southern type is small, whereas the U.S. native is larger and has a characteristic bronze plumage.</P>
    2763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2645
    27642646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexican turkeys were exported to Europe soon after the Conquest, and spread rapidly. In the 17th century, some were returned to North America, where they interbred with the eastern subspecies of wild turkey, producing a heavier bird, which was then re-exported to Europe.</P>
    2765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2647
    27662648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These types underwent little change until this century, when the Englishman Jesse Throssel bred them for meat quality. In the 1920s, he brought his improved birds to Canada, where their large size and broad breasts quickly made them foundation breeding stock. Crossed with the narrow-breasted North American types, these heavily muscled meat birds quickly supplanted other varieties.</P>
    2767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2649
    27682650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the same time, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began the scientific development of a smaller meat turkey derived from a more diverse genetic base. By the 1950s, the Beltsville Small Whites predominated in the home consumption market in the United States.</P>
    2769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2651
    27702652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    2771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2653
     2654
    27732655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are efficient and generally take care of themselves. They tolerate dry, hot, or cold climates and forage farther than chickens. They are large, fast growing, highly marketable, low in fat, and tasty. </P>
    2774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2656
    27752657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE TURKEY'S TROPICAL COUSIN</P>
    2776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2658
     2659
    27782660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) occurs in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize. It is much like the common turkey in size, form, and behavior: however, unlike the common turkey, which in Mexico lives in the high mountain pine and oak forests, the ocellated turkey inhabits bushy, semiforested lowlands. This splendid bird lacks the kind of beard sported by the common turkey gobbler, is generally more metallic in appearance, and has brighter coppery colors. The chief character is a neck and head that are bare, blue, and profusely covered with coral-colored pimples. It also has a yellow-tipped protuberance growing on the crown between the eyes.</P>
    2779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2661
    27802662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is worthy of investigation by poultry researchers because it might prove to be domesticable. It was possibly domesticated by the Mayas, whose ruins often include appropriately sized stone enclosures whose soil has elevated levels of phosphorus and potassium. Even today, in the rural Peten area of Guatemala, ocellated turkeys are sometimes kept around houses as scavengers.</P>
    2781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2663
    27822664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    2783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2665
     2666
    27852667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young birds are readily affected by temperature changes and must be protected from the sun as well as from sudden chills, such as may occur at night. They are particularly susceptible to dampness, especially if associated with cold. One peculiarity is the turkey's aversion to any change in feeding routine or the nature of the food.</P>
    2786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2668
    27872669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young turkeys are susceptible to parasitic infestation as well as to the same type of bacterial and virus diseases as chickens (for example, fowlpox and coccidiosis). Blackhead, a devastating disease of young turkeys, is carried by a common parasitic nematode, and can be contracted from chickens. Medicines are available to prevent or treat most disease and pest problems.</P>
    2788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2670
    27892671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    2790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2672
     2673
    27922674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey development is almost nonexistent in the Third World (and much of the rest of the world, too). Although commercial turkeys are highly developed in some countries, little or no research has been conducted on the criollo turkey. Research on physiology, disease, and husbandry of the criollo turkey should be given high priority.</P>
    2793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2675
    27942676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for conservation of genetic variability is perhaps more critical in this species than in almost any other domesticated animal. The unimproved types in Mexico should be collected and assessed, and a program to conserve the stocks should be initiated. An analysis should also be made of the traditional management and performance of these birds. In addition, the four or five recognized turkey subspecies should be evaluated for their potential as seed stock for Third World countries. </P>
    2795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2677
    27962678<B><P></P>
    27972679<!--
    … …  
    28022684  </Description>
    28032685-->
    2804 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2686</B>
    28052687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g016a.png"></center><br>
    28062688 FIGURE</P>
    2807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2689
    28082690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of domesticating certain wild birds.l Here, briefly, are highlighted other wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.</P>
    2809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2691
    28102692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock— and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed. Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks, geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible - at least none have poisonous flesh - so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.</P>
    2811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2693
    28122694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas, a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page 120).</P>
    2813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2695
    28142696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, microbiology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds easier today than ever before. </P>
    2815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2697
    28162698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are gallinaceous.</P>
    2817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2699
    28182700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching. All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.</P>
    2819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2701
    28202702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.</P>
    2821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2703
    28222704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHACHALACAS</P>
    2823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2705
     2706
    28252707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are found throughout Central and South America, and, given research, could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken," they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3</P>
    2826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2708
    28272709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken, it is tastier and darker.</P>
    2828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2710
    28292711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers, they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.</P>
    2830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2712
    28312713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4</P>
    2832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2714
    28332715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUANS</P>
    2834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2716
     2717
    28362718<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses, farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.</P>
    2837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2719
    28382720<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly hunted for food and sport - their tameness and inability to fly far or fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right incentive for their protection and multiplication.</P>
    2839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2721
    28402722<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURASSOWS</P>
    2841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2723
     2724
    28432725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are even larger - up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South America.6 Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.</P>
    2844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2726
    28452727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer to them as "pavos" or "pavones," as if they were the real thing. Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.</P>
    2846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2728
    28472729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They are special targets, not only because they are large but also because their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.</P>
    2848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2730
    28492731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the cattle yards as if they were chickens.7</P>
    2850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2732
    28512733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOREST BIRD RANCHING</P>
    2852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2734
     2735
    28542736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has intentionally focused on intensive farming - the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity. However, where this normal type of farming is of marginal value, `'ranching'' free-ranging birds may often be a more effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and improves the condition of the range and devises methods to harvest the birds on a sustainable basis. </P>
    2855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2737
    28562738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particularly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize birds of the jungle. These might help make standing rainforests profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest birds might become part of a whole new "salvation farming'' that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique that may contribute to preserving both bird life and its vitally valuable habitat.</P>
    2857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2739
    28582740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEGAPODES</P>
    2859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2741
     2742
    28612743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.</P>
    2862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2744
    28632745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia, Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being killed for food.8</P>
    2864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2746
    28652747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until they locate sand that is exactly 32.7&Yacute;C, before laying their huge (more than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig up some 2O,OOO eggs, which are an important source of protein and cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.</P>
    2866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2748
    28672749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products— down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the most dedicated conservationists of all.</P>
    2868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2750
    28692751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS</P>
    2870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2752
     2753
    28722754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World. They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many eggs - the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch. Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.</P>
    2873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2755
    28742756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species that may make useful poultry include:</P>
    2875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2757
    28762758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix); </P>
    2877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2759
    28782760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and</P>
    2879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2761
    28802762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The chukar (A. graeca). </P>
    2881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2763
    28822764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries. It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers of poultry farmers.9</P>
    2883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2765
    28842766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francolinus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats, and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and trapped wherever they are found.</P>
    2885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2767
    28862768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus) into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages. However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet Union.'&Yacute;</P>
    2887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2769
    28882770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and mountains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch consists of 6-8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.11</P>
    2889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2771
    28902772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP</P>
    2891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2773
     2774
    28932775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food suppliers, it should be realized that small animals - even wild ones - can have other important uses as welt The following interesting example, with possible worldwide implications, comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *</P>
    2894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2776
    28952777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations. Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls, particularly barn owls (Tyto alba), can help control them. An owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1,500 or more rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms throughout the world the barn owl has always been a welcome guest. What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects to attract and maintain these feathered friends. </P>
    2896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2778
    28972779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barn owls are found in many parts of the world, but were formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969, however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula. Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.</P>
    2898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2780
    28992781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of $1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and expensive problem.</P>
    2900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2782
    29012783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn owls are, after all primarily adapted to open spaces and not dense forest.</P>
    2902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2784
    29032785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in other locations and with other crops. Grain crops - notably rice - are particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in the United States. Indeed owl nest boxes are being erected in Central Park in the heart of New York City.</P>
    2904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2786
    29052787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHEASANTS</P>
    2906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2788
     2789
    29082790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see page 86). The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asia.13 Because they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species, notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly hunted.</P>
    2909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2791
    29102792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously addressed.</P>
    2911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2793
    29122794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Pavo cristatus), is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.</P>
    2913 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2795
    29142796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL</P>
    2915 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2797
     2798
    29172799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146)J but dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of all this genetic wealth only one species - the Japanese quail - is widely used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly tame after about the sixth generation.</P>
    2918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2800
    29192801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The management and even perhaps intensive production of these various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many developing nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.14 Some of these lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research. The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.</P>
    2920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2802
    29212803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are found in various places, including the following:</P>
    2922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2804
    29232805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)</P>
    2924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2806
    29252807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores (C. c. conturbans) </P>
    2926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2808
    29272809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa) </P>
    2928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2810
    29292811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata) </P>
    2930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2812
    29312813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- East Africa (C. c. erlangeri) </P>
    2932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2814
    29332815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C. c. africana) </P>
    2934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2816
    29352817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domesticated quail)</P>
    2936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2818
    29372819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated Japanese quail)</P>
    2938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2820
    29392821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TINAMOUS</P>
    2940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2822
     2823
    29422824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more than 40 species, and all are much sought for food because their meat is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major), has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes." Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United States under the name "South American quail."</P>
    2943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2825
    29442826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats: rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000 m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying only when forced.</P>
    2945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2827
    29462828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed. Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.15</P>
    2947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2829
    29482830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay clutches of 16-20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.</P>
    2949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2831
    29502832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAND GROUSE</P>
    2951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2833
     2834
    29532835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in arid regions - desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils against blowing sand and dust.</P>
    2954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2836
    29552837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of Africa and Asia - for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian, and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer. The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their populations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if harvesting schemes are introduced.</P>
    2956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2838
    29572839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRUMPETERS</P>
    2958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2840
     2841
    29602842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the trees, as is now done to raise cattle.</P>
    2961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2843
    29622844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles.16 They are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. 17 </P>
    2963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2845
    29642846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching extinction in some areas.</P>
    2965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2847
    29662848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.</P>
    2967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2849
    29682850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land. Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened, the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching" programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving populations built up. </P>
    2969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2851
    29702852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to meeting these needs.</P>
    29712853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt Rabbit Production </P>
    2972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2854
    29732855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the techniques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve the family diet of many of the most needy rural families, while at the same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat markets.</P>
    29742856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production </P>
    2975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2857
    29762858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g017a.png"></center><br>
    29772859 FIGURE</P>
    2978 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2979 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2860
     2861<B>
    29802862<!--
    29812863</Section>
    … …  
    29862868  </Description>
    29872869-->
    2988 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2870</B>
     2871
    29902872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular opinion, the domestic rabbit is a substantial part of the world's meat supply. Annual production of rabbit meat is estimated to be one million metric tons, and the total number of rabbits is approximately 708 million.' However, rabbits are now intensively raised for food only in temperate, mostly industrialized, nations. France, Italy, and Spain, for example, have long consumed rabbit meat; West German production was 20,000 tons each year; Hungary raises rabbits in large numbers (two of its commercial rabbitries have more than 10,000 does each); and the United States raises almost 8.5 million rabbits each year for consumption in homes and restaurants.2</P>
    2991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2873
    29922874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, on the other hand, rabbits are not well known - at least compared with other livestock. But they have great promise there, and in recent years there has been a dramatic increase in interest. For those developing countries where information is available, rabbit meat production almost doubled between 1966 and 1980. For instance, several African countries - among them Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia - now have national rabbit-raising programs. A number of Asian countries - such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam - are also encouraging rabbit farming. And some Latin American countries - Mexico, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, for instance - are actively promoting rabbits for subsistence farmers.</P>
    2993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2875
    29942876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana is also extensively promoting rabbit farming. Although able to produce all the cereals its population needs, it cannot produce enough meat to satisfy demand. In response, the government organized "Operation Feed Yourself." The National Rabbit Project was created </P>
    2995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2877
    29962878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hares</P>
    2997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2879
     2880
    29992881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common hare (Lepus europus) has not been domesticated, but it is nevertheless a major cash crop of several countries. In Argentina, for example, there is a booming, million-dollar enterprise that exports hundreds of thousands of carcasses, mainly to Germany where they are sold as game meat. For Argentine campesinos, many of whom have few sources of livelihood, trapping hares provides a vital income. In New Zealand, too, hare has become an export item.</P>
    3000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2882
    30012883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closely related species (Lepus capensis) is native to Africa, and perhaps could be "ranched in the same fashion.</P>
    3002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2884
    30032885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rainforest Rabbit</P>
    3004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2886
     2887
    30062888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forest rabbit, or tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), is commonly eaten in its native habitat, which extends from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. It occurs in various hot and humid areas of Central and South America and probably within the Amazon Basin itself. Thus, this creature seems a possible candidate for a "tropical rabbit" that can be raised under sweltering conditions, perhaps even in rainforest regions. Although it seems to be heat resistant, it has an especially fine fur.</P>
    3007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2889
    30082890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is now known about the tapeti. It is rather secretive and its natural history and even its range are still uncertain. However, its populations appear stable and it is not threatened with extinction. It produces litters of 1 - 5 young after a 44-day gestation, and may bear 4 litters a year. This may seem a lot, but compared with other wild rabbits, the litter size is small and the gestation period long. under this program to provide farmers with breeding stock and practical information on rearing rabbits. (To qualify for the purchase of new breeding stock, would-be rabbit raisers are required to take an intensive three-day course in rabbit husbandry, which is provided at no charge.) With both official and popular support, the rabbit's potential for Ghana has been enhanced through media campaigns complete with radio jingles (examples: "Get the bunny money!" "Grow rabbits - grow children." "Get into the rabbit habit!"), television spots, and large posters. Already, rabbit breeding is included in school curricula and rabbit meat is available in school lunches.</P>
    3009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2891
    30102892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other countries have mounted similar campaigns. In Mexico, for instance, teachers raise rabbits in rural schools as a way of training students; scores of government officials have taken to breeding rabbits in their homes; and several army units are raising rabbits as mess-hall substitutes for costly beef, pork, and chicken. In Nigeria, farmers can now acquire rabbits from 18 government rabbit-breeding centers, which distribute thousands of animals each year. In Costa Rica, the government has similarly established a series of breeding, distribution, and rabbit-farming training centers. And in El Salvador, the technology of rabbit production is being transferred to farmers via the army.</P>
    3011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2893
    30122894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rabbits are ideal microlivestock in a general sense, rabbit rearing has many problems and limitations. Poor management is a common difficulty. Unlike the traditional method of keeping scavenger animals, rabbits have to be contained and cannot be left to find their own food. Raising rabbits requires more skills, more time, and much more effort than raising barnyard chickens or other familiar scavengers.</P>
    3013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2895
    30142896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For all that, rabbits produce more food than scavenging animals; they are less likely to damage crops because they are kept confined; they live exclusively on forage, which tends to grow vigorously in tropical zones; and they generally produce a more valuable product. The rabbit's potential is far from exploited, and rabbit farming will have to increase enormously before its promise for the small farms of the world is realized.</P>
    3015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2897
    30162898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, however, an increasing concern over a recent outbreak of an exceptionally virulent viral rabbit disease - hemorrhagic tracheopneumonis, which attacks the lungs and lung tissue, killing 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. The virus, which has ravaged the animals in parts of Asia and Europe, was identified in China five years ago in Angora rabbits imported from Germany. It spread to Korea in 1986, and in early 1988 moved through southern and eastern Europe and spread as far as Egypt. It has also been identified in Mexico. Vaccination may become a future prerequisite of rabbit rearing in many countries. </P>
    3017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2899
    30182900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAST FOOD</P>
    3019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3020 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2901
     2902
    30212903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The order Lagomorpha includes more than 60 small quickmaturing, and rapidly reproducing species. It seems illogical to think that only one is useful as microlivestock. In principle, any rabbit, hare, or pike could be raised in captivity. All are clean, fast growing and rapid breeding. They are opportunistic feeders and can digest fibrous vegetation. Their meat tastes better than chicken and does not carry the stigma of rodent. The animals are small inoffensive, efficient at foraging, and generally tolerant of difficult environments. In theory, at least, they could be raised on vegetation not used by people or by many domesticated livestock.</P>
    30222904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species worthy of exploratory research include the following.</P>
    3023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3024 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2905
     2906
    30252907<B><P></P>
    30262908<!--
    … …  
    30302912  </Description>
    30312913-->
    3032 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2914</B>
    30332915<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g018a.png"></center><br>
    30342916 FIGURE</P>
    3035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2917
    30362918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)1 is suited to small-scale production and backyard farming. It is easily maintained, requires scant space, makes minimal demands on the family budget, and thrives on plant materials that are usually disdained by humans. It utilizes forage efficiently. even coarse vegetation that is high in fiber, and under ideal conditions it can grow so rapidly that its rate is only slightly lower than that of broiler chickens.2</P>
    3037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2919
    30382920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rabbit's capacity for reproduction is legendary. In theory, a single male and four females can produce as many as 3,000 offspring a year, representing some 1,450 kg of meat - as much as an average sized cow.3 The meat is pink, delicately flavored, and is usually considered a premium product that provides variety in the diet. It has more protein and less fat and calories per gram than beef, pork, lamb, or chicken.</P>
    3039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2921
    30402922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some breeds are raised for their wool. The long-haired Angora, for instance, yields a luxury fiber that makes a soft, lustrous fabric. It sells at high prices and makes these animals very valuable.</P>
    3041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2923
    30422924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit pelts also bring cash. They are used in fur coats and other luxury garments. In addition, rabbit feet and tails are used in good luck charms and many curios.</P>
    3043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2925
    30442926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3046 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2927
     2928
    30472929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    3048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2930
    30492931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3050 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2932
     2933
    30522934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are well known for their long ears, fluffy tails, and long hind legs. Many commercial breeds are white, although colored types are sometimes chosen because of special qualities in their meat or pelts.</P>
    3053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2935
    30542936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many breeds and much genetic diversity within and between breeds. (Almost 160 varieties are recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association.) However, in both North America and Europe, the New Zealand White has traditionally displaced most other breeds for commercial meat production. This medium-weight breed bears large litters, is a good milk producer, and has good mothering ability. It reproduces best under intensive farming and, among purebreds, yields the most meat. A full-grown New Zealand White weighs 4-5 kg, giving about 2 kg of meat at 8-10 weeks of age. Large breeds include the Flemish Giant or the Checkered Giant, which weigh more than 6 kg at maturity.</P>
    3055 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2937
    30562938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids are rapidly replacing purebreds in Europe for commercial production. Specific crosses of breeds have been shown experimentally to be more productive overall compared with purebred New Zealand Whites.</P>
    3057 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2939
    30582940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different meat breeds are preferred in various countries. For example, in Ghana the most popular are Flemish Giants, New Zealand Whites, Yellow Silvers, and Checkered Giants; in Tanzania and Nigeria, New Zealand Whites and Dutch are preferred; in China, Chinchillas and Japanese Large Whites are the most widely consumed. Some smaller breeds - for instance, the Polish - are also valuable for husbandry.</P>
    3059 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2941
    30602942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Third World strains have already evolved. They show high tolerance to local conditions (for example, the Baladi - the main strain of the Sudan and the Near East - and the Criollo of Mexico). The Baladi has a small body and relatively low production, but it is hardy and tolerates harsh conditions.</P>
    3061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2943
    30622944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialized breeds have been developed for wool, fur, and laboratory research. The Angora wool breed has already been mentioned. The Rex breed produces a high-quality pelt used in furs.</P>
    3063 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2945
    30642946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3065 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2947
     2948
    30672949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the domestic rabbit was originally restricted to Spain and Portugal. Today, its descendants are found worldwide.</P>
    3068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2950
    30692951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3071 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2952
     2953
    30722954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plentiful.</P>
    3073 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2955
    30742956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3075 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2957
     2958
    30772959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic rabbits are best suited to temperate climates, but they do well in tropical and subtropical conditions if hutches are constructed and sited to take advantage of shade and cooling breezes. Ventilation is important (but care must be taken to avoid direct exposure to cold drafts). Prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 30&Yacute;C reduces both fertility and growth. Apparently, all breeds tolerate heat equally well. However, heat is shed through the ears, and the longer the ear, the more heat a rabbit will tolerate. Lop-eared varieties withstand heat poorly.</P>
    3078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2960
    30792961<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2962
     2963
    30822964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits eat fibrous vegetation. In addition to normal feces, they produce special droppings called cecotropes. Softer and smaller than the regular fecal pellets, they are excreted in clusters and are swallowed as soon as they are eliminated. Cecotropes are rich in bacterial protein, and this double digestion (coprophagy) enables the animals to utilize the fermentation products formed in the cecum. This process is rather like that of ruminants, and rabbits are sometimes called pseudoruminants.4</P>
    3083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2965
    30842966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding begins at 4-6 months of age and may continue up to age 4, occasionally to age 6. Gestation takes 28-32 days. Females can conceive within 24 hours after giving birth and can produce a second litter merely 4 weeks later. With good feed and early rebreeding, 9 or more litters a year are possible. (Such a rate is only achievable under exceptional management, however.) Litter size depends on breed and body weight. Small breeds average 4 young per litter; large breeds 810. Births occur at any time of the year, but production slackens when the weather is exceptionally cold or hot, when feed is scarce, or when days are short. Extremes of heat or cold can also affect the survival of the young.</P>
    3085 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2967
    30862968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits raised under subsistence conditions are likely to produce 4 or 5 litters a year, with an average of 5-8 young per litter' depending on management and feed quality.5 Annual production of about 20 weaned offspring per female per year under tropical and subtropical conditions is common. The young remain in the nest until they are 2-3 weeks old. Their eyes open at approximately 10 days of age. About 4 months are required to produce a 2-kg market rabbit under subsistence conditions. </P>
    3087 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2969
    30882970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3089 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2971
     2972
    30912973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits that receive human handling are very gentle and can be trained to live inside people's houses and even use a "litter box."</P>
    3092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2974
    30932975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3095 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2976
     2977
    30962978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are multipurpose animals yielding the following products:</P>
    3097 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2979
    30982980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat. Delicious hot or cold, fancy or plain, it can be breaded and fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued.</P>
    3099 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2981
    31002982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wool. The fineness of rabbit hair is an asset in the production of wool, which is the plucked or shaved hair of the long-haired Angora breed. It is usually mixed with fine Merino sheep wool to give more substance and to improve its wearing quality. An average Angora rabbit produces about 850 g of wool each year. (Some specimens produce as much as 1,000 g.)</P>
    3101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2983
    31022984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fur. The fur is dense.</P>
    3103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2985
    31042986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leather or vellum. Rabbit hide has the tension and strength required for tiny drive-belts in tape recorders and other delicate machines.</P>
    3105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2987
    31062988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fertilizer. Rabbit manure often contains high proportions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, and it comes in convenient drypellet form.</P>
    3107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2989
    31082990<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tourist charms. In many societies, rabbits are connected with good luck. Feet and tails are used for car decorations, key chains, charms, and mementos that appeal to tourists.</P>
    3109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2991
    31102992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are also used in biochemical and physiological research.</P>
    3111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2993
    31122994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2995
     2996
    31152997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits can be housed in hutches ranging from sophisticated commercial cages to simple packing crates with a few ventilation holes and rough troughs for food and water. In all cases, watertight roofing is essential. A floor space of only 0.25 m&Yacute; is sufficient for one rabbit, but about 1 m&Yacute; is recommended for a female and her young.</P>
    3116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2998
    31172999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting small-scale rabbit production is generally inexpensive. An almost infinite variety of backyard feeding and drinking equipment can be made from various scrap items, such as old bottles. The main criteria are that cleaning should be easy and spillage minimized.</P>
    3118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3000
    31193001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, diets can be based largely on herbage: grass, leaves, legumes, crop residues, and kitchen scraps. However, the diet must be wholesome, and caged rabbits fed on forage usually need some grain or agricultural by-products (rice bran, for instance) as a dietary supplement. Supplementation is particularly important for newborns and lactating females, whose diet must contain about 16 percent protein and at least 18 percent fiber. When "noncommercial" feeds are used, salt must be added to prevent salt deficiency.</P>
    3120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3002
    31213003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of higher protein content, legumes (for instance, alfalfa, cowpea, vetch, or pea) are better than grass. Alfalfa is particularly valuable, and in the Sudan and Mozambique it is already grown extensively for feeding rabbits. On diets consisting of alfalfa and rye grass, weaned New Zealand Whites have demonstrated growth rates of 38-39 g per day in animals weighing up to 2 kg.</P>
    3122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3004
    31233005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3006
     3007
    31263008<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits, as mentioned, can utilize almost any type of edible vegetation. Also, despite their diminutive size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as large livestock, or even more (see page 183).6</P>
    3127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3009
    31283010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much genetic diversity. Differences in growth rate, fertility, maternal ability, milk production, disease resistance, heat resistance, and other features have been noted. This is useful, since a wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection programs.</P>
    3129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3011
    31303012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily accomplished in the home by women and children.</P>
    3131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3013
    31323014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's rapid reproduction is a big advantage.</P>
    3133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3015
    31343016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3017
     3018
    31373019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical conditions produce special problems. There, rabbits must be protected from heat and rain. Stress brought on by high temperatures, high humidity, and wet conditions can lead to respiratory disorders and even sudden death.</P>
    3138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3020
    31393021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most diseases are caused by poor management. Dirty or wet cages lead to diarrhea, sores, mites, and ringworm, all of which can cause serious losses. Enteritis (diarrhea) often kills 20 percent or more of all rabbits before they attain market age and weight. A major disease problem in most countries is coccidiosis, which is particularly harmful to young rabbits. Again, damp and unsanitary conditions increase the susceptibility; better management can control it. </P>
    3140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3022
    31413023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries - notably Australia and New Zealand - escaping rabbits have become a serious menace and have destroyed crops and grazing lands. Because of this threat, it is illegal to import rabbits into some countries.</P>
    3142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3024
    31433025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, many people are unaccustomed to eating rabbit. Indeed, where commercial ventures have been established in areas with an otherwise plentiful meat supply, there have been financial failures. However, where rabbit meat is familiar, there is usually great demand for it. Also, in poorer areas where animal protein is in short supply, the tasty pink meat is widely appreciated.</P>
    3144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3026
    31453027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW RABBITS WERE DOMESTICATED</P>
    3146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3028
     3029
    31483030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 30 or 40 million years the wild species Oryctolagus Cuniculus lived only in the area that today is Spain. Caves there contain Stone Age drawings of it. Phoenician traders landing on the Iberian Peninsula in about 1100 B.C. found huge numbers of these wild rabbits. The little animals were unknown to them and they mistook them for the hyraxes they had seen in Africa. (Although small and rabbitlike, the hyrax is actually related to elephants.) Since the Semitic name for hyrax was shaphan ("one who hides"), the Phoenicians named the peninsula l-shepan-im, from which the Latin name Hispania developed. Thus, "Spain" actually means "island of hyraxes," even though these African animals have never occurred there.</P>
    3149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3031
    31503032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the rabbit's reproductive powers and adaptability it is surprising that it hadn't spread beyond Spain, but dense forests covered most of Europe after the last Ice Age. The rabbit, which is suited to open country, only spread rapidly after man had cleared most of the trees. Even then, the natural spread was slowed by the Pyrenees mountains blocking the way into the rest of Europe.</P>
    3151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3033
    31523034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans became acquainted with rabbits after they invaded Spain, and they eagerly added wild rabbit meat to their banquets. The meat was so popular that around 1 A.D. Roman voyagers released a pair of rabbits onto the Balearic Islands. In time, these produced so many offspring that the islanders had to appeal to the Roman emperor for help. They even asked to be moved to another country if the emperor could not get rid of the plague of rabbits!</P>
    3153 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3035
    31543036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, Romans in Italy, France, and other parts of the European mainland began raising rabbits for meat. They kept them in special cages called leporaria. Their rabbits were probably not truly domesticated; instead they were netted in the wild and caged for fattening before being prepared for the table. The Romans had little incentive to domesticate an animal that could be so easily captured.</P>
    3155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3037
    31563038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tne rabbit was the last farm animal to be domesticated. It seems likely that this did not begin until the Christian era when monks in French monasteries began taming rabbits. In those days, rabbit embryos and newborn young were considered delicacies, called "laurices." In 600 A.D. the Pope declared that laurices were "not meatp," and permitted them to be eaten during fasts and in monasteries of strict discipline where meat was forbidden. Within a few years, the animal was domesticated, </P>
    3157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3039
    31583040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3041
     3042
    31613043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government-sponsored rabbit-research stations and programs are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom.</P>
    3162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3044
    31633045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit husbandry is well known, but much basic research is needed; for example, specific nutrient requirements, breed comparisons, disease control, reproductive management, and efficient housing and equipment. There is a particular need to reduce the labor required for feeding, breeding, caging, and cleaning.</P>
    3164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3046
    31653047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the increasing number of rabbit programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, there is a need to share information and ideas among the various countries. The exchange of experiences with rabbit breeding, health and nutrition, and the practical experiences and field studies could be of great value.</P>
    3166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3048
    31673049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research in rabbit nutrition is necessary to identify nutrient requirements more precisely. Moreover, links between nutrition and disease should be clarified.</P>
    3168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3050
    31693051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research into the cause and prevention of enteritis is needed. (At present, this condition is prevented by maintaining a fiber level in the diet of at least 18 percent and keeping the energy level relatively low.)</P>
    3170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3052
    31713053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume shrubs could be an answer to the feed problems in the dry season. Deep-rooted shrubby legumes, such as gliricidia or leucaena, remain green well into the dry season and have high protein contents. Rabbits find the leaves of leucaena palatable (see companion report Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1984), and they are fairly resistant to mimosine (a sometimes toxic amino acid found in leucaena foliage). More research on this promising approach is needed.</P>
    3172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3054
    31733055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 181), a killer virus has recently appeared. Studies into its epidemiology and control are most important. </P>
    3174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3056
    31753057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outsiders who hope to improve conditions in underdeveloped areas, sometimes . . . introduce new food avoidances to the communities they came to help [if outsiders] show repugnance toward consuming goats, . . . rats, . . . crows, insects, intestines and blood, then the people they are educating may likewise give up those . . . foods and lose valuable proteins.</P>
    31763058<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe</P>
    31773059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unmentionable Cuisine</P>
    3178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3060
     3061
    31803062<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can count on the fingers of one hand the domestic animals that produce virtually all of mankind's meat and milk - a selection made more than 10,000 years ago by our Neolithic ancestors. Yet the earth teems with thousands of species of animals; why limit ourselves to cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep? Given the world's shortages of energy and water and arable land, why not try to domesticate wild animals? The effort would save many species from extinction, provide the world with more food, and introduce gentle farming to fragile environments.</P>
    31813063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.D. Vietmeyer</P>
    3182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     3064
    31833065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g019a.png"></center><br>
    31843066 FIGURE</P>
    3185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3186 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     3067
     3068<B>
    31873069<!--
    31883070</Section>
    … …  
    31933075  </Description>
    31943076-->
    3195 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3077</B>
     3078
    31973079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are the world's most widespread, adaptable, and prolific group of mammals. They reproduce well, grow fast, learn quickly, and adapt to a wide variety of local conditions. Many convert vegetation into meat efficiently, digesting some fiber, even though their stomach, like man's, is a simple one.</P>
    3198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3080
    31993081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable, therefore, that some species would make suitable microlivestock - a notion supported by the previous domestication of the guinea pig, laboratory rat and mouse, gerbil, and hamster. Indeed, "ranching" rodents might be an effective way to increase food supplies in remote areas. It could also be a mechanism to ensure the survival of rare rodents whose natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed.</P>
    3200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3082
    32013083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS AS FOOD</P>
    3202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3084
     3085
    32043086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are already common foods in many countries and are valued items of commerce. It has been estimated that 42 of 383 cultures eat rodents.! But the fact that they are a major meat source is almost unrecognized. This is due in part to cultural misunderstanding. Rodents suitable for human food or other products do not live in filth, like common rats. They are clean and vegetarian. Like rabbits, they eat grass and grains.</P>
    3205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3087
    32063088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of the world, cooked rodent meat is regarded as the epitome of dining. In many countries, local rodent species are the most eagerly sought meats. City markets in different parts of Latin America carry guinea pig, pace, capybara, and vizcacha. Markets in Asia may carry rice rats, cloud rats, and bandicoot rats. Those of rural Africa are filled with "bushmeats" - usually including grasscutters, giant rats, and several other rodent species. These are often preferred to the meat of domestic stock and fetch higher prices than beef. And the amounts of rodent bushmeat available are not minor. In one year, for example, hunters in Botswana have brought to market 3.3 million kg of meat of the rodent called springhare (see page 278).</P>
    3207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3089
    32083090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fondness for rodent meat is not restricted to the tropics. In the United States, squirrel was once a much sought treat. Fat, nut-fed grey squirrels went into Brunswick stew, which has been called the most famous dish to emerge from the campfires and cabins of Colonial America. Thomas Jefferson liked it. Today, squirrel is the country's number two game animal (after deer), and many are still eaten.</P>
    3209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3091
    32103092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans kept fat dormice in captivity, serving them as a delicacy. "The fat dormice are fattened up in barrel-like pots like those in country houses," wrote Varro (116-27 BC). "One feeds these animals large amounts of acorns, chestnuts, or other nuts."2 This small rodent remains a prized food in Europe and still appears on tables in certain areas. The meat is regarded as a delicacy because it tastes of almonds and other nuts. Often it is roasted, broiled, and cooked with its cracklings.</P>
    3211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3093
    32123094<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents have seldom been included in livestock programs or economic development plans. Yet human appetite has actually caused the extinction of a number of species. Caribbean Indians ate several endemic rodents (one of which was as big as a bear), and may have caused several species to become extinct just before the time of Columbus. Others may soon follow the same dismal route, including the beautiful cloud rat of the Philippines, the hare-like mare of Argentina, the vizcacha of southern South America, and the gentle hutias of the Caribbean.</P>
    3213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3095
    32143096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea pig is described in a later chapter, but as it is the epitome of a rodent microlivestock species, some historical background is given here. It was domesticated for food use at least 7,000 years ago, probably in what is now the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. With only llama and deer available, the prehistoric Andean peoples had few readily available sources of meat. They adopted wild cavies, and found that these rangeland rodents (which are more closely related to porcupines than to rats or mice) were gentle, manageable, and easy to rear. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, the "cuy"  (pronounced "coo-ee," like the faint cry it makes) was a major food from  Argentina to the Caribbean.</P>
    3215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3097
    32163098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This impressed the conquistadores, who introduced cuys into Europe,  where they also became a delicacy.3 Within a century, these easily  transported animals began to appear on tables in many parts of the  Spanish empire. Guinea pigs are now reared in campesino huts in the  mountains of central Mexico, in the Philippines, and in several African  nations, along with other areas of the world.</P>
    3217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3099
    32183100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsewhere, guinea pigs came to be used only as house pets and  laboratory animals. Although during World War II Mussolini's  government urged Italians to keep them to supplement their meager  meat rations, their use as food was largely ignored in most parts of the  world.</P>
    3219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3101
    32203102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATION</P>
    3221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3103
     3104
    32233105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea of domesticating rodents may seem radical, but  domestication projects are already under way with capybara in  Venezuela (see page 206), pace in Panama (see next page and page  262), giant rat in Nigeria (see page 224), and the grasscutter in Ghana  (see page 232). Rodent husbandry is not complicated and the animals'  environmental requirements seem relatively simple and easy to satisfy.  Moreover, rodents are not usually fastidious feeders, and being  essentially vegetarian will readily accept a wide variety of commonly  available foodstuffs.</P>
    3224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3106
    32253107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3108
     3109
    32283110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with most animals with which man is in close contact, rodents can  transmit human diseases.4 With care, however, managed rodents need  not be any more dangerous to care for or to eat than pigs or  horses - both of which are worldwide food resources.  </P>
    3229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3111
    32303112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING RODENTS</P>
    3231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3113
     3114
    32333115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To domesticate the pace (see page 262) would seem to be impossible. These large rodents of Central and South America are nocturnal and fiercely territorial; they have low fecundity and take 10 months to reach weaning, and they have tender skin that is easily damaged Most researchers have written them off as candidates for domestication. But at least two have undertaken to beat the odds. We present the findings of one of them here to show that, using modem techniques, even species that normally fight each other to the death on sight are potential farm animals.</P>
    3234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3116
     3117
    32363118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through years of studying paces in Panama, Smithsonian biologist Nicholas Smythe has found that with care and planning the aggressive behavior can be so radically altered that the animals become calm. Indeed, some become almost loving. Newborns, Smythe found, undergo "imprinting" and when he places them with docile adults or with humans, the fierce territoriality never develops. He nurses newborns on "surrogate" mothers that have been imprinted on people. The youngsters then welcome human company and, if fumed out of the cage, return there voluntarily. "It's difficult to imagine a more manageable animal," Smythe said. "Technically speaking they are behaviorally indistinguishable from traditional domestic animals."</P>
    3237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3119
    32383120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As of this writing, Smythe has three generations totalling about 50 individuals, and has several "families" of gentle paces living together in harmony. He has observed that they lose their nocturnal habit and, although they live mainly on fruits in the wild, they readily eat leafy vegetables and other foods in captivity. His captive specimens have recently begun to breed. The offspring remain docile, but they have so far averaged only a little more than two young per female per year.</P>
    3239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3121
    32403122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If we can just double the reproduction rate, then raising paces can compete economically with raising cattle," Smythe explained. "The potential for a bigger brood is all in the animal's anatomy, and if successful, paces in the wet tropics could produce as much protein as cattle."*</P>
    3241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3123
    32423124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas need the shade and protection of the forest. Thus, pace raising might provide an alternative to cutting down rainforests for cattle raising. Instead of toppling trees and planting pastures, people could farm paces in the forest, and perhaps make as much or more money at the same time. In tropical America, the ready acceptance of pace meat is a near guarantee that all they produce will be snapped up at premium prices. In the past, many territorial and aggressive species have been dismissed as being impossible to domesticate or manage. But Smythe has demonstrated that with imprinting and other methods of behavior modification, these need be dismissed no longer.</P>
    3243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3125
    32443126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the pace may already be becoming a new domesticated species. In the first stage of his experiments, Smythe had to train his captive-born paces to be social and nonaggressive. Subsequent generations, however, need no training adopt the new behavior patterns of the parents, and do not revert to aggressive asocial behavior. By the third generation, they have become as accepting of, and indifferent to, people as cattle or sheep. </P>
    3245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3127
    32463128<B><P></P>
    32473129<!--
    … …  
    32513133  </Description>
    32523134-->
    3253 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3135</B>
    32543136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g020a.png"></center><br>
    32553137 FIGURE</P>
    3256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3138
    32573139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the best known of all animals of the American tropics, agoutis (Dasyprocta species)' are prolific rabbit- or hare-sized rodents that are probably easily farmed. They are valued for food and are hunted throughout most of their range. Indeed, agouti meat, once common in Latin markets. is now difficult to find because of indiscriminate killing. Agouti hunting is already prohibited in Brazil; restaurants in Belem, for example, once offered a variety of "cotta" (agouti) dishes at prices equivalent to those of choice filet mignon, but since the early 1970s they have been banned from serving it. Other countries will probably have to institute similar bans.</P>
    3258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3140
    32593141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are active, long-legged, and high-strung. They flee in panic at the slightest alarm. They do not climb but they do burrow occasionally, being essentially specialized ground-dwellers that live in tropical forest regions.</P>
    3260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3142
    32613143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been no organized scientific attempts to raise these swift, shy animals in captivity, but Latin Americans sometimes keep them as "domestics," especially in parks and large gardens. (Agoutis are well known, for instance at the Goeldi Museum in Belem, Brazil.) These animals seem to tame easily, and could perhaps be mass produced on a large scale like rabbits or guinea pigs. They make affectionate pets, sometimes refusing to return to the wild. A research project on captive breeding of two local agouti species (Dasyprocta mexicana and D. punctata) for food is already under way in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico.</P>
    3262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3144
    32633145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3146
     3147
    32663148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of lowland, tropical Latin America and the Caribbean. </P>
    3267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3149
    32683150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3151
     3152
    32713153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are delicately built, graceful, nimble, and beautifully proportioned. They have slender bodies, short ears, and look somewhat like a rabbit that has been "jacked up" in back. Generally, adults are 40-60 cm long and weigh 2-5 kg. Some are even bigger.</P>
    3272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3154
    32733155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They run well and are good jumpers. From a standing start an agouti reportedly can leap as high as 2 m or as far as 6 m; however, as long as they are well fed, there is little problem keeping them behind a wall only 1 m high.2 Reportedly, they sometimes climb easy-sloping trees to collect green fruits, but researchers studying Central American agoutis report that they are strictly terrestrial.3 They swim well.</P>
    3274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3156
    32753157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body hair is thick, coarse, and glossy: pale orange to black on the back, and white to yellow on the belly. Some species have faint stripes, and some have a rump that contrasts with the rest of the back. The short tail is partially concealed under the long body hair.</P>
    3276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3158
    32773159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3160
     3161
    32803162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis occur over a vast area from southern Mexico to Paraguay, including many islands in the Caribbean.4</P>
    3281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3163
    32823164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3165
     3166
    32853167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they occasionally damage sugarcane plantings and because the meat is particularly tasty, people hunt agoutis relentlessly, especially near cities and towns. Now, in the l990s, they are becoming rare because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction. Many Latin Americans have never heard of them. In Mexico, for instance, there are few places where agoutis survive, and Dasyprocta mexicana may become extinct if habitat destruction and overhunting continue in its restricted range. In Costa Rica and Panama, agoutis occur only where there is little or no hunting or human interference.</P>
    3286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3168
    32873169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3288 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3170
     3171
    32903172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From sea level to elevations of at least 2,500 m, the adaptable agouti lives in many habitats: moist lowland forests, dry upland forests, thick brush, and savannas. However, although they thrive in secondary growth areas, they are mainly forest dwellers. Nonetheless, they often enter fields to forage, and young animals occasionally are seen in open areas such as grassy stream banks and cultivated fields.</P>
    3291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3173
    32923174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3175
     3176
    32953177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis shelter in hollows among boulders, in riverbanks, or under tree roots. They also hide in heavy brush and sometimes in holes dug out by other species.</P>
    3296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3178
    32973179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.</P>
    3298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3180
    32993181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to mate twice each year. The estrous cycle is variable, but is only about 34 days long. The young are born after a gestation period of 3.5-4 months. Usually, there are twins; however, single births and triplets have been recorded. Newborns are fully developed and are able to run around within hours. They start feeding on solids within a few days. Puberty occurs at about 9 months of age. Life expectancy is 10 years or more.</P>
    3300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3182
    33013183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3184
     3185
    33043186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, agoutis are shy and retiring. Every sense seems constantly triggered for instantaneous action and sometimes they become hysterical. If danger threatens, they usually "freeze," but when discovered they stamp their feet as an alarm signal and dash away, nimbly dodging obstacles.</P>
    3305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3187
    33063188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite excessive timidity, they can be violent among themselves.</P>
    3307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3189
    33083190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed forests, agoutis are diurnal and are often seen. But around villages they become nocturnal, as a means of self-preservation.</P>
    3309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3191
    33103192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, these rodents live in loosely formed pairs, with previous litters living around their territory as "satellites." There is some "bigamy," some "philandering," and some "divorce."5.</P>
    3311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3193
    33123194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their long claws, they display much finger dexterity. To eat, they usually sit erect, crouching on their haunches and holding the food in their forepaws. If it has a skin' they carefully peel it before starting their meal. They save some nonperishable foods (nuts, for instance) by digging holes in scattered locations, dropping each one in a separate location, stamping it down, and covering it over. This behavior helps disperse the seeds of many species of trees so that agoutis benefit tropical forests and reforestation.</P>
    3313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3195
    33143196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203a.png"></center><br>
    33153197 figure</P>
    3316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3198
    33173199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3200
     3201
    33203202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, agoutis are popular game animals. They are often hunted with dogs that even follow them into the burrows. Agouti meat is tasty, although it is usually said to fall short of the meat of the pace (see page 262) because it is leaner and gamier.</P>
    3321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3203
    33223204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3205
     3206
    33253207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis adapt well to captivity. With appropriate care they can be bred without difficulty.6 The nervousness that is pronounced in nature is quickly lost in captivity. The young become tame pets. They can be fed on foods such as leafy vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and bread scraps. Although many wild specimens have become nocturnal, captives readily readapt to daylight.</P>
    3326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3208
    33273209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Being entirely terrestrial, agoutis require no trees, but they do need space. Given enough area, they get on well (with each other and with different species), and they breed freely. To avoid fighting, it seems necessary to separate females from males at puberty. Probably removing progeny from breeding pens at weaning could also help avoid most of the interpersonal aggression. In large areas with plenty of cover (banana plants, for instance), groups can be kept, but breeding may be disappointing. Husbandry may be most appropriate in large enclosures (50-100 agoutis) with some animals then removed to small cages 0.5-1 m&Yacute; for selective feeding.</P>
    3328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3210
    33293211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACOUCHIES</P>
    3330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3212
     3213
    33323214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives, the green and red acouchies (Myoprocta acouchy and Myoprocta exilis) also deserve study. These are smaller animals with longer tails, bearing a little plume of white hairs. Although even more delicate and hypersensitive than agoutis, they can be kept in captivity and breed well. They then become less nervous and are easily handled. Acouchies. show remarkable intelligence and even some affection for those they trust. They frequent rainforests, but are rare or even absent in disturbed areas. Adults weigh up to 1.5 kg.</P>
    3333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3215
    33343216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general biology (diet, reproduction, activity rhythm), is almost the same as that of the agouti, but they live in smaller home ranges (0.6-1.2 hectares versus 2.5 hectares for the agouti) and travel singly, although belonging to a well-established family unit. Adult males tolerate the juvenile males. They occur only in Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.</P>
    3335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3217
    33363218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming methods would probably be the same as for the agoutis, but acouchies always need plant cover.</P>
    3337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3219
    33383220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3221
     3222
    33413223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are appropriately sized: a dressed carcass can weigh 1-3 kg. The meat is good, and large commercial undertakings in urban centers could profit from the ready market that already exists.</P>
    3342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3224
    33433225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are prolific: females can produce up to two litters a year, each litter averaging two offspring. In protected areas, populations may grow fast.</P>
    3344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3226
    33453227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These forest dwellers might provide a source of meat and income without destroying the forests in favor of cattle pastures. Also, they thrive in disturbed areas as long as there is some cover. </P>
    3346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3228
    33473229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3230
     3231
    33503232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in Brazil show that agoutis are highly susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.</P>
    3351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3233
    33523234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals might become pests: they eat the roots, leaves, and fruit of agricultural crops and occasionally damage sugarcane and banana plants. However, current experience suggests that if they escape captivity they are quickly caught by hunters and do not reach pest levels.</P>
    3353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3235
    33543236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live agoutis have strong-smelling anal glands that may be offensive to breeders or could contaminate the meat if the animals are carelessly handled.</P>
    3355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3237
    33563238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainforest is destroyed, the agouti population is destroyed. The animals were once well known throughout Latin America, but not anymore. In some areas, therefore, wild breeding stock may not be locally available. Moreover, people may have become sufficiently unfamiliar with them that their value may no longer be appreciated.</P>
    3357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3239
    33583240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, they can be the prey of large birds such as eagles.</P>
    3359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3241
    33603242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3243
     3244
    33633245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The taxonomy of agouti species needs clarification.</P>
    3364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3246
    33653247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry experiments are required, including studies on topics such as:</P>
    3366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3248
    33673249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition;</P>
    3368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3250
    33693251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rate;</P>
    3370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3252
    33713253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Shelters and enclosures;</P>
    3372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3254
    33733255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction; and</P>
    3374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3256
    33753257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Techniques for catching, moving, marketing, and managing the animals.</P>
    3376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3258
    33773259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One area where agoutis might profitably be raised is in enclosures in palm plantations. Palms such as the babassu provide food, shade, and shelter, while fallen and rotten logs offer secure retreats from predators. This deserves investigation.8</P>
    3378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3260
    33793261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of clearing vast areas of rainforest for cattle pasture, as is being done in much of Latin America, people might well "farm" agouties in the forests. Few of the settlers flooding into such regions can afford, let alone raise, beef. Small-scale agouti farming offers a promising and inexpensive alternative that would be gentle on the fragile land. </P>
    3380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3262
    33813263<B><P></P>
    33823264<!--
    … …  
    33873269  </Description>
    33883270-->
    3389 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3271</B>
    33903272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g021a.png"></center><br>
    33913273 FIGURE</P>
    3392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3274
    33933275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), the world's largest rodent, can be as big as a sheep and weigh as much as a small person. Its natural habitat is the environs of South America's rivers, marshlands, and swamps, where it feeds on the grasses and reeds that grow near water.1</P>
    3394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3276
    33953277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its size, tasty meat, valuable leather, and rapid reproduction, the capybara is a candidate for both ranching and intensive husbandry throughout the hot and humid lowland tropical regions of Latin America. It seems easy to handle. It is commonly raised in zoos or occasionally as a pet, and has, in at least one instance, been proven successful in large commercial herds.</P>
    3396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3278
    33973279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In floodplain ecosystems, capybaras complement cattle because they prefer to graze swamp grasses rather than the dryland grasses on which cattle feed. They have simple stomachs, but are one of the more efficient herbivores. Although they are "selective feeders" that eat lush waterside grasses "preserved in quality" by the water, they also graze pasture, usually selecting new growth that is often too short and scattered for cattle, with their large muzzles, to eat.</P>
    3398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3280
    33993281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3282
     3283
    34023284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floodplains of the South American subtropics and tropics where the animal is indigenous.</P>
    3403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3285
    34043286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3287
     3288
    34073289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they have blunt, horselike heads, capybaras look like gigantic guinea pigs. They are ponderous, barrel shaped, and have a tail too small to be seen from a distance. Their skin is tough and covered by sparse, bristlelike hairs: the color above is reddish brown to gray; beneath, it is yellowish brown.</P>
    3408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3290
    34093291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The front legs are shorter than the back. Slightly webbed toes - four on the front feet and three on the back - make them good swimmers. They dive with ease and can stay underwater for up to five minutes. They also move nimbly on land.</P>
    3410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3292
    34113293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara is extremely large for a rodent. In size and color, it looks much like a pig. Often more than 100 cm long and 50 cm high at the shoulder, it can exceed 50 kg liveweight. Indeed, specimens weighing up to 90 kg have been reported.</P>
    3412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3294
    34133295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3296
     3297
    34163298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before livestock were introduced, the capybara grazed widely over riverine regions throughout South and Central America. Today, it is found in the flooded grasslands from Panama to Paraguay. Mainly, it occurs in the watersheds of the Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, and Parana rivers. High population densities exist in the Pantanal of western Brazil and on the Llanos floodplains of Venezuela and Colombia.</P>
    3417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3299
    34183300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3301
     3302
    34213303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are few precise population counts, but capybaras can occur in large numbers.2 However, in many areas they appear to be on the verge of extinction, being deliberately eradicated by farmers who think they compete with cattle and transmit diseases. Also, in some areas illegal hunting goes on year-round and great numbers are killed. The animals are particularly vulnerable during the dry season, when they concentrate around the diminished river channels and water holes.</P>
    3422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3304
    34233305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3306
     3307
    34263308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, most capybaras live in swampy or grassy areas bordering rivers. However, some are found in other habitats, ranging from open plains to tropical rainforests. But even here they stay near ponds, lakes, streams, and swamps, and never venture much more than 500 m from water.</P>
    3427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3309
    34283310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210a.png"></center><br>
    34293311 The capybara’s native range</P>
    3430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3312
    34313313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3314
     3315
    34343316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara, like all rodents, is a simple-stomached animal, but it is a true herbivore. Its digestive system is especially adapted for fibrous materials. The large cecum - the site of enzymatic digestion— serves a function like that of the rumen of sheep, cattle, and goats. It has a digestive capacity similar to that of a sheep's rumen.</P>
    3435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3317
    34363318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like rabbits and all the rodents, capybaras are coprophagous. That is, during the morning hours when they are resting, soft feces from the cecum are passed a second time through the digestive system.3</P>
    3437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3319
    34383320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing to the animal's digestive ability is its efficient mastication. It chews its forage seemingly incessantly, reducing it to extremely small particles before it is swallowed. </P>
    3439 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3321
    34403322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under natural conditions, the females annually bear 1 or 2 litters, each averaging from 4 to 6 offspring. Birth weight is between 1 and 2 kg, depending on litter size and sex. Both males and females reach sexual maturity when they reach a liveweight of 30 kg or more— usually between the first and second year of life.</P>
    3441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3323
    34423324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3325
     3326
    34453327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are intelligent, shy, inoffensive, and harmless. In undisturbed ecosystems, they are gregarious and live in family groups of up to 30. The young follow the mother about for many months after birth.</P>
    3446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3328
    34473329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most rodents, they do not construct dens, but the groups have specific resting areas.</P>
    3448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3330
    34493331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like many herbivores, they graze at daybreak and dusk, and perhaps also at midnight. They spend the morning resting in weeds on riverbanks, and at noon they cool off by bathing for an hour or so before grazing. They may feed belly deep in water.</P>
    3450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3332
    34513333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras wallow in mud, allowing it to dry on their skin before bathing again. Mange can develop in captivity when they cannot take a mud bath.</P>
    3452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3334
    34533335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When startled, a capybara barks loudly and dashes away, but after running 200 m or so it tires, slows down, and may lapse into hyperthermia. At that point a hunter can easily catch it. However, if the animal reaches water, it usually eludes the pursuer because it swims so well - especially underwater.</P>
    3454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3336
    34553337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3338
     3339
    34583340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara meat is white and has qualities and properties (such as high emulsification) that might allow it to compete with pork and other meats in the food industry. Spanish-style sausages, Italian-style mortadellas, frankfurters, and German-style smoked chops have been produced experimentally.4 However, at present, the meat is mainly consumed only in the dried and salted form. It is particularly popular in Venezuela, where more than 400 tons are sold every year, especially during Easter festivities.5 </P>
    3459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3341
    34603342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara's hide is one of the best for glove making. This luxury product, known in international commerce as carpincho leather, fetches high prices on European markets because it is more heat resistant than most leathers and because it stretches in only one direction. This one way grain allows gloves to stretch sideways without lengthening and looking sloppy.</P>
    3461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3343
    34623344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3345
     3346
    34653347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara appears suitable for raising as a livestock animal. Amerindians traditionally collected capybara orphans during the hunting season and raised them until needed for food. Capybara breeding was reported in Brazil as early as 1565.</P>
    3466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3348
    34673349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern attempts have been made towards domestication. Researchers at the Institute of Animal Production in Venezuela, for instance, started a breeding program in the 1970s using 20 females and 5 males. Since that time they have continuously kept capybaras in confinement. Through selection and management, they have improved the reproduction of captive animals. The current aim is to get 16 offspring per mother per year. Newborns are weaned after 5 weeks and the mother is returned to the breeding pen.6 In Colombia, similar work is in progress, and guidelines for raising capybaras on breeding farms have been published.7 In Brazil, research has been carried out to study capybara nutrition, genetics, management, reproduction, and social behavior in total confinement.8</P>
    3468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3350
    34693351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3352
     3353
    34723354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout South America, the price of beef has increased greatly within the last few years, thereby providing a new incentive for capybara husbandry. It has also forced many campesinos to eat more wildlife, which adds another incentive for producing capybara meat on farms and thereby perhaps helping to relieve pressure on the wild stocks.</P>
    3473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3355
    34743356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When tame, the animals are amenable to handling without physical restraint. They are so tractable that in Surinam a blind man once used one as a guide animal. </P>
    3475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3357
    34763358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras can be raised on a variety of readily available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and vegetables. They thrive in coarse grasses, if given opportunity to select nutritious parts. Their large incisors allow them to bite off short grasses that many herbivores cannot use. For instance, they eat "capybara grass" (Paspalum fasciculatum) that is abundant on river edges in Venezuela and is normally too short for cattle to graze. This makes for low-cost feeding and utilization of a resource that is otherwise unused.</P>
    3477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3359
    34783360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are at home in hot, humid environments and are fully adapted to life on the tropical floodplains and seasonally flooded savannas. They thrive in extreme climates where cattle struggle, such as in the parts of the lower Paraguayan Chaco where summer temperatures reach 45&Yacute;C.9 An ecological benefit to raising capybaras is that there is no need to alter habitats by introducing exotic forage plants.</P>
    3479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3361
    34803362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They reproduce quickly. Age at first conception for females is about 1.5 years, and the time between parturitions is generally shorter than that of goats or sheep in the tropics. Young capybaras grow so fast that in 18 months they can reach a liveweight of more than 40 kg. In their natural conditions, they are more disease resistant than cattle. The annual productivity is said to exceed that of cattle in many parts of its range.</P>
    3481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3363
    34823364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is already so widely eaten in South America that the meat from farmed animals should be readily acceptable.</P>
    3483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3365
    34843366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3367
     3368
    34873369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras occasionally raid fields and can harm sugarcane, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and other crops. In many parts of Brazil, they are considered agricultural pests and are shot.</P>
    3488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3370
    34893371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confining these animals in high density may create serious problems. Infectious diseases and parasite outbreaks seem to be worse than those that occur with conventional livestock. Aggression might prove a limitation to capybara husbandry: it is almost impossible to cage two adult males together or to introduce new animals to an existing group.</P>
    3490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3372
    34913373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals may transmit disease to people and livestock. They can harbor foot-and-mouth disease and are known to be susceptible to brucellosis. They also carry a form of trypanosome, Trypanosoma evansi. </P>
    3492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3374
    34933375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle, capybara use only a small proportion of the total plant biomass. They are largely selective feeders, and for satisfactory performance must have sufficient area to select the plants they need. If placed in a paddock of only coarse grass, most will eventually die. Like goats and gazelles, capybara probably select a diet that is at least 15 percent richer in crude protein than a typical cattle diet.'&Yacute;</P>
    3494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3376
    34953377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mortality has never been observed in Venezuela, but keeping the animals alive on a farm in some areas may not be easy. In one trial, more than half (55 percent) of the capybara died of disease, and a few of septicemia (the result of wounds incurred during fights), but most apparently of trypanosomiasis. Other losses were caused by speeding vehicles (29 percent), poaching (6 percent), and predation, mainly by jaguars (12 percent)."</P>
    3496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3378
    34973379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3380
     3381
    35003382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for researchers to undertake the following:</P>
    3501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3383
    35023384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
    3503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3385
    35043386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos and farms.</P>
    3505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3387
    35063388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Undertake nutritional trials.</P>
    3507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3389
    35083390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate captive breeding trials - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs.</P>
    3509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3391
    35103392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Characterize the animal's productivity.</P>
    3511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3393
    35123394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the capybara's basic physiology and production potentials.</P>
    3513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3395
    35143396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate biological factors, such as reproductive physiology, and social behavior (both in the wild and under controlled conditions).</P>
    3515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3397
    35163398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the factors influencing capybara reproduction, growth, and development.</P>
    3517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3399
    35183400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the animal's adaptability and economic merit in various farming systems.</P>
    3519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3401
    35203402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the influence of environment on reproduction rate.</P>
    3521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3403
    35223404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine their complementarily with water buffalo or other ruminants that normally use swampy habitats.</P>
    3523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3405
    35243406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine relative causes of mortality (such as diseases specific to capybaras) and predation (especially of the young) by spectacled caiman, crested caracayes, black vultures, and others. </P>
    3525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3407
    35263408<B><P></P>
    35273409<!--
    … …  
    35323414  </Description>
    35333415-->
    3534 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3416</B>
    35353417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g022a.png"></center><br>
    35363418 FIGURE</P>
    3537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3419
    35383420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu' (Myocastor coypus) is an aquatic rodent native to South America. It has been called the "South American beaver," but its size is actually closer to that of a small dog or an agouti. It seems suited to be a microlivestock species because, compared with most rodents' it has a large body size and a relatively high reproduction rate. Moreover, it is easy to manage, and there is much literature on how to raise it in captivity.2</P>
    3539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3421
    35403422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fur is the main item of commercial value. In the late 19th century, it was in such high demand that the animal was nearly exterminated. However, in 1922 Argentineans began raising coypu in captivity and this practice spread through South America and to other regions. In many European countries and in various locations in the United States some specimens escaped or were released, and coypu have become established in the waterways.</P>
    3541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3423
    35423424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu meat is tasty and is consumed in many regions of South America as well as in parts of Europe. Because of the absence of musk glands, the meat is free of the "gamy" flavor found in squirrels and rabbits. It is moist, fine "rained, medium light in color, and firm. It is one of the mildest and tenderest of wild meats.</P>
    3543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3425
    35443426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3427
     3428
    35473429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal has been widely distributed, but its area of safest use is within its natural range in South America. </P>
    3548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3430
    35493431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3432
     3433
    35523434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is adapted to a semiaquatic existence and has webbed feet, valvular nostrils that can be closed to keep water out, and underfur that remains dry even under water. Its long, powerful claws on the forefeet are used for grooming, excavating burrows, and digging up and holding food. The tail is slender; the extremely large incisor teeth are orange-red.</P>
    3553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3435
    35543436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An adult is 40-65 cm long and weighs 7-10 kg. Some occasionally weigh up to 17 kg. Males are larger than females. The pelage is thick, with coarse guard hairs overlying the underfur. The soft dense underfur (the commercially valuable pelt called "nutria") is about 2 cm long on the belly, and 2-5 cm long and less dense on the back. The color is yellowish to reddish brown on the back and pale yellow on the belly.</P>
    3555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3437
    35563438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3439
     3440
    35593441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is distributed through southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. It has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, northern Asia, and eastern Africa. As a result of escapes and releases from fur farms, the animals are now feral in Europe, North America, northern Asia, Japan, and East Africa. In the United States, they are abundant in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay region.</P>
    3560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3442
    35613443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3444
     3445
    35643446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various countries, the animal's status ranges from that of a rarity to that of a pest. Wild coypu are protected by law in Argentina because of overhunting, but there are about 100 producers of farmed coypu.3 Elsewhere the animals are destroyed en masse to reduce the threat of damage to irrigation ditches, dams, and agricultural crops. In England a decade-long program has eradicated them.</P>
    3565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3447
    35663448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3449
     3450
    35693451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu mainly inhabit the banks of fresh or brackish waterways.4 They live in temperate zones and are highly sensitive to freezing conditions. Also, their heat tolerance is poor; lowland tropical regions may be too hot for them.</P>
    3570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3452
    35713453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.png"></center><br>
    35723454 figure</P>
    3573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3455
    35743456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3457
     3458
    35773459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu feeds mainly at night. The diet consists chiefly of plants, particularly water plants and reeds. Large amounts of fibrous vegetation is decomposed in the cecum, where bacteria break down cellulose particles. Mussels, snails, and other small organisms are also often eaten.</P>
    3578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3460
    35793461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals burrow into soft soil or construct nests out of vegetation above ground.</P>
    3580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3462
    35813463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are relatively fast breeding. Females first give birth at ages ranging from 6 to 15 months. From then on, they produce 2 or 3 litters a year. They are able to mate and give birth at any time of the year, although more young are born during certain seasons. The gestation period is between 128 and 140 days. There are 5 or 6 (sometimes up to 12) young in each litter. Newborns are well developed, able to see, and fully covered with hair at birth. </P>
    3582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3464
    35833465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's four or five pairs of mammae are located on the side of the body, an adaptation that permits the young to nurse while floating with their mothers in the water. In captivity, young are nursed for two months, but can survive if weaned at five days. The mean body weight at birth is about 225 g, but growth is rapid during the first five months.</P>
    3584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3466
    35853467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu have a potential life span of more than six years. However, they seldom survive more than three years, and in the wild probably no animals are older than five years.</P>
    3586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3468
    35873469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3470
     3471
    35903472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are passive creatures, usually entirely lacking in aggression. They are shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scurrying to the shelter of water, a burrow, or other hiding place. With their large incisors they can bite viciously, but in captivity they tame down, even to where they can be carried around by hand. Compared with domestic animals, they are very sanitary in their feeding and living habits.</P>
    3591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3473
    35923474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates they are nocturnal, in cooler climates crepuscular, and in cold weather they become diurnal. Captive animals become conditioned to diurnal activity if fed during daylight hours. Most of the active period is spent feeding, grooming, and swimming. Grooming is done by scratching and "nibbling" the fur, and an oily secretion from glands located near the mouth and anus lubricates the pelage. Secretions from the anal glands are also employed for marking out territory.</P>
    3593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3475
    35943476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent swimmers, coypu spend most of their time in the water. They can remain submerged for five minutes or more. On land, they lumber about with awkward, clumsy movements; however, when the need arises they can run fast and jump short distances.</P>
    3595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3477
    35963478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they usually live together in pairs, coypu will form large colonies. They tend to remain in one area throughout their lives: their daily "cruising range" has been measured at less than 45 m.5 However, drought or freezing weather can induce mass migrations.</P>
    3597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3479
    35983480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burrows, which are dug in sloping banks, are usually short with no branching tunnels and generally end in a simple chamber. </P>
    3599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3481
    36003482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3483
     3484
    36033485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, the coypu has a long history of use. Nutria fur was in such high demand and the animal was hunted so avidly at the beginning of the last century that it became rare and had to be protected by government decree. As a result, populations increased dramatically. Nowadays, coypu are protected in many areas, but widespread poaching has reduced their numbers and range.</P>
    3604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3486
    36053487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thousands are killed each year just for the guard hairs, which are used in making felt.</P>
    3606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3488
    36073489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are used in marsh management to reduce infestations of aquatic weeds and to keep waterways open.</P>
    3608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3490
    36093491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3492
     3493
    36123494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas where it is found, the coypu is trapped by commercial hunters. However, as noted, several countries have coypu farms. In Germany, the animals have been raised on diets consisting chiefly of potatoes supplemented with oats, clover, corn, hay, green forage, legumes, turnips, or cabbage. Elsewhere, feeds generally include such materials as hay, corn, crushed oats, greens, root vegetables, apples, bread, and rabbit feed.</P>
    3613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3495
    36143496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To confine coypu, a wall of stone or concrete or a fence of stout wire netting is necessary. It must be set 1 m deep into the ground and rise 1-1.5 m above ground. Water must be available.</P>
    3615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3497
    36163498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where selected strains of animals are kept, it is usual to house each female in separate small compartments, complete with pools and shelter boxes. Each is then paired with a male, which is removed after mating to leave the female to rear her brood in seclusion.</P>
    3617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3499
    36183500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3501
     3502
    36213503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fur is particularly valuable because the female's nipples are so high that the soft belly fur is unbroken.</P>
    3622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3504
    36233505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This herbivore is much cheaper to feed than the furbearing carnivores such as mink. Furs of coypu raised in captivity fetch a price about three times greater than furs from wild animals.6 </P>
    3624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3506
    36253507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3508
     3509
    36283510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever the coypu has escaped it has damaged embankments and stream banks. The burrows sometimes weaken dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding. In northern Europe and eastern England, for example, it is considered a serious pest. In rice paddies, coypu could become particularly devastating. They can also damage crops and natural plant communities.</P>
    3629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3511
    36303512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu can carry viruses that result in toxoplasmosis, papillomatosis, rabies, and equine encephalomyelitis; bacteria that cause salmonellosis, paratyphoid, and leptospirosis; protozoans that produce sarcosporidiosis and coccidiosis; and rickettsia. Common diseases of captive specimens are bacterial pneumonia, hepatitis-nephritis, Strongyloides infection, and neoplasms.</P>
    3631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3513
    36323514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European winters often cause the coypu's tail (which is hairless) to freeze, but the animal hardly seems to notice. A more dangerous situation arises when lakes, streams, or rivers freeze over; beneath the ice, coypu cannot find their way as easily as beavers, and often drown.</P>
    3633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3515
    36343516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3517
     3518
    36373519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little research needs to be done. There is massive literature on farming coypu. Nonetheless, the animal's behavior is little studied, and there are few reliable published observations on its social organization. </P>
    3638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3520
    36393521<B><P></P>
    36403522<!--
    … …  
    36453527  </Description>
    36463528-->
    3647 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3529</B>
     3530
    36493531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat, also known as the pouched rat, is one of Africa's largest rodents.! Two species have been distinguished: Cricetomys gambianus, which lives chiefly in savannas and around the edges of forests and human settlements; and Cricetomys emini, which occurs mainly in rainforests. Both are highly prized as food </P>
    3650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3532
     3533
    36523534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are solitary, but they are easy to handle, have a gentle nature, and make good pets. Researchers at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria have been developing techniques for managing them in captivity. Breeding stocks were established in 1973, and since then so many generations have been bred that this small population is considered domesticated. Commercial-scale giant rat farming is now being established in southern Nigeria.</P>
    3653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3535
     3536
    36553537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a promising development because giant rats are a common "bushmeat" throughout much of Africa. Since these herbivores are well known there, and are acceptable as food, they may have as much or more potential as meat animals than the introduced rabbits that are getting considerable attention (see page 178).</P>
    3656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3538
    36573539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3540
     3541
    36603542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The intertropical zone of Africa from the southern Sahara to the northern Transvaal.</P>
    3661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3543
    36623544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3545
    36643546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is among the most striking of all African rodents. </P>
    3665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3547
    36663548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its large size, it often causes amazement - even alarm -  when seen for the first time. The body measures as much as 40 cm, and, on average, weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The record for a hand-reared specimen is 1.6 kg 2</P>
    3667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3549
     3550
    36693551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from its size, the best known species (Cricetomys gambianus) is noted for the dark hair around its eyes, a nose that is sharply divided into dark upper and pale lower regions, and a tail that has a dark (proximal) section and pale (distal) section. The overall body color is a dusky gray.</P>
    3670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3552
     3553
    36723554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesser known species (Cricetomys emini) has short, thin, and relatively sleek fur. Its upper parts are pale brown; the belly is white.</P>
    3673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3555
    36743556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3557
     3558
    36773559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats are commonly found from Senegal to Sudan, and as far south as the northern region of South Africa. The main species is mostly found in moist savannas, patches of forests, and rainforests. However, it can also be found in all West African vegetation zones from the semiarid Sahel to the coast. It also exists at high altitudes— up to about 2,OOO m in West Africa and 3,000 m in eastern Africa.</P>
    3678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3560
     3561
    36803562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rainforest species occurs in the great equatorial forest belts of Zaire and neighboring Central African countries.</P>
    3681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3563
    36823564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3565
     3566
    36853567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are probably not threatened with extinction. However, they have been exterminated in some areas (such as in parts of eastern Zaire) where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated, and the wildlife overhunted. Although common, they are not as well known as one might suppose from their bulk and from the fact that they are sometimes found around, and even inside, houses.</P>
    3686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3568
    36873569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3570
     3571
    36903572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats occur largely in lightly wooded dryland regions or in forested humid regions. They cannot tolerate high temperatures or truly arid conditions. They often live in farm areas and in gardens. Their burrows are commonly found inside deserted termite mounds and at the base of trees. Some have also been found in the middle of cassava fields. </P>
    3691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3573
    36923574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
    36933575 The giant rat’s distribution</P>
    3694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3576
    36953577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3578
     3579
    36983580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are herbivores with a tendency to omnivory. They prefer fruits, but also subsist on tubers, grains, vegetables, leaves, legume pods, and wastes (such as banana peels). However, they are not grasseaters. Giant rats also kill and eat mice, insects (caterpillars, cockroaches, and locusts, for example), and probably many other small animals.3 They are particularly fond of mollusks (such as snails).</P>
    3699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3581
     3582
    37013583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is prolific and year-round. The female attains puberty at 20-23 weeks and the gestation period is about 20-42 days. The young are weaned at 21-26 days of age but stay with their mother until 2-3 months of age. So far, the record for the most litters has been 5 in 9 months. It thus seems possible that a female can reproduce 6 times a year. Litter size ranges between I and 5, but 4 is most common. Thus, in 1 year a single female could produce 24 or more young.</P>
    3702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3584
    37033585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3586
     3587
    37063588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strictly nocturnal animals usually lead solitary lives and forage alone. Mostly, they occupy a burrow by themselves, except when the </P>
    3707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3589
    37083590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">young are being raised. The burrows can be complex. Below the entrances are vertical shafts leading to a system of galleries and chambers for storing food, depositing droppings, sleeping, or breeding. The home range is individual and limited (1-6 hectares). In the wild, one male "supervises" the home ranges of several females.</P>
    3709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3591
     3592
    37113593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are often seen sitting up and ramming large amounts of food into their spacious cheek pouches. With full cheeks, they return to their burrows and disgorge the food into a "larder." Food (chiefly hard nuts) is stored there.</P>
    3712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3594
    37133595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They swim and climb well.</P>
    3714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3596
    37153597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3598
     3599
    37183600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A study carried out in Nigeria showed that the giant rat produces about the same amount of meat as the domestic rabbit.4 The meat's nutritional value compares favorably with that of domestic livestock, and African villagers know how to preserve it by smoking or by salting.</P>
    3719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3601
     3602
    37213603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has recently attracted attention as a potential laboratory animal.</P>
    3722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3604
    37233605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3606
     3607
    37263608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers in Nigeria have traditionally trapped the juveniles and fattened them for slaughter. They usually keep the animals in wire cages and feed them daily with food gathered in the wild as well as with scraps from the household.</P>
    3727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3609
     3610
    37293611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the program at the University of Ibadan indicates that the giant rat can be domesticated. Already, specimens are being bred and reared in an intensive program. They adapt to captivity after about a month. They are subsequently transferred into breeding cages, which are wooden boxes with a rectangular wire-mesh "playroom." Each cage holds a breeding pair or a nursing female with its young. Experimental feeding cages have also been designed.5</P>
    3730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3612
     3613
    37323614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food-preference trials show that palm fruits and root crops (especially sweet potato) are preferred to grains and vegetables. Nutritional studies show that the animals can tolerate up to 7 percent crude fiber in their rations. Although largely vegetarian, they eagerly consume dry and canned dog food. </P>
    3733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3615
    37343616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3617
    37363618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have several advantages:</P>
    3737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3619
    37383620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are well known and much sought after for food.</P>
    3739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3621
    37403622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They have adapted to life in lowland tropics.</P>
    3741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3623
     3624
    37433625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are able to live on locally available plant materials, including vegetable waste.</P>
    3744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3626
    37453627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They reproduce rapidly.</P>
    3746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3628
     3629
    37483630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are more tolerant of captivity than the grasscutter (see next chapter). This is largely because omnivorous feeding makes them easier to feed than the grasscutter and other strict herbivores.</P>
    3749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3631
    37503632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3633
     3634
    37533635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species could easily become a pest. It is recommended for rearing only in areas where it already exists. The crops it damages include cacao, root crops, peanuts, maize, sorghum, vegetables, and stored grains and foods. There is also the possibility that this rodent may transmit diseases to humans.</P>
    3754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3636
     3637
    37563638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project at the University of Kinshasa in Zaire reports problems in getting giant rats to reproduce in captivity. When two specimens were paired they sometimes fought so viciously that copulation was impossible.6 Special management may be required, such as housing animals in adjacent cages before actually introducing them to each other. Moreover, selection for docility may also be necessary.</P>
    3757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3639
     3640
    37593641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ratlike appearance is not attractive, and a few African tribes have taboos against consuming the meat of these animals.</P>
    3760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3642
    37613643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3644
     3645
    37643646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, giant rat domestication deserves experimentation and trials. Success would open up the potential for supplemental meat supplies in rural and urban areas where meat is now scarce. Tests are needed to determine the factors that favor breeding: temperature, aeration, light, privacy, and size and form of cages. Moreover, diets that are cheap and easy to make from local feedstuffs must be identified. </P>
    3765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3647
    37663648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research on the domestication of the giant rat might include:</P>
    3767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3649
     3650
    37693651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Identifying husbandry techniques that are applicable at low cost in rural areas;</P>
    3770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3652
    37713653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying food digestibility and setting up various diets;</P>
    3772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3654
     3655
    37743656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Illuminating social behavior: pairing of animals, the best moment for pairing, duration of pairing, age of partners;</P>
    3775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3657
     3658
    37773659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outlining the basics of husbandry (for instance, capital costs, food conversion ratios, growth rates) and making simple and cheap cages;</P>
    3778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3660
     3661
    37803662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying biology (anatomy, physiology, birth records, growth rate); and</P>
    3781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3663
     3664
    37833665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Testing the practical likelihood that this rodent may transmit diseases to people and other animals.</P>
    3784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3666
     3667
    37863668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has an interesting commensal relationship with Hemimerus, an insect that feeds on secretions in the skin. It seems to cause no irritation or damage, and may even benefit the host by helping to keep the skin clean. Caging these animals results in the general loss of the insect, but attempts should be made to maintain them and to determine their role and life cycle.7</P>
    3787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3669
     3670
    37893671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential of this species as a laboratory animal in nutritional, clinical, and pharmacological research also deserves exploration. </P>
    3790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3672
    37913673<B><P></P>
    37923674<!--
    … …  
    37973679  </Description>
    37983680-->
    3799 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3681</B>
    38003682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g023a.png"></center><br>
    38013683 FIGURE</P>
    3802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3684
    38033685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) is found in many forests and savannas of Africa. Its meat, said to resemble suckling pig, often sells for more per kilogram than chicken, beef, pork, or lamb. It is the preferred, and perhaps most expensive meat in West Africa. Indeed. in Ivory</P>
    3804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3686
    38053687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coast it sells for about $9 per kg. With prices like that, grasscutter is a culinary luxury that only the wealthy can afford.</P>
    3806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3688
     3689
    38083690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If domestication of this wild species were successful in providing meat at a price similar to that of poultry (the second most popular meat), markets would be unlimited.2 However, as production costs are high, long-term research will be required before grasscutter production can be profitable to the small farmer. This research should now be undertaken.</P>
    3809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3691
     3692
    38113693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to capitalize on the markets for this delicacy, agricultural extension services of Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, and particularly Benin are already encouraging farmers to rear grasscutters as backyard livestock. They furnish breeding stock and information, and maintain central offices for records. In addition, a bilateral cooperation project in Benin has started experimental work on improved breeding methods combined with the study of animal responses under domestication.3</P>
    3812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3694
     3695
    38143696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In future, this vegetarian animal might become the African equivalent of South America's guinea pig, playing an important role in reducing Africa's chronic protein shortage. </P>
    3815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3697
    38163698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3699
    38183700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humid and subhumid Africa south of the Sahara.</P>
    3819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3701
    38203702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3703
     3704
    38233705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters are robust animals with short tails, small ears, and stocky bodies. Taxonomically, they are more closely related to porcupines than to common rats or mice.</P>
    3824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3706
     3707
    38263708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although many varieties have been described, there are probably only two species. The larger (Thryonomys swinderianus) weighs 9 kg or more and has a head-and-body length of up to 60 cm. The smaller species (Thryonomys gregorianus) may occasionally reach 8 kg and a body length of 50 cm.</P>
    3827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3709
     3710
    38293711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have yellow-brown to gray-brown bodies, with whitish bellies. The fur is extremely coarse, firm, and bristly - reflecting the animal's kinship to the porcupine. The tail is scaly and has short, sparse hairs. </P>
    3830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3712
     3713
    38323714<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have thick, heavy claws and enormous orange incisors that can chew through even the toughest vegetation. (Grasscutters have been known to tear holes in corrugated iron fences.) Nevertheless, they do not bite when handled, although their claws sometimes cause injuries.4</P>
    3833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3715
    38343716<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3717
     3718
    38373719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded savanna throughout the humid and subhumid areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present. They do not inhabit rainforest, dry scrub, or desert, but they have colonized the road borders in forest regions. Distribution is determined by availability of adequate or preferred grass species for food. Specifically, Thryonomys swinderianus occurs in virtually all countries of west, east, and southern Africa. Thryonomys gregorianus occurs in savannas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zaire, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.</P>
    3838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3720
    38393721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3722
     3723
    38423724<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavy hunting, these animals are not threatened with extinction. Nonetheless, many individual populations are well below carrying capacity, or are extinct because of local overexploitation.</P>
    3843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3725
    38443726<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3727
     3728
    38473729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The larger grasscutter (T. swinderianus) generally lives in swampy, low-lying areas, especially along river banks and the borders of lakes and streams. Occasionally, it is found on higher ground among bushes and rocks, living where savanna grasses are dense and tangled enough to afford good cover. In Ivory Coast and southern Guinea, for instance, grasscutters are found (and hunted) throughout the savanna zones. And they can occur in close proximity to farmlands and people (for example, in southwest Nigeria).</P>
    3848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3730
    38493731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3732
     3733
    38523734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the precise diet in the wild has not been determined, grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts, bark, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs. They particularly favor elephant grass and sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and yam plantations, and are considered local pests.</P>
    3853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3735
    38543736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters reproduce year-round, although the births seem to peak at certain times of the year, correlated with weather conditions.5 Probably one male takes several females, and the family group possibly has more than one generation of young. The gestation is about 152 days. Apparently, litters normally contain between 2 and 4 young, but in Benin and Togo some litters of up to 11 or 12 are reported.6 Newborns are fully developed, their eyes are open, they weigh approximately 80 g, have thick fur, and quickly become accomplished runners.</P>
    3855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3737
    38563738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p236a.png"></center><br>
    38573739 figure</P>
    3858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3740
    38593741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    3860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3742
     3743
    38623744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they commonly forage in groups, grasscutters are generally solitary. They are nocturnal, and they travel at night through trails in reeds and grass, often to water. Most specimens seen in markets are males, possibly because males lead the groups and are thus most prone to being trapped.</P>
    3863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3745
    38643746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When alarmed, these animals stamp their hind feet and give a strange booming grunt. When fleeing, they can run very fast and, given a chance, will take to water. They swim with ease.</P>
    3865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3747
    38663748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For shelter, grasscutters usually weave nests of matted vegetation or scoop out shallow burrows.</P>
    3867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3749
    38683750<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    3869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3751
     3752
    38713753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a broad geographic band across sub-Saharan Africa, cattle raising is severely limited by trypanosomiasis. There, other sources of animal protein, including rodents, are traditionally used. Thus, grasscutter meat constitutes an important food for many Africans. The animals are mostly caught and eaten by families for their own use, but some are sold in markets and especially in roadside stalls. Many families depend exclusively on selling bushmeat, particularly that of grasscutters. In Accra, Ghana, during one year, 73 tons of grasscutter meat were sold in the local market. This represented more than 15,000 animals. In southern Africa, too, people find that these rodents make tasty food, although they may cut off the tail to make the carcass look less ratlike.</P>
    3872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3754
    38733755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is usually eaten smoked, and is so much in demand that grasscutters are hunted in organized drives with spears, dogs, and sometimes fire. It is considered excellent, especially when cooked in soups and stews or barbecued.7 It has been described as resembling venison in flavor, but it is dark like the meat of wild duck.</P>
    3874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3756
    38753757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    3876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3758
     3759
    38783760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the savanna area of West Africa, people have traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised them at home. As an extension of this, organized grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West Africa. The animals are provided with marshy, tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The young are harvested from these areas and raised separately.</P>
    3879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3761
    38803762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanaian researcher Emanuel Asibey, a pioneer of this research, reports success at getting such captive stocks to reproduce. To this end, farmers are provided with breeding boxes and foundation grass cutter colonies. They are taught how to rear and feed the animals for home consumption or for cash income. Basically, the farmers make available large sheds where the animals can move freely. To prevent escape, the walls may be reinforced with cement plaster. The farmers also provide piles of grass, sugarcane, and other foods. A grasscutter reportedly takes about a month to adjust to such confinement. High mortality can occur in this period. The average weight of a mature, home-raised grasscutter is 4-7 kg. The average killing-out (dressed carcass) is 64 percent.8</P>
    3881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3763
    38823764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Domestication Unit of Ibadan University in Nigeria, another pioneer of rodent domestication, has also reported the potential of domesticated grasscutter colonies.9</P>
    3883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3765
    38843766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on grasscutter breeding, husbandry, and feeding is similarly being implemented by the Ministry for Rural Development in Benin and at the Lacena in Ivory Coast (see Research Contacts).</P>
    3885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3767
    38863768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    3887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3769
     3770
    38893771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demand for grasscutter meat is so large that it is not being met. Markets for it already exist over much of Africa,</P>
    3890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3772
    38913773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    3892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3774
     3775
    38943776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters can devastate such crops as rice, sugarcane, soybeans, peanuts, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, oil-palm seedlings, maize, young rubber, sorghum, and wheat. Therefore, as with most rodents, they should be reared only in areas where they already exist.</P>
    3895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3777
    38963778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In past years, captive animals in Benin have suffered fatal Clostridium infections during September and October. In 1986, a broad-spectrum antibiotic was given with outstanding results. During this season, the animals also suffered from ascarid worms, which were also successfully treated with standard drugs.10</P>
    3897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3779
    38983780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    3899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3781
     3782
    39013783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in the following areas:</P>
    3902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3784
    39033785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Digestive physiology, feeding habits, feed preferences, feed conversion and growth rate; </P>
    3904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3786
    39053787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases (pathogens and parasites);</P>
    3906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3788
    39073789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and management (growth rates, space requirements, feed needs, etc);</P>
    3908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3790
    39093791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under different environments;</P>
    3910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3792
    39113793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity; and</P>
    3912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3794
    39133795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic biology (for example, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, and social behavior both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
    3914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3796
    39153797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, specimens should be gathered from different regions for comparative evaluation. A particular need is to select and breed docile specimens because today, even after several generations in captivity, the animal must still be handled with caution.</P>
    3916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3798
    39173799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domestication of the grasscutter is encouraged, wild populations might also be managed to maximize and sustain production through habitat manipulation. </P>
    3918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3800
     3801
    39203802<B><P></P>
    39213803<!--
    … …  
    39263808  </Description>
    39273809-->
    3928 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3810</B>
    39293811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g024a.png"></center><br>
    39303812 FIGURE</P>
    3931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3813
    39323814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are promising microlivestock because they require little capital or labor; provide an inexpensive, readily available, palatable meat; have no odor, and are suitable for keeping indoors. In the highlands of the Andes, many Indians raise them to supplement diets based on grains  and vegetables. Families eat them mostly on special occasions such as weddings and first communions, or they sell them to restaurants or peddle them in village markets.</P>
    3933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3815
    39343816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The low cost of these small animals makes them available even to many landless peasants. For both the small farmer and apartment dweller, the guinea pig is a possible food reserve. It converts kitchen scraps and marginal wastelands into meat. According to estimates, 20 females and 2 males may produce enough meat year-round to provide an adequate meat diet for a family of 6.2</P>
    3935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3817
    39363818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since husbandry practices are simple and cheap, the guinea pig is an excellent source of supplementary income. An FAO study at Ibarra, Ecuador, showed that on small mountain farms the guinea pig provided more profit than either pigs or dairy cows, partly because its meat fetched high prices.</P>
    3937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3819
    39383820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domesticated guinea pigs are mainly a food resource of Latin America, their use has also spread to parts of Africa and Asia. They are raised, for instance, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Zaire. In southern Nigeria, at least 10 percent of all households raise guinea pigs for food, with colonies of up to 30 animals per household. Guinea pigs are also raised in small cages or cardboard boxes by small farmers in the Philippines.3</P>
    3939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3821
    39403822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feeding efficiency is high: studies have shown that it takes between 3.2 and 5.7 kg of forage to produce 1 kg of growth. This makes guinea pigs more efficient than most farm mammals. </P>
    3941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3823
    39423824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs seem especially adapted to the climate and forages of high-altitude zones, but the fact that they are being raised in Central and West Africa indicates that they are also adapted to the lowland tropics.</P>
    3943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3825
    39443826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p243a.png"></center><br>
    39453827 The native distribution of the guinea pig’s wild ancestor</P>
    3946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3828
    39473829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    3948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3830
    39493831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
    3950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3832
    39513833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    3952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3834
     3835
    39543836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs have stocky bodies, fairly short hind legs, and short, unfurred ears. Adults can weigh up to 2 kg, but an average-sized specimen is about 0.5 kg. They are 20-40 cm long (average 28 cm) and have no tail. In domesticated forms, the pelage may be smooth or coarse, short or long, and in some types the hairs form rosettes.4 Domesticated types come in colors ranging from white to dark brown, as well as piebald.5 </P>
    3955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3837
    39563838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    3957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3839
     3840
    39593841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The original home of the wild guinea pig is believed to have been the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. Its domesticated descendants are important as meat animals mainly in that same area, but, as noted, they are also important in certain African and Asian countries.</P>
    3960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3842
    39613843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few strains are distributed worldwide as laboratory animals and pets.</P>
    3962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3844
    39633845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    3964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3846
     3847
    39663848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated guinea pigs, as a whole, are in no danger of extinction, although some rare strains are threatened.</P>
    3967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3849
    39683850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    3969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3970 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3851
     3852
    39713853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These extremely adaptable animals are found in temperate zones and in the highland tropics, but they are usually kept indoors and protected from the extremes of weather. In Lambayeque and other departments of Peru, they are reared at elevations from sea level to more than 4,000 m. In areas where they are raised, daily temperatures fluctuate as much as 30&Yacute;C. In the Bolivian or Peruvian puna region, for instance, day temperatures can be 22&Yacute;C, while night temperatures are -7&Yacute;C. However, they cannot survive freezing temperatures and they may not perform well when exposed to the full tropical heat and sunlight. Many people of the Peruvian highlands keep the animals in darkness (for example, in wood boxes with little or no light).6</P>
    3972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3854
    39733855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's original wild habitat is believed to have been an area of grasslands, forest edges, swamps, and rocks.</P>
    3974 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3856
    39753857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    3976 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3858
     3859
    39783860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores can be raised on kitchen scraps, garden wastes, and weedy vegetation plucked from backyards or roadsides. Andean peasants mainly feed them potato peels, scraps of cabbage, lettuce, carrot, wild grasses, corn stalks, and the foliage of miscellaneous wild plants. Some barley and alfalfa is grown specifically for guinea pigs; it is cut green and sold in small bundles in the markets. </P>
    3979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3861
    39803862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs mate throughout the year except when climate is excessively adverse. Domestic breeds average 2-3 young per litter, although larger litters sometimes occur. The gestation period is 65-70 days with an average of 67. Females come into estrus every 13-24 days, and there is a fertile postpartum estrus.</P>
    3981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3863
    39823864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females can become pregnant when merely 3 months old, and many produce 4 litters every year from then on. In principle, a farmer starting with 1 male and 10 females could see his herd grow to 3,000 animals in one year.</P>
    3983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3865
    39843866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are so large that the female's pubic bones must separate for the birth. They emerge fully developed, with fur and open eyes. They look like miniature adults, and they start eating grass and other feedstuffs within hours. (For this reason, babies orphaned at birth have been known to survive.) Weaning may be reached as early as 21 days of age.</P>
    3985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3867
    39863868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The life span in captivity is as long as 8 years, but animals used for breeding usually live only 3.5 years. </P>
    3987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3869
    39883870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPER GUINEA PIGS</P>
    3989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    3990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3871
     3872
    39913873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in their native region, guinea pigs have traditionally received little research attention. However, that began changing in the 1970s with the onset of meat shortages in Peru. (For a time the government restricted beef sales to only 15 days a month.)</P>
    3992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3874
    39933875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For instance, in 1972 Peru began a guinea pig improvement project. Researchers from i a Molina National Agrarian University traveled throughout Peru gathering many kinds of guinea pigs short haired long haired black, white, yellow, brown, and even purple. Practically all the guinea pigs eaten in Peru are home grown, and researchers observed that the bigger ones were generally winding up in the stew, leaving the smaller ones for breeding. The people inadvertently were making the animals smaller. (This is a common phenomenon for many animals.)</P>
    3994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3876
    39953877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome it, the university research workers compared the mature size and growth rates of all the different guinea pigs. They selected and cross-bred the biggest, meatiest, and fastest-growing ones. This program, later taken over by Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuaria (INIPA), produced remarkable results. The starting animals averaged little more than 0.5 kg, the resulting ones averaged almost 2 kg.</P>
    3996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3878
    39973879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru's "super guinea pigs" are now getting international recognition. They have been introduced into the highlands of Honduras, where the animal is also part of the Indian cuisine. The FAO has shipped some to the Dominican Republic. In addition, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia have all begun their own guinea pig improvement programs.</P>
    3998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3880
    39993881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within Peru the government has established 11 breeding stations to encourage the farming of guinea pigs for food. The goal is to provide better stud males to the people so that future animals will grow more quickly and reach a greater weight.</P>
    4000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3882
    40013883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3884
     3885
    40043886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs generally congregate in small groups, normally made up of 5-10 adults. In favorable areas, however, such groups may coalesce into large colonies. The animals communicate incessantly among themselves, emitting a variety of squeaks and other noises.</P>
    4005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3887
    40063888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males, although good-natured with other species, often fight fiercely among themselves.</P>
    4007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3889
    40083890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3891
     3892
    40113893<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are raised mainly for meat. Peru has about 20 million, which annually provide 16-17,000 tons of meat (only 4,000 tons less than Peru's sheep meat production).</P>
    4012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3894
    40133895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are used worldwide for studies on disease, nutrition, heredity, and toxicology, as well as for the development of serums and other biomedical research. </P>
    4014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3896
    40153897<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4016 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3898
     3899
    40183900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs require so little space that a small cage or pit can house up to 10 females and 1 male. They can be raised in cages with wire floors of small mesh as well. The labor required is low. A colony of 1,000 females reportedly can be properly cared for by one person. A layer of wood shavings, shredded paper, straw, and dried corncobs is usually recommended for bedding. The droppings are odorless, so the bedding does not need changing as often as with other animals. When the diet mainly consists of greens, much urine is produced, and then the beds have to be changed frequently.</P>
    4019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3901
    40203902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When grown for meat, the young are weaned at 3-4 weeks and are ready for market in a matter of 10-13 weeks. Weight gain is rapid for the first 4-6 weeks, and then decreases. The carcasses normally dress out at about 65 percent, including the skin and legs. The meat's protein content is approximately 21 percent.7</P>
    4021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3903
    40223904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a few regions of Peru, guinea pigs are "herded" on the open range and retired at night into small adobe coops.</P>
    4023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3905
    40243906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3907
     3908
    40273909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This small, inoffensive animal rarely bites, is easy to manage, and has no smell. It is an excellent supplemental meat supply. The improved breeds cannot climb or jump so that they are easy to contain. (Primitive "criollo" types, however, can jump.) If kept dry and given green vegetation, grain, and water, it survives in many environments.</P>
    4028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3910
    40293911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3912
     3913
    40323914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major constraint is consumer reluctance. Even in Latin America, attempts to promote guinea pig consumption outside the Indian communities have failed.</P>
    4033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3915
    40343916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised in a clean environment and under normal feeding conditions, guinea pigs thrive and reproduce and do not need routine vaccinations or antibiotics that cattle, sheep, and pigs often require. However, guinea pigs can be carriers of Chagas' disease and salmonella. Further, they are susceptible to pneumonia if temperatures change abruptly when conditions are wet. Coccidiosis and internal and external parasites are also common.</P>
    4035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3917
    40363918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green forages and surplus fruits or by-products are critical to provide vitamin C, which the animal is unable to synthesize for itself. </P>
    4037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3919
    40383920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4040 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3921
     3922
    40413923<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the greatest concentration of guinea pigs is found in the Andes, particular efforts should be directed towards this region. Already, research on guinea pigs has begun in some universities and government research stations in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but more work is needed on matters such as:</P>
    4042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3924
    40433925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding "elite" stock for distribution;</P>
    4044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3926
    40453927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Feeding and nutritional-requirement trials, especially for creating alternate feeds that peasants and commercial producers can use during seasons when conventional feeds are hard to get;</P>
    4046 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3928
    40473929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases and parasites that may limit production in small farming systems;</P>
    4048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3930
    40493931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices concerning reproduction, housing, herd size, and feeding; and</P>
    4050 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3932
    40513933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The genetic basis for weight gain and productivity.</P>
    4052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3934
    40533935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some research should be directed towards developing rations or introducing drought-resistant forages for the dry season because green forage is needed year-round. A range of practical and economical diets needs to be created.</P>
    4054 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3936
    40553937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal geneticists in Latin American countries should establish "elite" populations that can provide superior stock throughout the world. It can be anticipated that applying modern breeding methods to existing improved strains will result in great advances in a relatively short period and at little cost (see sidebar).</P>
    4056 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3938
    40573939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three species of wild cavies (Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii), close relatives of the guinea pig, are native to South America and are declining drastically. Research to preserve them is urgently needed. C. aperea is a widely used item of food in rural Brazil and other parts of South America. </P>
    4058 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3940
    40593941<B><P></P>
    40603942<!--
    … …  
    40653947  </Description>
    40663948-->
    4067 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3949</B>
    40683950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g025a.png"></center><br>
    40693951 Hispaniolan Hutia</P>
    4070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3952
    40713953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of "coneyhunting" still endures in a few regions.</P>
    4072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3954
    40733955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias should be tested as possible microlivestock: success could create the incentive for their complete protection. The animals seem to take well to captivity. The Jamaican hutia is already overproducing in zoos, causing a local glut of animals. And hutias are, or were until recently, kept in barns by some people in Cuba, who fed them on banana and other vegetable waste and ate them regularly.'</P>
    4074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3956
    40753957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
    4076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4077 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3958
     3959
    40783960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean.</P>
    4079 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3961
    40803962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3963
     3964
    40833965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are broad-headed, short-legged, robust animals with small eyes and ears. The various species are from 20 to 60 cm long and weigh from 1 to 9 kg - a size range from that of a guinea pig to that of a small dog. They walk with a slow, waddling motion, but can hop quickly if frightened or pursued. They also climb well.</P>
    4084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3966
    40853967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 1iving species are all big enough to be candidates for microlivestock. The best known and easiest species to keep in captivity are the Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides) and Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii). </P>
    4086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3968
    40873969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cuban hutia (also called hutia conga) is about 60 cm long, with coarse fur, a raccoon-shaped body, and a thick tail covered with sparse bristles. A forest dweller, it weighs up to 7 kg.</P>
    4088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3970
    40893971<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The short-tailed Jamaican hutia is smaller: it is 33-45 cm long and weighs up to 2.5 kg.</P>
    4090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3972
    40913973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p252a.png"></center><br>
    40923974 The hutia’s native range .</P>
    4093 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3975
    40943976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4095 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3977
     3978
    40973979<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are found only in the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Bahamas). Most species are confined to a single island, where they represent the only remaining indigenous land mammals. The Cuban hutia is found only in Cuba. The Jamaican hutia is found only in Jamaica, although a close relative occurs on East Plana Cay, Bahamas. </P>
    4098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3980
    40993981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3982
     3983
    41023984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This once widely distributed and plentiful family is now failing. Of the 30 or so known recent taxa, more than half are already extinct, and the remainder all suffer from habitat alteration, predation by introduced animals, and hunting by man. With the exception of the Cuban hutia, all species are included on the list of the world's threatened mammals.</P>
    4103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3985
    41043986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3987
     3988
    41073989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia ranges have been so reduced that these animals survive only in the most inaccessible forests and rocky drylands. Both the Cuban and the Jamaican hutias occur in a variety of habitats from montane cloud forests to arid coastal semideserts.</P>
    4108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3990
    41093991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     3992
     3993
    41123994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most species are terrestrial, but some live in trees. The Cuban and Jamaican species are terrestrial, but they can climb trees if circumstances demand. They maneuver well on trunks and larger branches, descending head first like squirrels.</P>
    4113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3995
    41143996<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are primarily vegetarian, their diets consisting of leaves, bark, fruits, and twigs, as well as incidental catches of small animals such as lizards and invertebrates.</P>
    4115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3997
    41163998<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias seem to breed year-round, generally giving birth to litters of 1-4 offspring after a gestation period of 16-20 weeks. The young are well developed at birth, fully haired, open eyed, and capable of most adult movements. After 10 days they begin taking solid food, although they are not fully weaned for at least a month and a half (5 months for the Cuban hutia). Sexual maturity is at 10 months; life expectancy is 8-11 years in captivity.</P>
    4117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     3999
    41184000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Jamaican hutia has one of the highest diploid chromosome numbers (2n = 88) of any mammal.</P>
    4119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4001
    41204002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4003
     4004
    41234005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most hutias are wary and secretive and are easily displaced by human encroachment. They live like rabbits, hiding among tangled vegetation, in holes, and among rocks - communicating by voice and scent markings. They build shelters mainly in rock crevices, but also in the base of thick bushes or in natural cavities in trees. The Cuban hutia is often diurnal, whereas the Jamaican hutia is largely nocturnal.</P>
    4124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4006
    41254007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HISPANIOLAN HUTIA</P>
    4126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4008
     4009
    41284010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Hispaniolan hutia, or zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium) as it is known in Haiti is smaller than the two Capromyids discussed here, weighing just 1.2 kg. It is difficult to breed in captivity and has a lower reproductive rate than either the Jamaican or Cuban hutia. It is therefore less suitable as an economic or food source.</P>
    4129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4011
    41304012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is a significant need for supplemental protein sources in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It might be possible to develop a special captive-breeding program for this animal, but it should be done with great care. It is important that a hunting tradition for this animal not be reestablished in rural areas of Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and that local organizations not be misled into believing that there will be a rapid increase in the numbers of this species in captivity.</P>
    4131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4013
    41324014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4015
     4016
    41354017<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia meat is relished, especially in Jamaica. The animals are still hunted, often by using dogs that smell them out and retrieve them from a hole or hold them at bay in treetops.</P>
    4136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4018
    41374019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4020
     4021
    41404022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences of zoos suggest that the Cuban and Jamaican hutias will thrive in captivity. The animals are generally long-lived and have survived up to 17 years. They are often friendly with their keepers and, when tame, can be held and carried about without any particular danger. However, if angered they can inflict deep bites and should normally be handled with considerable caution.</P>
    4141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4023
    41424024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4025
     4026
    41454027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are already much in demand. Their meat has an excellent flavor and they are big enough to provide a worthwhile quantity. If husbandry could be developed on a sustainable basis, it could be used as a mechanism for both economic development and for saving the remnant populations.</P>
    4146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4028
    41474029<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4030
     4031
    41504032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations are threatened. Any captive population must be built up without endangering them.</P>
    4151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4033
    41524034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All hutias are susceptible to predation by domestic cats, mongooses, dogs, and human poachers, so care must be taken to design predator-proof breeding facilities.</P>
    4153 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4035
    41544036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are carriers of eastern equine encephalomyelitis, a serious disease of horses.</P>
    4155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4037
    41564038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4039
     4040
    41594041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias deserve urgent conservation attention. In particular, the following steps should be taken:</P>
    4160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4042
    41614043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations to ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of these animals.</P>
    4162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4044
    41634045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
    4164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4046
    41654047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
    4166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4048
    41674049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate hutia biology, including chromosome type, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and diseases.</P>
    4168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4050
    41694051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos.</P>
    4170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4052
    41714053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Perform captive breeding trials, measuring growth rates, space requirements, food needs, and social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
    4172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4054
    41734055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the social organization and tameability.</P>
    4174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4056
    41754057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonies of some species could be established on uninhabited islands, as has been done with the Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami. Even this rare species might eventually be raised to yield meat for local inhabitants, as it is well adapted to dry and barren environments and was a regular food of the pre-Columbian Indians. </P>
    4176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4058
     4059
    41784060<B><P></P>
    41794061<!--
    … …  
    41844066  </Description>
    41854067-->
    4186 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4068</B>
    41874069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g026a.png"></center><br>
    41884070 FIGURE</P>
    4189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4071
    41904072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many wild relatives of the guinea pig are native to South America. Some, such as the guinea pig itself, are small; others, such as the mare, are much bigger. Maras1 (Dolichotis patagonum) are as tall as terriers and, at first glance, look like dwarf antelopes or huge hares They have large ears and eyes, long legs, and short tails. They generally behave like hares or wild rabbits, but, like deer, they run with a stiff-legged gait when pursued by predators.</P>
    4191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4073
    41924074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strange-looking creatures are found in temperate regions in the southern half of South America. They are dry-country animals, living on the thorn-scrub, desert plains of Argentina and the stony wastes of Patagonia.</P>
    4193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4075
    41944076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although exceedingly shy, restless, and watchful, mares tame easily, make good pets, and are much favored by the local populace. They were introduced to France last century, and in Victorian times Europeans sometimes bred them. These big, handsome rodents, grazing in little herds, were considered an attractive addition to the lawns of country estates.</P>
    4195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4077
    41964078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
    4197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4079
     4080
    41994081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are best kept in their native region of southern South America. With care, however, they could be used in other areas because they are slow breeders and their population growth is easy to control.</P>
    4200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4082
    42014083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4084
     4085
    42044086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, these large rodents look like some weird hybrid. They have the long ears of a hare and the tidy body and spindly legs of a small antelope. Although related to guinea pigs, they are long legged. The tail is short; the ears are long and erect.</P>
    4205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4087
    42064088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Average-size mares weigh about 8 kg, but large ones can be 1 m long and weigh up to 16 kg.2 Females are larger than males. The coat is light in color, with grey upper parts and whitish underparts. The limbs and feet are tinged a yellowish brown. The pelage is dense, with individual hairs standing at nearly right angles to the skin. This gives a harsh texture, even though the hairs are soft and fine.</P>
    4207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4089
    42084090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can hop, walk, gallop, or run. They are extremely swift and can reach 45 km per hour over long distances. They are also accomplished jumpers, often leaping 2 m high from a standing start. The feet are compact and rather hooflike, but with sharp claws. The hind foot has three digits; the front foot has four.</P>
    4209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4091
    42104092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4093
     4094
    42134095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's range in the thorn-scrub desert and Patagonian steppe of Argentina extends from about 28&Yacute;S to 50&Yacute;S.</P>
    4214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4096
    42154097<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4098
     4099
    42184100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered. These animals, once plentiful, are now threatened because of the introduction of the European hare, which is more successful at competing for food. In many of the eastern parts of its distribution (see map) it is now extinct.</P>
    4219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4101
    42204102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4103
     4104
    42234105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras inhabit open, dry plains and other treeless semidesert areas of coarse grass or scattered shrubs.</P>
    4224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4106
    42254107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4108
     4109
    42284110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are pure vegetarians. They feed on short grasses and herbs that are sparsely distributed between patches of dry desert scrub. Usually, they are satisfied with a few coarse weeds and the shoots of bushes. However, their overall diet consists of any available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and stems.</P>
    4229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4111
    42304112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female mares become sexually receptive within a few hours after giving birth. The estrous cycle is 35 days, plus or minus 5 days.3 The gestation period is 77 days. Each female gives birth to 1-3 young at the mouth of the den; the pups crawl inside to safety. Newborns are well developed, and within a few hours they begin grazing vegetation. They remain in the vicinity of the den for up to 4 months.</P>
    4231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4113
    42324114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, at least, the young are nervous and easily frightened.</P>
    4233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4115
    42344116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4117
     4118
    42374119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras shelter in a burrow that they either construct for themselves or "borrow" from another animal that has abandoned it. They are active during the day and spend considerable time basking in the sun. They are always alert for danger. When alarmed, they flee at high speed. The white rump patch flashes a warning to the others, who then follow this "flag."</P>
    4238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4120
    42394121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fundamental element of their social system is the monogamous pair bond. Certainly in captivity, and probably in the wild as well, the bond between a pair lasts for life. When breeding, 20 or more pairs may band together temporarily to share a single den for the pups.4 </P>
    4240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4122
    42414123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals stand on straight legs, sit on bent haunches with the forepart of the body resting on the fully extended front legs, or recline in a catlike position with the front legs folded under the chest, an unusual position for a rodent. They travel in single file, with the female usually leading. Members of a pair maintain contact by means of a low grumble. Although the long legs can quickly carry it to safety, a mare usually stops every 20-30 m and turns to peer at its pursuer.</P>
    4242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4124
    42434125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals clean themselves by licking their sides and apparently by "combing" their fur with their teeth. They wipe their faces as cats do, with the inside of a foreleg.</P>
    4244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4126
    42454127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p260a.png"></center><br>
    42464128 The mara’s native range</P>
    4247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4129
    42484130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4131
     4132
    42514133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the light-colored meat is said to be dry and flavorless, it is widely consumed in South America.</P>
    4252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4134
    42534135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4136
     4137
    42564138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras have been successfully raised and bred in many zoos, and, as noted, have been kept as pets.</P>
    4257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4139
    42584140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults make little use of any shelter; they seem fond of being out and about in all weather. As long as they have a protected burrow for the use of the pups, mare populations can thrive in severe climates.</P>
    4259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4141
    42604142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, diets include straw, vegetables, and crushed oats. Drinking water is supplied, although the animals rarely take it if they are feeding on fresh plant materials. They like to have salt blocks, however.</P>
    4261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4143
    42624144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, one mare lived in captivity for almost 14 years; most specimens do not live beyond 10 years.</P>
    4263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4145
    42644146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4147
     4148
    42674149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are a good size for microlivestock. They have a short gestation period, and they are social and easy to maintain in groups. They can be successfully kept in pens and can be fed relatively low-quality forage. Colonies can grow to be quite large.</P>
    4268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4150
    42694151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4152
     4153
    42724154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can easily dig under the edges of cages and escape. Extra-deep foundations are needed.</P>
    4273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4155
    42744156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following heavy rains, care must be taken to keep them from drowning in their subterranean burrows.</P>
    4275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4157
    42764158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If suddenly disturbed, mares can become hysterical, leaping away regardless of anything in the way, and often seriously injuring or even killing themselves as a result. They fear bodily contact.</P>
    4277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4159
    42784160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's monogamous nature in the wild is a likely limitation. But perhaps, like chinchillas, the animal will become polygamous in captivity.</P>
    4279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4161
    42804162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are sensitive to tuberculosis when kept in humid conditions.</P>
    4281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4163
    42824164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4165
     4166
    42854167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research needs to increase understanding of the mare include:</P>
    4286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4168
    42874169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional trials;</P>
    4288 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4170
    42894171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Husbandry experiments - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs;</P>
    4290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4172
    42914173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity tests;</P>
    4292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4174
    42934175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing-efficiency measurements;</P>
    4294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4176
    42954177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Exploration of commercial details; and</P>
    4296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4178
    42974179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determination of diseases and parasites. </P>
    4298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4180
     4181
    43004182<B><P></P>
    43014183<!--
    … …  
    43064188  </Description>
    43074189-->
    4308 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4190</B>
     4191
    43104192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas (Agouti paca)1,2 are large, white-spotted, almost tailless rodents with the potential to become a source of protein for the American tropics. They are found in lowlands from Mexico to northern Argentina. The meat is white and is considered the best of all Latin American game meat. It is common in local markets and restaurants. Tasting like a combination of pork and chicken, it sells at higher prices than beef and is a regular item of diet in some areas. In Costa Rica, pace is served on special occasions such as weddings or baptisms. It has a higher fat content than the lean meat of agoutis, rabbits, and chickens, and has no gamy taste.</P>
    4311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4193
    43124194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca has promise as a microlivestock. In several countries, Belize and Mexico for example, people already keep them in cages beside their homes and fatten them on kitchen scraps. In Costa Rica, some are bred on farms, under houses, and even in apartments. Research on raising paces in captivity is under way at the Universidad Nacional in Heredia, Costa Rica; at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, Panama (see page 196); and at the Instituto de Historia Natural in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Turrialba, Costa Rica, an entrepreneur is already breeding and raising pace commercially.</P>
    4313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4195
    43144196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the pace has potential as a food source, many problems still must be resolved before it can be recommended for mass rearing. If solved, however, this species would become an attractive microlivestock.</P>
    4315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4197
    43164198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    4317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4199
     4200
    43194201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pace has potential for use throughout its vast geographical range in Latin America.</P>
    4320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4202
    43214203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4204
     4205
    43244206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general appearance, paces are somewhat like giant guinea pigs. The legs are short, the forefeet have four "fingers," and the hindfeet have five small, hooflike "toes." The feet are partially webbed and are adapted both for digging and for swimming. Pacas burrow with all four feet as well as their teeth; even large roots are no obstacle.</P>
    4325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4207
    43264208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults weigh 6-14 kg, males being somewhat larger than females. Although they may become bulbously fat, paces remain "one of the fastest things on four feet. " From a standing start, even a fat specimen can jump at least 1 m off the ground. Pacas are also agile. However, their skin's epidermal layer is thin and fragile, and large strips may be ripped off as they rush headlong through spiky undergrowth. However, such wounds heal astonishingly fast - frequently within days.</P>
    4327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4209
    43284210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas are chocolate brown in colon The head is somewhat lighter in shade than the body, and the underparts are whitish or buff colored. There are usually four longitudinal rows of white spots that may merge into stripes along each side of the body. The fur is coarse, spiny, and slippery, and has no underwool. Each hair is stiff, relatively sharp, and very smooth, which makes paces extremely difficult for predators to hang on to.</P>
    4329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4211
    43304212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of the cheekbones are enlarged, and the cheeks can open to form special pouches. This is more developed in adult males than in females - indeed, adults can be readily sexed by head shape. The pouches are outside of the mouth and are fully haired. The animals use them mainly to create a resonating chamber for their booming bark and noisy tooth grinding. These enlarged cheeks push the large bulging eyes toward the top of the skull. The eyes are suited for nocturnal conditions, the senses of smell and hearing are uncannily acute, and there is an array of long whiskers that is used when maneuvering at night.</P>
    4331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4213
    43324214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4215
     4216
    43354217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowland paces are found throughout most of Latin America from east central Mexico to northern Paraguay, Argentina, and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This includes all of Central America and most of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. The animal has also been introduced into Cuba.</P>
    4336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4218
    43374219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p265a.png"></center><br>
    43384220 The paca’s native range</P>
    4339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4221
    43404222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4223
     4224
    43434225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burgeoning human populations are severely reducing many of Latin America's native animal resources, and the pace is one of the most persecuted. It has been exterminated within hunting range of virtually all cities, towns, and villages.</P>
    4344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4226
    43454227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several governments, recognizing the pace's plight, have passed laws prohibiting the hunting and marketing of its meat. Nevertheless, people continue to take it, usually at night, using trail dogs and headlights.</P>
    4346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4228
    43474229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4230
     4231
    43504232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas thrive in a variety of tropical habitats but are most common in forests, swamps, and partly cleared grazing lands. They inhabit most types of forests from deciduous woodland to rainforest. Usually, they stay near streams or rivers, but they often live where there is no permanent water. They are abundant only in little-disturbed forest areas. Although preferring low, dense tree cover, paces sometimes inhabit open rocky areas and farmland.</P>
    4351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4233
    43524234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4235
     4236
    43554237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores feed mainly on fruits, young seedlings, and some seeds. However, when fruits are scarce they may switch to browsing leaves and roots. They probably sometimes eat large insects, and, on rare occasion, may perhaps eat small vertebrates. Captive paces, like many other "frugivores," seem to develop a protein deficiency and will eagerly eat meat scraps on occasion.</P>
    4356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4238
    43574239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young are usually born singly after a gestation period of 146 days. There are probably 2 births a year. Females have an estrous period that begins shortly after giving birth. If mating does not take place at this time, the female becomes unreceptive until after the 3-month (sometimes 4- to 6-month) lactation is over. The length of the estrous cycle is 30 days.</P>
    4358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4240
    43594241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During daylight hours, paces seclude themselves in brushy cover, in or under fallen logs, or in extensive underground burrows. The burrows, which may be several meters long, are dug in moist soil or taken over from other animals; they are often in river banks, on slopes, among tree roots, or under rocks. Usually, several exits are provided, often being plugged with leaves as a disguise.</P>
    4360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4242
    43614243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4244
     4245
    43644246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, paces dig large holes and rummage about the forest floor at night, gnawing on fruits. Pairs inhabit a defended area, sometimes living together in the same burrow, sometimes not. Also, they usually travel alone, following paths that lead to feeding grounds and water. Individual home ranges are small (1-3 hectares).</P>
    4365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4247
    43664248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are terrestrial, they enter water freely, they swim well, they copulate in water, and, when alarmed, they generally attempt to escape by swimming. They are also lively and playful; however, they can be exceedingly obstinate. Sometimes fighting among themselves becomes very savage. When angered they growl, sometimes noisily, and they can suddenly jump on aggressors, real or imagined, delivering frightful wounds with their chisel-like front teeth thrust forward like a spear. </P>
    4367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4249
    43684250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4251
     4252
    43714253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, pace meat is tasty and brings high prices in the markets. It is considered a delicacy in fine restaurants and was served to Queen Elizabeth during her October 1985 visit to Belize. In Mexico, paces, like pigs, are usually boiled unskinned. Even the skin is then edible.</P>
    4372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4254
    43734255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4256
     4257
    43764258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If treated appropriately when young, paces become manageable. They undergo "imprinting," a characteristic of most species that have been domesticated. An imprinted pace becomes so tame that it seeks out human company, follows people around like an amiable dog and, if turned out of its cage, returns voluntarily. (To achieve this degree of tameness it is necessary to remove the animal from its mother at an early age.)</P>
    4377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4259
    43784260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild paces are almost entirely nocturnal, tame paces are more active during daylight hours.</P>
    4379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4261
    43804262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young or partly grown paces are commonly exhibited in zoos. They eat prodigious quantities of almost any vegetation and have been called, "a good substitute for a large garbage pail." Diets can include rolled oats, raw vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They probably need additional protein occasionally, and seem to appreciate some fat in their diet.</P>
    4381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4263
    43824264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4265
     4266
    43854267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If husbandry can be developed, the clamor for pace meat throughout tropical America would be a big economic incentive for farming these animals. The excellence and wide acceptance of the meat is an indication that pace farming would be taken up both in rural and urban areas and by many levels of society.</P>
    4386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4268
    43874269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4270
     4271
    43904272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas can harbor human diseases, including leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease.</P>
    4391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4273
    43924274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the project in Panama (see page 194), paces have bred only sporadically in captivity, with few offspring surviving. However, successes have been recorded in zoos in London, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., and in a research project in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Costa Rica, they are also reportedly breeding well, with a survival rate of 90 percent since 1982, and 80 percent of the females are reproducing.3</P>
    4393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4275
    43944276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adult paces can be aggressive and dangerous. Their powerful incisors can inflict serious wounds. (They can even rip through planks.) Intraspecific aggression is one of the most serious impediments to captive breeding.</P>
    4395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4277
    43964278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the capybara, the pace not only has a long gestation but usually bears a single young. Thus, the output of a single breeding female may be, at best, two offspring per year (at least this is the expected production in the wild). This "slow" breeding is a limitation. In captivity, however, there is a possibility that it can be speeded up.4 The fact that paces bond together in pairs is a limitation. If every female has to be accompanied by a male, then many (otherwise unnecessary) males have to be fed and maintained.</P>
    4397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4279
    43984280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male paces are considered difficult to keep as household pets because they spray females (or human substitutes) with a mixture of urine and glandular secretions. This can occur several times a day. In addition, they have anal glands that produce a musky odor that some people find objectionable.</P>
    4399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4281
    44004282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4283
     4284
    44034285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are common in some areas over the vast region from Mexico to Argentina, they are little understood, even by zoologists. In fact, most data concerning this animal have come from interviews with local hunters. Intensive field work is needed to develop an understanding of the pace's biology, status, and habitat requirements.</P>
    4404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4286
    44054287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popularity of pace meat makes it urgent to start this work as well as to begin breeding paces on an organized basis. Such projects would lay the groundwork for preserving the species.</P>
    4406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4288
    44074289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular research needs concern the following:</P>
    4408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4290
    44094291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Age structure and reproductive performance;</P>
    4410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4292
    44114293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates and feeding habits;</P>
    4412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4294
    44134295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Behavioral patterns in captivity;</P>
    4414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4296
    44154297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional requirements;</P>
    4416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4298
    44174299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat quality;</P>
    4418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4300
    44194301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helminth and arthropod parasites;</P>
    4420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4302
    44214303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Role in transmitting or perpetuating diseases;</P>
    4422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4304
    44234305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction (such as external manifestations of estrus in females); and</P>
    4424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4306
    44254307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic variations that would allow the selection of animals adapted to captivity and females that produce multiple offspring - twins, triplets, or more.</P>
    4426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4308
     4309
    44284310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ways must be found to introduce more than one female to each male without inciting aggression. </P>
    4429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4311
     4312
    44314313<B><P></P>
    44324314<!--
    … …  
    44374319  </Description>
    44384320-->
    4439 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4321</B>
    44404322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g027a.png"></center><br>
    44414323 FIGURE</P>
    4442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4324
    44434325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas (Lagostomus maximus) are soft-furred South American rodents that look like long-tailed guinea pigs. They can weigh as much as 8 kg and are resilient animals, inhabiting dry pampas and shrub lands in northern Argentina and neighboring countries. They seem to have promise for producing meat and hides in marginal zones whithin their native habitat.</P>
    4444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4326
    44454327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like chinchillas (page 277), these rodents provide a prized furry pelt. They also provide meat that reportedly tastes "as good as hare," which in Europe is considered the epitome of dining. They are easily trapped alive in cheap, homemade, multiple-catch, funnel traps. And they are thought to be suitable for farming on a large scale.</P>
    4446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4328
    44474329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, vizcachas are currently considered pests because they take grazing from cattle and sheep and because they build large burrows that undermine the land. Government campaigns have eradicated them in the richer agricultural areas of Argentina, but the animals are still common in marginal zones. There is evidence that they become more abundant when domestic livestock overgraze the land. In improverished marginal sites, where other livestock enterprises are unsuitable, the potential exists for game-ranching vizcachas.</P>
    4448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4330
    44494331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    4450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4332
     4333
    44524334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the potential hazard to new areas, vizcachas can be used only in the pampas regions of southern South America where they are already widespread.</P>
    4453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4335
    44544336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4337
     4338
    44574339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have short front legs, long, muscular hind legs, and round eyes and ears. Their heads seem oversized in proportion to their bodies. Males weigh 5-8 kg, females 2-4.5 kg.</P>
    4458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4340
    44594341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the same rodent subfamily as the chinchilla, they have a thick, soft, valuable fur that is grey or brown above, whitish or greyish below. They are, however, much larger than chinchillas.</P>
    4460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4342
    44614343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although basically running animals, vizcachas often jump bipedally (like kangaroos), and they sit erect while eating or grooming. The forefeet have four long flexible digits used to grasp food. Their soles and palms are naked and have fleshy pads (pallipes).</P>
    4462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4344
    44634345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4346
     4347
    44664348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas once swarmed widely over the savannas of southern Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, but they are being systematically exterminated. Today they inhabit isolated areas of north, central, and western Argentina and southern Paraguay.</P>
    4467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4349
    44684350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4351
     4352
    44714353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1907, these animals have been mercilessly hunted. The governments of the Argentine provinces where they are mostly found, reward hunters for killing this "pest." However, the numbers are so reduced that now there is no need for a bounty system.</P>
    4472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4354
    44734355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4356
     4357
    44764358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas live in flat, dry, steppelike plains; in dry woodland (Chaco), and in low mountains.</P>
    4477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4359
    44784360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4361
     4362
    44814363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that these rodents eat their own droppings (coprophagy) augments their ability to utilize natural forages, and allows them to abound in degraded zones. They feed on any plant materials they can find near their colonies, particularly grasses. In feeding trials, their daily dry matter intake was 2-5 percent of the body weight. The metabolic efficiency (dry matter per kg) was 33-56 percent; the digestive efficiency was 50-60 percent.2</P>
    4482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4364
    44834365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male vizcachas become sexually mature at about seven months of age and remain fertile throughout the year. The gestation period is long: 154 days. Litters contain one or two young. Newborns are well developed, fully furred, and open eyed, although they cannot fend for themselves for at least three weeks. In the wild, one or two litters are reared each year.</P>
    4484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4366
    44854367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4368
     4369
    44884370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas are nocturnal and are active year-round. They inhabit underground burrows, living in colonies often containing many individuals. They collect a variety of materials (for example, bones, sticks, and stones), and heap them in piles above the entrances to their burrows.</P>
    4489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4371
    44904372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their hearing and sense of smell are acute. </P>
    4491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4373
    44924374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p274a.png"></center><br>
    44934375 Vizcacha’s native range</P>
    4494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4376
    44954377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4378
     4379
    44984380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have long been hunted for food as well as for their fur. Their meat is often consumed in pickled form in southern South America.</P>
    4499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4381
    45004382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skins are fabricated into table runners, rugs, bedspreads, slippers, and belts. The skins are also popular for overcoats.</P>
    4501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4383
    45024384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be kept in captivity without major difficulty.</P>
    4503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4385
    45044386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4387
     4388
    45074389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, vizcachas are fed the typical diets furnished for vegetarian rodents: rolled oats, green vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They are usually kept indoors in wire-fronted cages, about 1 x 2 m in size, and provided with sleeping boxes.</P>
    4508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4390
    45094391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about vizcacha husbandry, but in one trial, weight rose most rapidly in males until age 18 months (the average size was then 5.3 kg) and subsequently slowed. The heaviest male was 7.3 kg at 30-32 months. The female's weight gain was greatest until 16-18 months (average size 3.3 kg).3 </P>
    4510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4392
    45114393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4394
     4395
    45144396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals seem well adapted to harsh sites where the climate and forage make raising conventional livestock difficult.</P>
    4515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4397
    45164398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is white and has a good nutritive value because of its high digestibility, low levels of saturated fats, and high levels of proteins.</P>
    4517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4399
    45184400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In marginal zones of the pampas, these rodents appear far more productive than traditional livestock.4</P>
    4519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4401
    45204402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4403
     4404
    45234405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas may do considerable damage by foraging in cultivated crops. As noted, ranchers claim that they take grazing away from domestic animals, 10 vizcachas eating as much as a sheep. In addition, they claim, vizcachas destroy pasture with their acidic urine. And the large burrow systems sometimes create a hazard.</P>
    4524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4406
    45254407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their reproductive rate is low and their growth rate is only moderate, their commercial breeding might not be profitable except in well-designed projects with clear markets.</P>
    4526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4408
    45274409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas require sturdy pens, which implies a high initial cost for materials such as concrete and brick.</P>
    4528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4410
    45294411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be aggressive to one another, especially in captivity.</P>
    4530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4412
    45314413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4414
     4415
    45344416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several possible research projects, including:</P>
    4535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4417
     4418
    45374419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gathering specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation of characters such as biology, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions);</P>
    4538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4420
    45394421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Attempting captive rearing and small-scale husbandry;</P>
    4540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4422
    45414423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assessing performance under various environments; and</P>
    4542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4424
    45434425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quantifying productivity and population dynamics in relation to rangeland use and improvement practices.</P>
    4544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4426
     4427
    45464428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rational cropping program based on wild stocks is perhaps more viable than captive breeding. This could be organized so as to keep vizcacha numbers in check while sustaining a small chain of processing plants by providing a constant supply of meat and skins. </P>
    4547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4429
     4430
    45494431<B><P></P>
    45504432<!--
    … …  
    45554437  </Description>
    45564438-->
    4557 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4439</B>
     4440
    45594441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 previous chapters have described some rodent species that show promise as microlivestock. Rodentia, however, is one of the largest families of mammals, and the species highlighted by no means exhaust the possibilities. In this chapter we briefly mention others that deserve consideration and exploratory research. These might prove to be potential resources, at least in localized situations. Several are fast nearing extinction and they deserve protection and immediate attention from animal scientists.</P>
    4560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4442
    45614443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHINCHILLAS</P>
    4562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4444
     4445
    45644446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the high Andes of South America are found the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicaudata) and the long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). These plump little rodents have fur that is possibly the thickest, softest, and warmest of any animal's.</P>
    4565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4447
    45664448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the surface they would seem to be ideal candidates for microlivestock in Third World regions. Indeed, in recent years chinchilla-rearing has been successfully carried out in northern India. However, raising these animals for commercial markets is a highly specialized and costly business because only rare and expensive breeding stock produces top-quality pelts, and all other pelts are worthless in today's marketplace.</P>
    4567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4449
    45684450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These guinea-pig-sized animals have round ears, a bushy tail, and range from 25 to 50 cm long. Adult males rarely weigh more than 500 g, but females may weigh up to 800 g.</P>
    4569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4451
    45704452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PACARANA</P>
    4571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4453
     4454
    45734455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is the third-largest living rodent— only capybaras and some beavers are larger. But little is known about this seldom-encountered, forest-dwelling species. Nevertheless, pacaranas appear to be likely candidates for domestication. They are amazingly even-tempered and peaceful, and become surprisingly tame.</P>
    4574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4456
    45754457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these animals are endangered they are unlikely candidates for microlivestock in the short run, but their large size and good meat could be the stimulus for an international effort to study, protect, and rear them in large numbers before it is too late.</P>
    4576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4458
    45774459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacaranas are found along the eastern foothills of the Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Their area of potential use is in Latin America and the Caribbean.</P>
    4578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4460
    45794461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would be advantageous for livestock scientists to investigate this species in captivity. Studies are needed of the animal's general biology, including its nutritional requirements, reproductive capacity, behavior, and physiology. For wildlife specialists, there is a compelling need to protect this species.</P>
    4580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4462
    45814463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPRINGHARE</P>
    4582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4464
     4465
    45844466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scattered through the dry lands of eastern and southern Africa - on numerous grasslands, plains, fossil lake beds, hill slopes, and floodplains - is the springhare (or springhaas). With its powerful hind legs, tiny forelegs, upright stance, and hopping gait, it looks something like a tiny kangaroo. It is commonly seen at night, eyes glowing a characteristic red in the headlights.</P>
    4585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4467
    45864468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal is an important source of food and skins for rural peoples throughout southern Africa. In Botswana, it is the principal bushmeat in the human diet.</P>
    4587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4469
    45884470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springhares are 35-40 cm long and weigh 3-4 kg. There is one species (Pedetes capensis) and two subspecies: the East African springhare and the Cape springhare (formerly Pedetes cafer). </P>
    4589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4471
    45904472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROCK CAVY</P>
    4591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4473
     4474
    45934475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris) is closely related to the guinea pig and occurs in the impoverished semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It is large and lean and has a face somewhat resembling a dog's. It is hunted extensively and is an important source of meat for country people, who consider it a delicacy.</P>
    4594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4476
    45954477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This creature might be suitable as a microlivestock. It consumes leaves and bark, and breeds well in captivity. Famine is a serious periodic problem in the often-drought-stricken area, and protein deficiency is common. The rock cavy, like the guinea pig, may be amenable to domestication and may be able to provide the people with better nutrition. However, it is difficult to keep in a cage because it moves fast, climbs well, and easily slips out.</P>
    4596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4478
    45974479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these rodents occur in rare and patchily distributed habitats, they are in desperate need of protection, whether or not they prove to have any long-term utility.</P>
    4598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4480
    45994481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALT-DESERT CAVY</P>
    4600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4482
     4483
    46024484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smaller relative of the mare (page 256), the salt-desert cavy (Dolichotis salinicola) is rabbitlike in appearance and behavior. It has large ears and eyes, long legs, and a short tail. It lacks the mare's white rump patch.</P>
    4603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4485
    46044486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal inhabits dry, salty areas of the Chaco desert, particularly areas of dry, woody brush. Specifically, it is found in the saline western Chaco of Paraguay and northwestern Argentina, as well as in the extreme south of Bolivia. It is about 45 cm long and weighs up to 4 kg.</P>
    4605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4487
    46064488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it might make a useful microlivestock in its native habitat, the salt-desert cavy breeds rapidly and can cause much devastation; it should never be introduced to new regions.</P>
    4607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4489
    46084490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salt-desert cavy's life in the wild is largely unknown; however, some have been successfully raised and bred in zoos. Exploratory research on keeping and managing these little creatures is warranted.</P>
    4609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4491
    46104492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
    4611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4493
     4494
    46134495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 193), it has been estimated that 42 peoples of various cultures eat rodents. Most of these eat locally available species, some of which are listed below. Whether any have long-term usefulness is uncertain, but study of them in the wild and in captivity could result in some interesting and valuable scientific discoveries.</P>
    4614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4496
    46154497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands Rodents</P>
    4616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4498
     4499
    46184500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific are home to a collection of six rare giant rodents that live in the rainforest canopy. At one time they were important food items. Archeologists have dug up tens of thousands of rodent bones on sites where people lived as long as 30,000 years ago. These mysterious animals were classified last century, but most have not been seen by biologists for decades. However, one, the thinking rat (Solomys sapientis), was rediscovered in 1987 - the first time it had been reported seen since 1901. The others may also be inhabiting the dense and undisturbed forests.'</P>
    4619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4501
    46204502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thinking rat was located on the island of Santa Isabel. It proved to be gentle, unafraid, and friendly. It lives in the forest canopy, weighs up to 1 kg, and feeds on nuts and fruits. Efforts to build up the population are urgently needed. The other species should also be sought.</P>
    4621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4503
    46224504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such animals could be a resource for rainforest production (perhaps in the manner of butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea2). They may never be plentiful enough to be food sources again, but they could nonetheless become valuable. Zoos the world over are likely first customers for these scientific curiosities if production can be boosted and the populations secured.</P>
    4623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4505
    46244506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant New Guinea Rat</P>
    4625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4507
     4508
    46274509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant New Guinea rat (Mallomys rothschildi) is often eaten in New Guinea. It is little known to science but is odorless and easily tamed. It grows so fast that it becomes as big as a guinea pig even before it is weaned. It feeds on a wide variety of tubers and vegetable products. An attractive species native to mountain forests, it has a long heavy tail and black fur with white ticking.</P>
    4628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4510
    46294511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines</P>
    4630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4512
     4513
    46324514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines, brush-tailed porcupines, and their relatives are distantly related to guinea pigs and are widely consumed as food in tropical regions. Examples are:</P>
    4633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4515
     4516
    46354517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) and other species of South Asia.</P>
    4636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4518
    46374519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis) of southern Africa.</P>
    4638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4520
    46394521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), which inhabits Central and South America. These nocturnal creatures live in the thick, leafy crowns of trees or in hollow trees or holes in the ground. Although often belligerent among themselves, they can be very friendly and tame toward humans.</P>
    4640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4522
    46414523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiore</P>
    4642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4524
     4525
    46444526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kiore (Rattus exulans) was formerly an important component of  the diet of most Polynesians, including the Maoris of New Zealand. It  has been successfully reared in captivity in recent times. Unlike many  other rodents, this animal is normally not a scavenger; it is a clean,  even fastidious feeder that is basically a vegetarian (flowers, berries,  nuts, and seeds) and is reckoned remarkably good eating.</P>
    4645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4527
    46464528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft-Furred Rat</P>
    4647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4529
     4530
    46494531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soft-furred rat (Praomys) is relatively large and slender and is  found in the tropical forests of Africa from sea level to more than  3,000 m. Among the most common rodents of the African jungle, it is  trapped almost everywhere. It feeds largely on plants, but eats large  quantities of ants and other insects. It has been raised successfully in  captivity and is eaten by villagers in Malawi.</P>
    4650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4532
    46514533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Squirrels</P>
    4652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4534
     4535
    46544536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) occurs throughout Indonesia,  Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is the largest squirrel on earth, almost the  size of a cat. A related species, the palm squirrel (Funambulus), also  gets very large. It can crop nuts in the very high treetops that are  inaccessible to people. It is widely used as food.</P>
    4655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4537
    46564538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels</P>
    4657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4539
     4540
    46594541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels of the genus Callosciurus (notably C. notatus and C.  prevostii) are significant pests on cocoa, oil palm, and mixed fruit  plantations in Southeast Asia. They can be reared and bred on a diet of  most types of fruit as long as a little protein, in the form of insects or  cooked wheat, is available. The systematic use of this animal may  offer a chance to turn a pest to advantage.</P>
    4660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4542
    46614543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cloud Rat</P>
    4662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4544
     4545
    46644546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two species of slender-tailed cloud rats (Phlocomys spp.) are found  only in southeastern Asia. They live in tree cavities, climb well, and  are well adapted to tree life.  </P>
    4665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4547
    46664548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these (P. cumingi) lives in the northeastern part of Luzon in the Philippines, where it appears to be thriving. It has a large body and long tail and is the largest member of the mouse subfamily.</P>
    4667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4549
    46684550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other (Crateromys schadenbergi) has long, thick hair and a thick, bushy tail. It lives in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. A nocturnal animal, it feeds on buds, bark, and fruits.</P>
    4669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4551
    46704552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.</P>
    4671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4553
    46724554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spiny Rat</P>
    4673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4555
     4556
    46754557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cayenne spiny rat (Proechimys guyannensis) is found throughout most of South America. It is tasty, easily kept in captivity, and is popularly used in Colombia for food. A nocturnal animal, it is one of the most common mammals in many areas. It has been raised in captivity on bananas, sweet corn, coconut, grain, and various seeds.3</P>
    4676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4558
    46774559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo Rat</P>
    4678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4560
     4561
    46804562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bamboo rat (Rhyzomys spp.) is the largest rodent on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia; it weighs 2-4 kg and the body can be as long as 45 cm. It prefers to live in bamboo thickets and is hunted and eaten by many local peoples.</P>
    4681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4563
    46824564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a need - in considering any sort of game farming - to relate the animal's "preferred" conditions (range, feed, temperature, etc.) to the varying land and climate types not being effectively utilized. In other words, rather than looking at animals that might be farmed, it might be necessary to consider the terrain and climate and then seek animals that would "do" well under those conditions. One major fault with traditional farming has been the tendency to force traditional livestock onto unsuitable land. This has given rise to numerous serious problems. In many cases the most suitable use of an area is provided by several species grazing together to mutual benefit (e.g., goats and sheep on New Zealand hill country improve grazing for each other if ratios are right).</P>
    46834565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Yerex</P>
    4684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4566
    46854567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g028a.png"></center><br>
    46864568 FIGURE</P>
    4687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4688 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     4569
     4570<B>
    46894571<!--
    46904572</Section>
    … …  
    46954577  </Description>
    46964578-->
    4697 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4579</B>
     4580
    46994581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several types of tropical deer' and antelope are no bigger than an average-size dog. These "microdeer" and "microantelope"2 are the smallest of all ruminants. Although there is considerable experience with rearing and utilizing the larger species, little is known about these miniature ones.</P>
    4700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4582
    47014583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given research, mouse deer, muntjac, musk deer, pudu, brocket, huemul, and water deer, as well as half a dozen small antelope, might prove to have considerable potential. Collectively, they come from diverse habitats, ranging from equatorial to subarctic and from moist rainforest to arid savanna. They are adapted to some environmental conditions that are only marginal for production of conventional livestock because of drought, heat, diseases, altitude, or other constraints.</P>
    4702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4584
    47034585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER FARMING</P>
    4704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4586
     4587
    47064588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer appear to be unlikely candidates for livestock, but reindeer were probably among the first domesticated animals and have been draft animals for perhaps 2O,OOO years. Even today, tens of thousands of reindeer pull sleighs in the European arctic. On military expeditions, the ancient Romans took along herds of fallow deer as a source of meat, and more than 1,000 years ago deer were annually herded off the Scottish Highlands for winter meat supplies.</P>
    4707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4589
    47084590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, there have been breakthroughs in the "domestication" of deer. Species already being [armed are: red deer (New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, China, Scotland, the United States), elk (New Zealand, Canada, the United States), fallow deer (New Zealand, Australia, England, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, the United States), ruse deer (Australia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), sika deer (Taiwan, New Zealand), musk deer (China, India), and PFre David's deer (New Zealand). Although not truly domesticated, even the moose has been tamed in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, the calves being bottle-raised from three days of age.</P>
    4709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4591
    47104592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand has made particular progress in domesticating large deer (see sidebar). It seems probable, therefore, that similar success with small deer could be achieved. For those seeking interesting, pioneering research, microdeer are good candidates.</P>
    4711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4593
    47124594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTELOPE RANCHING AND FARMING</P>
    4713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4595
     4596
    47154597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide experiences in domesticating various deer species suggest that the organized production of small antelope should also be considered. Several large species have already been studied and are used in game farming in eastern and southern Africa. Similar research on the smaller species, which so far have received little or no attention, is one of the more speculative ideas in this report. We put it forward only for consideration by researchers, but if exploratory studies prove successful, this is a topic deserving international support.</P>
    4716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4598
    47174599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some parts of Africa there are large expanses of uninhabited lands, and producing any sort of livestock there is limited by aridity and by the presence of tsetse flies. But in this habitat live tiny antelope such as dikdik, suni, and klipspringer. In the rainforests and secondary forests are found duikers and the royal antelope. All these creatures have advantages that justify their consideration as microlivestock: they have a more rapid turnover than the big species, and they produce a high yield of quality meat. In addition, compared with cattle, these native ungulates make better use of the habitat. Cattle select a limited number of grass species; antelopes choose a wider range, and also include fortes, bushes, and trees.</P>
    4718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4600
    47194601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important perhaps is their resistance to many diseases. Most, if not all, are resistant to trypanosomiasis, the disease carried by the tsetse fly. They are not immune to this and other tropical diseases, but they are less susceptible than cattle. However, part of this may be owing to their ability to roam widely; if confined and treated like domestic animals, they may also require some protection against parasites and diseases.</P>
    4720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4602
    47214603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelopes are also more productive than cattle; that is, they produce a given quantity of meat more quickly because they breed better in the African hinterlands and grow more rapidly on its existing forages. On the other hand, they generally require a richer diet than cattle.</P>
    4722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4604
    47234605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, in their favor, antelopes affect the habitat less than the same density of cattle does; they spread out more while feeding and thereby cause less erosion.</P>
    4724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4606
    47254607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways of exploiting this potential. One is by "cropping"—taking a controlled offtake from free-ranging populations without depressing the overall population. Several methods for producing meat this way from large antelope have been attempted in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Few have persisted. Often this has been due to opposition from the vested interests of the cattle industry and from stringent veterinary requirements. Nonetheless, game ranching offers a means by which marginal lands could produce food of a high nutritional quality on a sustained basis.</P>
    4726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4608
    47274609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other method is by farming - that is, domesticating or partially domesticating the animals, keeping them in pens or herding them like cattle. Experiments in farming antelopes have been less common than game ranching, but one of the most interesting is that conducted on the Galana Ranch in Kenya. Three wild species - buffalo, eland, and oryx - were selected for comparison with cattle. Half-grown animals were preferred for capture, and it was found that if they were kept in the dark for the first week after capture, and then gradually provided with more and more space while they became familiar with people, after about six weeks they could be released into the open and herded from place to place. Grazing during the day under the eye of a herdsman, they allowed themselves to be herded back to a pen at night in the traditional African manner, where they would sleep around the campfire. This was a promising advance in behavior modification leading toward domestication. The oryx, for example, gained weight on grazing that would not even sustain cattle, and it required only a quarter of the amount of water.</P>
    4728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4610
    47294611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At bottom, the question is not what contribution antelopes can make to the African larder, for they already make a significant contribution through (largely illegal) hunting. The question is whether farming could make them a sustainable asset rather than their being senselessly squandered, as is the case at present. Although its potential has yet to be realized, antelope farming is not a panacea for Africa's food problems, and certainly not the world's, but it might pave the way to a new and more gentle way to make savannas useful. </P>
    4730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4612
    47314613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TAME GAME</P>
    4732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4614
     4615
    47344616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the 1970s, deer have taken the place of sheep on many New Zealand pastures, and today the country has more than 5, 000 deer farms carrying over one million head, mainly red deer. It is now common along country roads to see tall fences surrounding graceful deer quietly grazing ryegrass and clover. And there are all the appurtenances for deer that exist for cattle and sheep. Auctions and shows are held regularly. Deer farmers have a professional association and produce their own glossy magazine. Government scientists publish pamphlets on the care and management of deer. There are recognized stud stags, computerized recording schemes for breed improvement, and even veterinary services specifically for deer. Hybridization between wapiti and red deer, and PFre David's deer and red deer, is accepted practice. The animals are moved by use of dogs (which command by mere presence rather than by bark or bite), and herds of up to 80 are shifted by truck. Slaughter facilities specifically for deer are in operation throughout the country.</P>
    4735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4617
    47364618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This transformation of a nervous, jumpy, and retiring wild species into a farm animal is a remarkable achievement. Once accustomed to people, many specimens become gentle, even affectionate, and will come at a farmer's call. Males are generally as easy to handle as females, except during the rutting season when they become aggressive and cannot be handled at all.</P>
    4737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4619
    47384620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, even at the best of times the farmed deer must be handled gingerly. If the causes of stress are not quickly suppressed, hysteria can erupt throughout a herd; in an instant, quiet animals can be leaping suicidally in all directions, disoriented, diving head-on into fences, charging gates. Chronic stress, the causes of which are not always obvious, can result in illness or death, although this trait diminishes in subsequent generations of farm-born stock.</P>
    4739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4621
    47404622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deer farm has to be laid out to certain special specifications. To prevent escapes, the boundary fences must be 2 m high with netting of 15- or 30-cm mesh. Inner fences need only be 1.5 m high. Water troughs are placed in the middle of the fields, and nothing is allowed to jut inwards from the fences because the animals tend to walk fencelines and take comfort from the illusion of openness. Because deer like to wallow in hot weather, some farmers also provide shallow waterholes.</P>
    4741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4623
    47424624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer yards can be of any design, but the sides of the passageways and holding pens should be solid, as deer do not see fences very well, particularly when under pressure, and may injure themselves in a leap towards what appear to be wide open space. (New Zealanders usually make the sides of plywood.) Also, the holding pens should be roofed, as semidarkness has a calming effect. Animals that in the sunlight become hysterical on seeing a person in the distance, can, in the relative darkness of a roofed shed, be touched and even given injections.</P>
    4743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4625
    47444626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the special facilities, however, handling deer takes time and care and experience. The most successful farmers spend much time among the deer so that the animals become accustomed to human presence. This helps to make yard work easier. Also, new arrivals are allowed to wander through the yards on their own to become familiar with them. In addition, special tame deer are used as leads or decoys to encourage the rest of the herd to follow. Using such simple techniques, a formerly intractable species has become almost fully domesticated.</P>
    4745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4627
    47464628<B><P></P>
    47474629<!--
    … …  
    47514633  </Description>
    47524634-->
    4753 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4635</B>
    47544636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g029a.png"></center><br>
    47554637 Lesser Malayan Deer</P>
    4756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4638
    47574639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer1 (Tragulus spp. and Hyemoschus aquaticus) are among the smallest ruminants known. The lesser mouse deer of Southeast Asia is probably the smallest; an adult stands only 20 cm high and weighs a merc 1-2.5 kg.</P>
    4758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4640
    47594641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they look vaguely like tiny deer, mouse deer differ in several particulars. The stomach is simpler and (like the camel's) has three instead of four effective compartments. Rumination occurs, but mouse deer are the most primitive of all ruminants. Indeed, they share a number of characteristics with nonruminants, including lack of horns or antlers; continually growing, tusklike upper canines in males; sharp-crowned premolars; and four fully developed toes.</P>
    4760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4642
    47614643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually unchanged in 25 million years of evolution, these are solitary, nocturnal, retiring animals that have seldom received detailed research. Whether they might make suitable microlivestock is unknown. However, they seem to be tractable, and people in Southeast Asia (Sarawak, for instance) have traditionally kept at least one of the species as backyard pets. Moreover, mouse deer are indigenous to tropical lowland regions and withstand the heat and humidity that are stressful to most conventional livestock species. They probably also are resistant to many diseases of those torrid regions.</P>
    4762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4644
    47634645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, mouse deer are being raised as laboratory animals for basic research on ungulates. This is because the animals are easier to handle than large deer or goats.2</P>
    4764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4646
    47654647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    4768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4648
     4649
     4650
    47694651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are graceful, lithe, and look somewhat like large rodents. The Asian species are the shape and size of an agouti (see page 198); the African species is more like the pace (see page 262). All have short legs, a small head, and a pointed snout. Adults weigh from 1 to 5 kg, depending on species. The head and body are only 04-1 m long, and the shoulder height is merely 20-36 cm. Males are generally smaller than females.</P>
    4770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4652
    47714653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most species the body is a rich brown with white spots and stripes. The belly is usually white. The animals stand on the middle toes, so that the lateral ones do not touch the ground. Neither sex bears antlers. In males the upper canines form long tusks that may extend outside the lips and even to below the line of the jaw.</P>
    4772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4654
    47734655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4656
     4657
    47764658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five million years ago, early forms of mouse deer existed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Today's species are restricted to tropical forests and mangrove thickets of Southeast Asia and Central Africa.</P>
    4777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4659
    47784660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the three Asian species, the Indian mouse deer occurs in southern India and Sri Lanka; the larger Malayan mouse deer occurs on the mainland of Southeast Asia and the lesser Malayan mouse deer occurs on Java as well. The water chevrotain, a related African animal, is found from eastern Zaire to the Atlantic coast. </P>
    4779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4661
    47804662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p292a.png"></center><br>
    47814663 figure</P>
    4782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4664
    47834665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p293a.png"></center><br>
    47844666 Range of water chevrotain .</P>
    4785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4667
    47864668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4669
     4670
    47894671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, human encroachment into the forest has caused the destruction of the mouse deer habitats and has put various mouse deer species under a pressure that is causing their populations to decline.</P>
    4790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4672
    47914673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4674
     4675
    47944676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger.</P>
    4795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4677
    47964678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4797 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4679
     4680
    47994681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little about these animals is recorded. Essentially vegetarians, they feed chiefly on fruits, supplemented by leaves. They also eat insects (for instance, ants), if available. They do not seem to eat grass.3</P>
    4800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4682
    48014683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The premolars of the mouse deer are designed for piercing and chopping food rather than for chewing. As noted, the stomach consists of three functional compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, and the abomasum. (The omasum of ruminants is represented only by a rudimentary area.) The stomach occupies almost the whole of the abdominal cavity, extending from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet, which provides this small animal with large food-storage capacity.</P>
    4802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4684
    48034685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blood has a very high erythrocyte (red blood corpuscle) count as well as the smallest erythrocyte size of any mammal. The flesh is "white" and the muscles contain little myoglobin.</P>
    4804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4686
    48054687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature females reproduce almost continuously, and usually regardless of season. In the female larger Malayan mouse deer, mating occurs within 2 days of giving birth. In the African species, many births are synchronized with the rainy seasons, when fruits are plentiful. The gestation period is about 5-6 months, depending on the species. There is only one young per birth. Weaning normally occurs at 2-3 months, but can occur as early as 3 weeks, with sexual maturity achieved at 4-5 months (Asian species) and 10 months (African species). The young stay alone, hidden in vegetation during the first month or two.</P>
    4806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4688
    48074689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4690
     4691
    48104692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are shy, keeping to dense jungle and depending on concealment for protection. Although often present in large numbers, they are seldom seen. Preferring to be near lakes, rivers, or streams, they can nevertheless wander I km or more from water. They feed mostly at dusk or at night, sheltering in undisturbed areas or under shady bushes during the day. They utter weak, bleating sounds, and when frightened, jump a meter or more in the air.</P>
    4811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4693
    48124694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication is by scent and calls. The African species possess anal and preputial glands, with which, along with urine and feces, they mark their home ranges. Males of both Asian and African species possess a chin gland to mark either the vegetation or their mates.</P>
    4813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4695
    48144696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
    4815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4697
    48164698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4699
     4700
    48194701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are widely sought by native people for food, and their meat is highly regarded. Dressed carcasses have a high proportion of muscle (84 percent in Asian species), low proportion of bone (15 percent), and an insignificant amount of fat. The ratio of muscle to bone is large - 5.6:1. The mean dressing percentage of 62.1 percent is greater than that reported for cattle, water buffalo, or goat.5</P>
    4820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4702
    48214703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4704
     4705
    48244706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults are wild, generally intractable, and "flighty," but young animals (at least of the Asian species) tame readily and make good pets. Nevertheless, these are delicate creatures and must always be handled gently. Individuals caught in the wild tend to bash against the sides of cages.</P>
    4825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4707
    48264708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite an unpromising temperament, Asian mouse deer are regularly bred in zoos, including those in Amsterdam, New York, and Zurich. They also have been reared successfully in small enclosures at several research institutes, such as the I.R.E.T. Institute, Makokou, Gabon; the Institute of Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Fort Detrick in the United States.</P>
    4827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4709
    48284710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the best way to breed this animal is by using the battery system of small units comprising one male and two females per cage. The costs are mostly for obtaining suitable enclosures and for feeding and watering troughs.6 The cages must be covered with mesh because the mouse deer can jump. However, the covering must be sufficiently high to allow the male to stand with its body vertical during copulation.7 They can be fed a variety of foods and grow well on stems of bean plants.</P>
    4829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4711
    48304712<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4713
     4714
    48334715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these are small, seemingly tractable creatures that are at home in the heat, humidity, and diseases of tropical lowlands. They might play a particularly important role as livestock for tropical rainforests; the forests could be left standing while the animal still produces meat. Today, in a widely condemned process, tropical rainforests are being felled in order to raise cattle for meat. </P>
    4834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4716
    48354717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4718
     4719
    48384720<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes mouse deer easy prey for various predators. In the wild, snakes, crocodiles, eagles, and forest cats feed on them.</P>
    4839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4721
    48404722<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
    4841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4723
    48424724<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are solitary, and it is difficult to keep many individuals (especially males) in a restricted space. They must be kept in a quiet enclosure, with cover or good shelters.</P>
    4843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4725
    48444726<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4727
     4728
    48474729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival of these four "living fossils" depends on conserving their rainforest habitat and restricting hunting, especially night hunting. But studies of their propagation and management are also imperative.</P>
    4848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4730
    48494731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In particular, research is warranted on various aspects of their husbandry, such as enclosure design, space requirements, and health. A special research need is to understand the animal's nutritional requirements and to develop diets for use in captivity.</P>
    4850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4732
     4733
    48524734<B><P></P>
    48534735<!--
    … …  
    48584740  </Description>
    48594741-->
    4860 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4742</B>
    48614743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g030a.png"></center><br>
    48624744 FIGURE</P>
    4863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4745
    48644746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac, or barking deer (Muntiacus species), are among the most widespread but least known of all Asian animals.1 They are almost the size of an average dog and they bark, but they are true deer. These little animals adapt well to captivity and have been introduced to zoos and wildlife collections throughout the world.</P>
    4865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4747
    48664748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years one species, the Reeves' muntjac, has become established in England, and a few specimens have settled into semicaptivity - staying behind fences, accepting human presence, and even eating out of people's hands. In Sarawak, villagers have also been known to keep muntjac, feeding them a diet of rice with some leafy matter occasionally added.2 Such experiences show that these small, shy deer can be calm and adaptable. It also shows that they can be raised on practical, artificial diets and that they are not strictly browsers. This creates the possibility (admittedly highly speculative) that they might make future microlivestock.</P>
    4867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4749
    48684750<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac produce lean, palatable venison and perhaps could be farmed on an organized basis. They are native to severe environments where heat, humidity, and endemic diseases make raising conventional livestock difficult. In future, given research, muntjac might become widespread contributors to Asian economic development. The lessons learned in captive breeding could also be important for conserving endangered muntjac species.</P>
    4869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4751
    48704752<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One species, the Indian muntjac, has an incredibly low chromosome number (2n=7 in males; 2n=6 in females), which makes them particularly promising candidates for mammalian genetic studies. This species has regularly bred well in both zoos and research institutions.</P>
    4871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4753
    48724754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4755
     4756
    48754757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are small and slender. Reeves' muntjac, the smallest, has a shoulder height of 45-60 cm. Fully grown, it weighs less than 20 kg; commonly it is merely 10-12 kg. The Java subspecies of the Indian muntjac is the biggest, with a shoulder height of 58 cm and a mature weight of 43 kg.</P>
    4876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4758
    48774759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antlers on the males usually include a main prong as well as a much shorter brow tine. Even the main prong is no larger than a finger, but its pointed tip is hooked and must be treated with caution. There are also two tusklike canine teeth that protrude from the mouth. These have sharp points and a knifelike posterior edge, capable of cutting to the bone a person's finger or another muntjac's rump.</P>
    4878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4760
    48794761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coloration varies from deep brown to yellowish or greyish brown with cream or whitish markings, depending on the species.</P>
    4880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4762
    48814763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    4882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4764
     4765
    48844766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are native to a vast region from eastern China to Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.</P>
    4885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4767
    48864768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost a century ago, Indian and Reeves' muntjac were introduced to a deer park in southeast England. Some escaped, and (as noted) the Reeves' muntjac has adapted, spread, and settled down to life in the countryside.</P>
    4887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4769
    48884770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    4889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4771
     4772
    48914773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the five muntjac species, the Reeves' and the Indian are well known and in no danger. For instance, recent estimates of annual game production have shown that there are about 650,000 Reeves' muntjac in China. The other three are threatened with extinction. Black, Roosevelt's, and Fea's muntjacs are virtually untried in captivity, but the success of raising Reeves' muntjac in English country gardens suggests that perhaps their populations could be saved through captive breeding.</P>
    4892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4774
    48934775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    4894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4776
     4777
    48964778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In their native habitats, these small deer are usually found in dense vegetation on hilly ranges at elevations up to at least 3,000 m.3 </P>
    4897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4779
    48984780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p301a.png"></center><br>
    48994781 The native ranges of the various muntjacs</P>
    4900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4782
    49014783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    4902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4784
     4785
    49044786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac seem to be primarily browsers. However, in captivity they eat fresh grass, alfalfa hay, and feed pellets. They also readily eat root crops such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips. They are "concentrate selectors," preferring foods low in fiber and rich in protein and nutrients. Captive specimens reportedly need; a supply of cut browse.</P>
    4905 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4787
    49064788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding may occur year-round, but in practice it is synchronized with certain seasons. The first conception can occur as early as 6 months of age. One, occasionally two, young are born after a gestation of about 200 days. They weigh around I kg at birth, and the fawns usually remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. The females mate within a few days of giving birth. Life spans up to 16 years have been recorded.</P>
    4907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4789
    49084790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the Indian muntjac is a species of great cytogenetic interest. It has the lowest diploid chromosome numbers yet found in a mammal.4 The large, easily distinguishable chromosomes are a great advantage in tissue culture, and many laboratories now have muntjac cell lines. The karyotypes of the different species' chromosomes are very different; the Indian and Reeves' muntjac can hybridize, but the offspring are infertile.</P>
    4909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4791
    49104792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    4911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4793
     4794
    49134795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are dainty and have a captivating charm. Always on the alert, they are active both day and night. Often they will bark for an hour or more, but typically they bark for only a minute or two. When panicked, captive muntjac may rush into fences or walls. They can easily leap barriers 1.5 m high.</P>
    4914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4796
    49154797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males are highly territorial and defend their territories vigorously. Adult females also inhabit a specific territory, which they defend against strange individuals.</P>
    4916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4798
    49174799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males mark the ground at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal glands on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.</P>
    4918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4800
    49194801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    4920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4802
     4803
    49224804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, muntjac are hunted for meat, skins, and antlers.</P>
    4923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4805
    49244806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    4925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4807
     4808
    49274809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac thrive and, at least under ideal conditions, breed freely in captivity. However, they may stop breeding if they are crowded.</P>
    4928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4810
    49294811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, zoos and private collections keep as many as six muntjac in an area of 40 x 20 m. Plenty of cover is provided for the animals to hide in. Fences almost 2 m high are used. (Lower fences are reportedly adequate where there is no risk of the deer being panicked by dogs or people.)</P>
    4930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4812
    49314813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    4932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4814
     4815
    49344816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other deer, muntjac produce extremely lean meat.</P>
    4935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4817
    49364818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to be healthy animals. In Britain, wild and captive muntjac have few gastrointestinal worms, and ectoparasites such as ticks and lice are not a problem. </P>
    4937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4819
    49384820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUNTJAC</P>
    4939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4821
     4822
    49414823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, far from Asia's forests and mountains, the Reeves' muntjac is the subject of a peculiar chapter in the otherwise unhappy history of introduced species. Charmed by the deer's odd characteristics, the British have welcomed its invasion into gardens around the country. Now, there are tens of thousands of muntjacs on the loose, and some people have even adopted them as pets.</P>
    4942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4824
    49434825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although other alien species have wreaked havoc on native plants and animals, muntjacs appear to be a merciful exception. At least over the short term, muntjacs "have proven to be an almost innocuous asset to the countryside. They give pleasure to thousands and pain to few. Eating mostly ivy, grass, leaves, and prickly bushes, they rarely feed in one place long enough to do much damage except to an occasional suburban garden." </P>
    4944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4826
    49454827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life for many muntjacs is made soft by homeowners who find the deer's large, dewy eyes and tiny antlers irresistible. The kind-hearted suburbanites put out salt licks, water, and kitchen scraps, and they built snug little shelters against the cold north wind. "All our adult deer will take food from the hand," says Walter Buckingham, who has kept muntjacs for five years in his garden in the county of </P>
    4946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4828
    49474829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertfordshire, just north of London.</P>
    4948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4830
    49494831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adaptable immigrant is colonizing new areas so rapidly, say biologists, that soon there may be more in England than in Asia. "In time," predicts muntjac-researcher Oliver Dansie (pictured opposite), "it may eventually establish itself as our most widely distributed deer species."</P>
    4950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4832
    49514833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    4952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4834
     4835
    49544836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild these animals are not gregarious and are generally found alone or in pairs. Because of their strong territorial instincts, large males may not be able to be kept together without fighting. The upper canine teeth can inflict serious wounds. Some females are intolerant of each other as well.</P>
    4955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4837
    49564838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are fragile; they cannot be held by the legs, for example.</P>
    4957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4839
    49584840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some infectious diseases may prove to be of epizootic importance: foot-and-mouth disease, mucosal disease, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, rinderpest, and tuberculosis (all three types). This may be a problem, especially when people are raising the animals by hand.</P>
    4959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4841
    49604842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    4961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4843
     4844
    49634845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure a better understanding of their potential as microlivestock, muntjac deserve research and recognition from animal scientists and conservationists from Nepal to China. The English experience shows how populations of the endangered species might be built up. At present, however, none are receiving any husbandry research; only the two most common species can generally be found in zoos.</P>
    4964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4846
    49654847<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals deserve investigation into physiology, reproductive requirements, fertility, nutrition (for example, food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization), growth, adaptability and environmental tolerance, diseases, management, social structure, and selection for calm temperament. </P>
    4966 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4848
    49674849<B><P></P>
    49684850<!--
    … …  
    49734855  </Description>
    49744856-->
    4975 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4976 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4857</B>
     4858
    49774859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer (Moschus species)1 is so small that (like other ungulates in this section) it is only as large as an average-size dog. A gland in males produces musk, a thick, oily secretion that is one of the most valuable substances in the animal kingdom. Musk is used in Oriental Medicine as well as in Europeans perfumes, and in recent year it has sometimes sold for as much as three times the price of gold.</P>
    4978 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4860
    49794861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk is traditionally obtained by killing these deer and removing their glands. The dried glands, called pods, contain a reddish brown musk powder that has been a commodity in international commerce for more than 1,000 years. Despite bans in India (1972) and Nepal (1973), musk continues to be illegally exported, mainly via Hong Kong, for use in Japan and Europe. In Japan, for example, it is an ingredient in more than 200 different medicines.2 In Europe, musk goes into some of the most famous perfumes.</P>
    4980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4862
    49814863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international trade in Himalayan musk, originating from both northern and southern sides of the Himalayan divide, amounts to 200 kg per year, representing an annual slaughter of 20,000-32,000 male deer.</P>
    4982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4864
    49834865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial value of the animal makes it highly attractive for development as a livestock species. The economic force causing its slide toward extinction could be employed to protect and restore both the species and its habitat. Ranching these deer might put musk production on a sustainable footing. It might also encourage habitat protection, because in the harsh climate of the high Himalayas, rearing musk deer could be much more profitable to villagers than raising crops or cattle.</P>
    4984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4866
    49854867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are already being farmed under primitive conditions in China, where techniques for extracting musk without killing the animal have been developed. In India, small collections of musk deer have been established by the forest departments of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. For several years authorities in Nepal have successfully extracted musk from an adult male at the Kathmandu Zoo' without apparent harm to the animal.3 These experiences suggest that musk might become a farmed product. So far, however, success has been limited. The Chinese animals, for example, have a high mortality rate and the musk is said to be of poor quality. Nonetheless, these examples are valuable pioneering case studies that deserve recognition, support, and further development.4</P>
    4986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4868
    49874869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    4988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    4989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4870
     4871
    49904872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long ears, arched back, and bounding gait, these diminutive deer remind one of large hares. The pointed face and large ears make their heads strikingly reminiscent of kangaroos. The coarse hair gives them a stocky appearance. The color varies according to species (and subspecies) from rich reddish brown to dark grey or black. The peculiarly brittle and wavy hair probably has good insulating properties, as it consists of air-filled cells arranged like a honeycomb.</P>
    4991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4873
    49924874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer have an average mature weight of about 6-11 kg and a body length of 50-90 cm. They stand 50 60 cm high at the shoulder and 5 cm higher at the rump because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. Some dwarf types are only 40-46 cm high. The tail is short, and in males it is naked, except for a terminal tuft of hair, because they mark their territories by constantly rubbing the caudal gland, which is located near the tail, onto objects.</P>
    4993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4875
    49944876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All four toes are flexible, which, compared to the rigid hoof of other ungulates, gives a firmer grip on precipitous slopes. The dew claws are enlarged and, together with the central digits, splay out, to minimize sinking in soft snow.</P>
    4995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4877
    49964878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex possesses antlers, but males have long upper canine teeth that project well below the lips. The lower front teeth have a spatulate form that probably helps the animals scrape lichens from the surfaces of rocks and trees in winter, when most vegetation is snow covered. </P>
    4997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4879
    49984880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p309a.png"></center><br>
    49994881 The musk deer’s native range.</P>
    5000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4882
    50014883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4884
     4885
    50044886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genus is distributed patchily throughout the forested mountainous parts of most of Asia. One population extends from just north of the Arctic Circle southward to the northern edge of Mongolia and Korea. Others occur in China, northern Vietnam, and the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Assam, Tibet, the Indian Himalayas, Nepal, and northern Pakistan.</P>
    5005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4887
    50064888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4889
     4890
    50094891<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During this century, the musk deer has rapidly declined throughout its former regions. In many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and probably Tibet, it is already regarded as rare, with a distribution that is becoming increasingly localized. Possible exceptions are Bhutan and most of China, where its population is thought to be stable. In southern China, a recent estimate puts the musk deer population at 100,000 head. In western and northwestern China, the population is estimated at 200,000-300,000 head.5</P>
    5010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4892
    50114893<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the uncontrolled hunt for musk that in most places is driving this animal toward extinction, but its habitat is also being increasingly destroyed by livestock and woodcutters. Part of the loss to hunters is owing to the mindless way in which the animals are caught. Most are snared in traps or nets or killed by poisoned stakes set on trails. This kills all the animals indiscriminately, even females and fawns, which produce no musk. This waste of reproductive animals is extremely destructive to the populations and is senselessly hastening the musk deer's extinction.</P>
    5012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4894
    50134895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4896
     4897
    50164898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer mainly occur in upland woodland and scrub areas. They prefer remote, dense vegetation, especially birch-rhododendron forests in mountainous terrain. They are seldom found in treeless regions or areas thickly populated by people. In the Himalayas, the upper limit coincides approximately with the tree line, which is as high as 4,600 m at the eastern end.6</P>
    5017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4899
    50184900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5020 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4901
     4902
    50214903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its economic importance and wide distribution, little is known of the musk deer's biology. Nonetheless, it is known that musk deer have a gall bladder, a bovid feature that distinguishes it from the true deer.</P>
    5022 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4904
    50234905<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are browsers, relying on young leaves, buds, fruits, and flowers. During the winter, as snow deepens, they depend more on lichens growing above the snow on rocks or tree bark, although in shallow snow they scrape for vegetation with their hooves.</P>
    5024 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4906
    50254907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The male's musk sac is unique among deer. Situated between the umbilicus and penis, it contains the gelatinous, odoriferous oil. The amount varies with the season and the age of the animal, but pods of adult males usually weigh about 30 g; occasionally up to 45 g.</P>
    5026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4908
    50274909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males also have a caudal gland under the tail, which secretes a viscous yellow substance with a goaty smell. They mark vegetation with this secretion by rubbing their hindquarters against stems and branches.</P>
    5028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4910
    50294911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males become sexually mature at about 18 months, but females seem capable of reproducing in their first year. The estrous cycle is 18-25 days; the receptive period lasts 36 60 hours. Gestation varies from 178 to 192 days. Each female usually bears one or two fawns, rarely three. The fawn is precocious - able to stand and move within 15 minutes. </P>
    5030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4912
    50314913<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5032 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4914
     4915
    50344916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are shy, furtive animals with keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are normally solitary and are most active at dawn and dusk. Only under cover of darkness do they frequent the more open spaces. Except in the rutting season, more than two animals are seldom seen together; groups usually consist only of a female and her young. The alarm call, a loud hiss, is often accompanied by a highstepping, springy gait.</P>
    5035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4917
    50364918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, musk deer lead "orderly" lives. They use well established trails connecting well-established feeding places, resting places, and "latrines" where they deposit their droppings. Migration is uncommon.</P>
    5037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4919
    50384920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remarkably sure footed, musk deer climb cliffs and even the trunks of leaning trees. Being small and solitary, they rely on camouflage to avoid predators but flee through established escape routes when disturbed. If cornered, males defend themselves by slashing with their tusks, often inflicting deep cuts and severe injuries.</P>
    5039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4921
    50404922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4923
     4924
    50434925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strong-smelling, reddish-brown musk is obtainable only from this animal.7 It is used as a fixative in expensive perfumes to increase the retention of the fragrance on the skin. In Oriental medicines it is used in stimulants, sedatives, and other products. Some medicinal properties appear to be genuine.8 Recently, highly purified musk has been selling for as much as $27 a gram.</P>
    5044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4926
    50454927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade in the Himalayan musk deer or its products is banned by all countries that are parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, products from musk deer in the Soviet Union and China can be traded legally under license. It seems likely that if formal, self-sufficient, musk-deer farming projects can be established elsewhere, with safeguards to minimize poaching, a wider trade would be officially sanctioned.</P>
    5046 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4928
    50474929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4930
     4931
    50504932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since at least 1919, Chinese scientists have been experimenting with the extraction of musk without killing the males. When the sexual activity is at its peak, the males are caught and musk removed from the pod with a runcible spoon (curved fork) inserted into the sac's aperture. The procedure takes only minutes. There are records of up to 9 g being recovered at a time.</P>
    5051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4933
    50524934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, China established formal musk deer farms in 1958. They are clustered in the Maerkang, Miyalo, and Manchuan areas of Sichuan Province; the Zhenping county of Shanxi Province; and the Fuziling area of Anhui Province. Despite heavy initial losses of animals, mainly during transportation and acclimatization, the Chinese now breed musk deer in considerable numbers. However, juvenile mortality is still high and longevity relatively short. Zoos in other parts of the world have also had difficulties maintaining the animals.9</P>
    5053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4935
    50544936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, musk deer readily accept many foods: lettuce, carrots, potatoes, apples, rolled oats, hay, alfalfa, bananas, some grass, bamboo leaves, and pumpkins, for example.</P>
    5055 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4937
    50564938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5057 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5058 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4939
     4940
    50594941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer's social system may represent an impediment to its successful reproduction in captivity. It is irascible and scares easily. In close confinement, males fight and may have to be isolated from each other.</P>
    5060 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4942
    50614943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an inherent danger in any captive-breeding scheme in the Himalayas: resumption of legal trade in natural musk could damage the remaining populations by stimulating the market and providing an outlet for illicit musk from poached animals. Some biologists (notably in India) consider that a total ban on the trade in natural musk from all sources is essential.</P>
    5062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4944
    50634945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, removing the musk without damaging the animals has not proved commercially successful because of market resistance. Most purchasers require the entire pod in order to be certain that they are receiving the genuine product. Given a regularized farming program, however, it seems likely that mutual trust would circumvent this lack of confidence.</P>
    5064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4946
    50654947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5067 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4948
     4949
    50684950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To protect this species will not be easy. It occurs in vast, remote areas that are difficult to patrol. The local people are poor and traditionally have used it as a source of income and food. The value of musk is so high that smuggling is already well organized and will be difficult to eradicate.</P>
    5069 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4951
    50704952<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is imperative that the status of existing musk deer populations be established. This is especially important in Nepal. The total population may be not more than 500 in the wild.</P>
    5071 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4953
    50724954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter what is achieved in farming, pressure on populations will only be reduced by protecting the wild specimens. Thus, the dietary requirements and behavior of musk deer should also be evaluated with a view to building up the wild populations directly. If the techniques of breeding and handling can be improved, farming the animal may also indirectly help wild populations by reducing the pressure to harvest them.</P>
    5073 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4955
    50744956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to captive breeding might be ranching the wild animals. In this process, males would be caught periodically and the musk extracted before releasing them. The organized, sustainable harvesting is particularly attractive if developed at the rural level with revenue going directly to local people; it would provide them incentive to conserve not only "their" musk deer but also its habitat. For this purpose, today's musk deer hunters could be trained to extract musk from live animals, releasing and recapturing them on a controlled basis.</P>
    5075 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4957
    50764958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another alternative could be controlled culling at a sustainable level, as is now done in the Soviet Union, where about 5 percent of the population is harvested each year. However, elsewhere annual culls at any level would not be feasible for at least 10 years because the populations are now so low. </P>
    5077 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4959
    50784960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g031a.png"></center><br>
    50794961 FIGURE</P>
    5080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4962
    50814963<B><P></P>
    50824964<!--
    … …  
    50874969  </Description>
    50884970-->
    5089 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4971</B>
    50904972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g032a.png"></center><br>
    50914973 Pudu</P>
    5092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4974
    50934975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South America contains three types of tiny, indigenous deer. None are well known to science, yet they are of microlivestock size, and if given research attention at least two might respond to rearing in captivity.</P>
    5094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4976
    50954977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUDU</P>
    5096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5097 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4978
     4979
    50984980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pudu (pronounced "poo-doo") is native to temperate forests of the Andean region. It is among the smallest of all true deer, adult males being merely the size of small terriers and the females being smaller still. It is very shy and retiring and is endangered.</P>
    5099 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4981
    51004982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All things considered, this animal would appear to be an unlikely candidate for microlivestock. But wherever it is found, the pudu is mercilessly hunted, and captive rearing might be the only way to save its populations from extinction. Indeed, it is already being raised in experimental herds in Chile and Argentina.</P>
    5101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4983
    51024984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pudus (also called the Andean dwarf deer) once ranged widely through the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. They prefer the dark, dank underbrush of the cool rainforest, particularly thick bamboo stands. There are two species: Pudu pudu is distributed in parts of southern Bolivia and throughout much of southern Chile nearly to the Straits of Magellan. It is also found on islands off the Chilean coast. Pudu mephistophiles is distributed throughout the highlands of Ecuador, where it occurs only in cool areas at great height.</P>
    5103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4985
    51044986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their short legs, stocky bodies, and compact heads, pudus do not look much like deer - more like small antelopes with foxlike faces and spiky antlers. Full grown, they are only 40 cm tall and weigh less than 12 kg. They have thick fur ranging from reddish brown to pale gray.</P>
    5105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4987
    51064988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the pudu's small size, shy and secretive nature, and forbidding habitat, few people have ever even seen one. Nonetheless, these animals tame easily and reportedly were once kept by South American Indians. Several generations were also once bred in a Paris apartment and were treated exactly like domestic dogs, which most people who saw them for the first time thought they were.'</P>
    5107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4989
    51084990<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, habitat destruction has greatly reduced the range and numbers of these attractive and fascinating little creatures. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature already lists them as vulnerable to extinction. Pudu studies are highly recommended, and raising pudus promises to be an interesting and valuable activity that may one day lead to one of the most intriguing microlivestock of all.</P>
    5109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4991
    51104992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BROCKET</P>
    5111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4993
     4994
    51134995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brockets (Mazama spp.) are small deer that occupy the place in South America's environment that duikers occupy in Africa (see page 326). They typically reside in thick brush. They occur widely throughout South America and are found in every country except Chile and Uruguay. They also occur in Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.</P>
    5114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     4996
    51154997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four species:</P>
    5116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     4998
     4999
    51185000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Red brocket (Mazama americana), the most common and widespread, is found from Mexico to Argentina. It is also the largest species, with a mature weight of about 20 kg.</P>
    5119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5001
    51205002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray (brown) brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) is also found throughout Latin America. It is slightly smaller, weighing about 17 kg.</P>
    5121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5003
    51225004<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lesser brocket (Mazama rufina)2 resides in small and scattered locations in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. It weighs 10-20 kg.</P>
    5123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5005
    51245006<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dwarf brocket (Mazama chunyi) is found only in pockets of forest and brush on certain mountainsides in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. The smallest brocket, it weighs only 8-12 kg. </P>
    5125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5007
     5008
    51275009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for their size and color, all brockets look alike. The head,  neck, and tail are short; the ears are wide. The lumbar region is higher  than the shoulders, and this, together with an arched back, gives them a  hunched appearance not unlike a duiker's. The antlers are simple  spikes, never longer than a person's hand.</P>
    5128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5010
    51295011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are similar in behavior, too.3 They generally  wander around singly or in pairs. Although frequenting dense cover  during the day, they emerge at night to feed in open areas. Little is  known of their food preferences. But farmers know only too well how  fond they are of melons, beans, peppers, and corn. Doubtless, wild  forest fruits dominate their native diet.</P>
    5130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5012
    51315013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although extensively hunted, brockets are so adept at dodging into  dense brush that relatively few get caught. However, small size makes  them vulnerable to many other predators: puma, jaguar, ocelot, and  eagles and other large birds of prey. Near villages the domestic dog is  probably their worst enemy. (Infuriated vegetable growers commonly  set their dogs on them.)</P>
    5132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5014
    51335015<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although at first sight these retiring, nervous, and agile creatures  seem unlikely to be even potential microlivestock, young brockets are  sometimes caught and raised by people. It is not uncommon to find  them as pets on farms and in gardens. They seem to become very  tame and might therefore make useful livestock at some future time.  At least one species, the grey brocket, adjusts particularly well to life in  and around human settlements.</P>
    5134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5016
    51355017<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUEMUL</P>
    5136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5137 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5018
     5019
    51385020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of South American microdeer, the huemul,4 is a much  less likely candidate. It is very rare, very shy, and has so far shown  little likelihood of settling into captivity. However, huemul conservation  is critical: without urgent attention, the animal will become extinct.  Although totally protected by law, it is declining owing to poaching,  farm dogs, habitat loss and diseases transmitted by cattle and other  livestock.</P>
    5139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5021
    51405022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two species:</P>
    5141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5023
    51425024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Chilean huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)5 occurs in high altitude forests, thickets, and grasslands in the Andes of southern Chile and Argentina.</P>
    5143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5025
    51445026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Peruvian huemul, or taruca (H. antisepsis), occurs in parts of the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia as well as of northern Chile and Argentina.</P>
    5145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5027
    51465028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species live in small herds above the tree line. They are very shy, and even though the Chilean national seal bears the depiction of a huemul, almost no Chilean (or anyone else, for that matter) has ever seen a live one.</P>
    5147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5029
    51485030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At less than 85 cm tall and probably weighing under 15 kg, huemuls are sized to be microlivestock. However, previous attempts at rearing them in Chile have met with little success. Nevertheless, huemuls have been kept in zoos in Germany, and such experiences - together with the increasing knowledge of how to raise red deer and other species - may eventually provide the keys to their continued existence. </P>
    5149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5031
    51505032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g033a.png"></center><br>
    51515033 FIGURE</P>
    5152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5034
    51535035<B><P></P>
    51545036<!--
    … …  
    51595041  </Description>
    51605042-->
    5161 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5043</B>
    51625044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g034a.png"></center><br>
    51635045 FIGURE</P>
    5164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5046
    51655047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the water deer' (Hydropotes inermis), but it should be considered along with mouse deer, muntjacs, musk deer, and others as a possible species for microlivestock development. It is comparable in size, and it is unusual among deer for producing large litters: births of triplets or more are common.</P>
    5166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5048
    51675049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the other species in this section, this is a highly speculative notion; however, there is some justification for it. The Zoological Society of London has successfully established breeding colonies, and other zoos have also bred the animal in captivity. The water deer has the advantage of rapid growth, early maturity, and high fecundity. Indeed, given protection, its populations have been known to increase rapidly.</P>
    5168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5050
    51695051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5052
     5053
    51725054<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a graceful and delicate appearance, its best known characteristic being the male's long tusks. Both sexes are about the same size, standing 45-55 cm at the shoulder and weighing up to 19 kg. Body length is up to about I m, and the tail is so tiny that it is barely noticeable. The round-tipped ears are characteristically held erect above the head.</P>
    5173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5055
    51745056<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are somewhat like muntjacs, but they are longer in the leg and lighter in build. Their forelegs are shorter than their hindlegs so that they stand slightly higher at the haunches than at the shoulders. This gives them a hunched appearance.</P>
    5175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5057
    51765058<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hair is generally thick and coarse, longest on the flanks and rump. The backs and sides are usually yellowish brown, finely stippled with black. In winter, the coat is thick and variable in color; pale fawn and peppery gray-brown are common shades. In summer, the coat is sleek and reddish. Fawns are white spotted at birth, but this dappling soon fades.</P>
    5177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5059
    51785060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex has antlers. The upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming curved tusks 7 cm long. These are much bigger than those in muntjacs and can protrude well below the jawline.</P>
    5179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5061
    51805062<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both sexes there is a small inguinal gland present between the hind legs, the only instance among deer.</P>
    5181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5063
    51825064<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5065
     5066
    51855067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer has a wide distribution range. It is mainly found in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian, the mid and lower Yangtze River Basin, and coastal areas and islands in central and eastern China. It is also found in Guilin, southern Sichuan Province, Guangxi Province, and Guangdong Province in the south.2</P>
    5186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5068
    51875069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the animal lives along the lower reaches of most rivers, except those in the extreme northeast. Its northern limit of distribution is probably about latitude 43&Yacute;N.</P>
    5188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5070
    51895071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Woburn Park in England, a few escaped from a herd early this century and have increased and become established in a number of counties, particularly Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk.</P>
    5190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5072
    51915073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5074
     5075
    51945076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China, owing to increasing reclamation and cultivation of wetlands, the habitat of the water deer is gradually shrinking. At present the animal is protected by the government, which designates appropriate hunting seasons. It is estimated that about 10,000 are killed each year by hunters. In Korea the water deer is still plentiful. As noted, in England it is maintaining itself and is thriving in some protected parks. It is also reported to be present in France.</P>
    5195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5077
    51965078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5079
     5080
    51995081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its home range, the water deer is usually found among reeds and rushes in swampy areas. It also frequents the tall grasses and sparse shrubs of mountainsides and cultivated fields. In England it has adapted to a variety of habitats, including woodlands. </P>
    5200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5082
    52015083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p323a.png"></center><br>
    52025084 Native range of the water deer.</P>
    5203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5085
    52045086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5087
     5088
    52075089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is chiefly a grazer. It feeds mainly on reeds, coarse grasses, and some tree leaves.</P>
    5208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5090
    52095091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously mentioned, this is the most prolific species of deer. Up to seven fetuses have been observed in a single pregnant female, although the normal litters are two or three. The gestation period is about 176 days. Fawns are born in late spring or early summer, and weigh only about 0.5 kg at birth. Within 4 days the newborns can live almost exclusively on grasses. Usually, however, they are fully weaned after 4 8 weeks, but remain socially attached to the mother. They appear to become independent after about 4 months. Males become sexually mature at about 5-6 months; females at about 7-8 months.3</P>
    5210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5092
    52115093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5094
     5095
    52145096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are generally seen alone. Even where abundant, they seldom congregate in herds. Females are sometimes intolerant of each other, as are adult males or young males. However, in captivity, several females can graze and rest in loose aggregations. The peak period of grazing activity occurs around dusk. Feeding sessions are interspersed with periods of passive cud-chewing.</P>
    5215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5097
    52165098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer "bark" at intruders. During the rut, males are especially noisy and aggressive, and defend their territories with vigor. Fighting involves striking their tusks into the shoulder or back of their opponents. 3 Information from Lu Houji. These are extremely excitable little animals. When upset, they often "hump" their backs and bound away like rabbits. They are also good swimmers.</P>
    5217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5099
    52185100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5101
     5102
    52215103<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer are hunted for their meat and skins, and newly born fawns are killed to obtain the mother's colostrum for medicinal purposes. In a few localities in England, the species has become a game animal.</P>
    5222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5104
    52235105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5106
     5107
    52265108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not yet known on "farms." However, it seems to be easily kept, has bred well in zoos, and has thrived in many British wildlife parks. </P>
    5227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5109
    52285110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5111
     5112
    52315113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The assets of early maturity and high fecundity mean that the potential exists for rapid population expansion. Such an event occurred at Britain's Whipsnade Zoo. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were released into undeveloped pasture; by 1937, 120 fawns had been raised.</P>
    5232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5114
    52335115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are relatively small, and because in the wild state they aggregate only under exceptional conditions, water deer are unlikely to have any appreciable impact on vegetation in forests, farms, or gardens. Nonetheless, they can damage crops, and Chinese farmers, who consider them pests, often illegally kill them out of season.</P>
    5234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5116
    52355117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5118
     5119
    52385120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are swift and adept at escaping captivity. It is possible that because of territoriality only a single pair will live in a given area. Moreover, males are aggressive and must be kept apart.</P>
    5239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5121
    52405122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem able to withstand chilly weather well, but a combination of wet and cold is harmful. Their heavy winter coat, essential to survival in the Far East, renders the animal susceptible to dehydration and heat exhaustion in comparatively mild climates, such as England's.</P>
    5241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5123
    52425124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At birth, the tiny fawns are extremely vulnerable to a variety of predators, both birds and mammals. The species may need areas of dense cover or some shelter from wind.</P>
    5243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5125
    52445126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5127
     5128
    52475129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer has been successfully kept in semicaptivity for many years; however, for it to reach a level of domestication suitable for use as microlivestock, research is needed in the following areas:</P>
    5248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5130
    52495131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction;</P>
    5250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5132
    52515133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under a range of environments;</P>
    5252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5134
    52535135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing efficiency;</P>
    5254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5136
    52555137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic physiology;</P>
    5256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5138
    52575139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and domestication - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, and feed needs; and</P>
    5258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5140
    52595141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Modifying behavior to overcome territoriality - for instance, imprinting on humans, selection of docile specimens, hand rearing, and castration.</P>
    5260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5142
    52615143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not an endangered species; however, efforts should be made to preserve the populations in their native ranges and habitats. </P>
    5262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5144
     5145
    52645146<B><P></P>
    52655147<!--
    … …  
    52705152  </Description>
    52715153-->
    5272 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5154</B>
    52735155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g035a.png"></center><br>
    52745156 Red Duiker</P>
    5275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5157
    52765158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers (Cephalophus and Sylvicapra species) are small African antelopes. Although they are ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats, some are hardly bigger than hares or rabbits. One, the blue duiker, is less than 40 cm high and usually weighs a mere 4-6 kg. It and some of the slightly larger duikers might be suitable for household husbandry because their meat is an extremely popular food throughout much of Africa. In West Africa, for example, it is one of the most common meats sold in both rural and urban markets.</P>
    5277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5159
    52785160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This idea, however, is highly speculative because, despite their popularity, little is known about these tiny animals. Their husbandry has been attempted only a few times, but the results were encouraging, and rearing duikers deserves further investigation. They are already being raised in captivity in the United States,' Zimbabwe,2 Togo,3 and Gabon. Researchers in Nigeria have bred blue duikers to the fourth generation and found that, if the animals were first handled by people while young, they remained docile.4 Even blue duikers caught in the wild tame quickly if they are very young, but by the time they reach 3.5 months, they become barely tolerant of man's presence.</P>
    5279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5161
    52805162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If duiker husbandry can be developed, it might provide not only a more regular source of meat, but also a lessening of the hunting pressures, thereby giving the wild populations a better chance of survival.</P>
    5281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5163
    52825164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    5283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5165
     5166
    52855167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelopes are suitable for testing as microlivestock only in their native region, sub-Saharan Africa. Eventually, they might prove to have wider applicability. </P>
    5286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5168
    52875169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5288 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5170
     5171
    52905172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duiker species vary from about the size of a small dog to that of a small donkey. Most are similar in shape and are characterized by short front legs, arched back, and pointed hoofs. The tail is stubby, often with a terminal tuft. The coat varies from reddish brown to nearly black, although a few species are blue-grey and one is zebra striped.</P>
    5291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5173
    52925174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females are slightly larger than males, but the sexes look alike. In most species, both sexes bear small straight horns that project backward from the skull, frequently hidden in a long tuft of hair.</P>
    5293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5175
    52945176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5177
     5178
    52975179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers inhabit virtually all regions of Africa below the Sahara— from Gambia in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and all countries as far south as South Africa.</P>
    5298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5180
    52995181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5182
     5183
    53025184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are so shy that they are rarely encountered by people. But almost anywhere in Africa (other than North Africa), the observant traveler may glimpse them ducking into forests or thickets. Although there are still countless numbers, people are eating so many that in some localized areas the populations are fast heading toward extinction.</P>
    5303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5185
    53045186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5187
     5188
    53075189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All but one species are found in rainforests or dense woodlands. The grey duiker, however, is found in savannas. If the vegetation is juicy, only a few of the species need a separate water source, so they can thrive in very dry sites.</P>
    5308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5190
    53095191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5192
     5193
    53125194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main foods are fruits and seeds supplemented by leaves and shoots. Fruits, which they eat to a much greater degree than other antelopes, are an important part of their diet. Some rare species (for example, the red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus) can graze. Occasionally (especially in captivity), duikers are also omnivorous, eating fish, crabs, insects, snails, frogs, small animals, or carrion; they also readily accept chopped meat. </P>
    5313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5195
    53145196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers reach sexual maturity at 9-15 months; gestation lasts about 7-8 months. In some species, females conceive a few days after calving on a 3- to 5-day postpartum estrus. Apparently one calf per birth is normal. A newborn blue duiker weighs between 0.4 and 0.7 kg.</P>
    5315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5197
    53165198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before one year of age, young duikers leave their parents to find their own mates and territories. Life expectancy is more than 10 years.</P>
    5317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5199
    53185200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5201
     5202
    53215203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of habitat differences, most duikers behave alike. In the wild they are nervous, shy, and retiring. When alarmed, they plunge into the protection of dense vegetation - hence the origin of the name duiker, which means "diver." Nonetheless, their behavior allows them to be easily netted. An experienced hunter can imitate duiker sounds and call the male out of the bush. Also, a startled animal freezes, thereby facilitating its capture.</P>
    5322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5204
    53235205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving easily through dense vegetation, the head carried low, these tiny animals use regular runs. Forest duiker species are largely diurnal, although a few, such as the bay duiker, are nocturnal. Bush duikers are mainly nocturnal, feeding from early evening until morning. Such nocturnal species shelter during the day in holes (presumably dug by other animals) or inside fallen trees; the diurnal ones lie directly on the ground.</P>
    5324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5206
    53255207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are the best-known species and are probably the most likely candidates for microlivestock (see page 332). They seem to be monogamous and apparently mate for life. Unlike most antelopes, their population densities can be high. The pairs reside in territories of 2-4 hectares, which both male and female stoutly defend against rivals. Other species appear to be polygamous and live in large territories (up to 80 hectares).</P>
    5326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5208
    53275209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are generally calm. However, both males and females can be aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals of their own species. In an enclosure, one male can serve several females.</P>
    5328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5210
    53295211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large glands, located beneath each eye, exude a scent that is rubbed onto fences, trees, and other objects as territorial marking. In another form of marking the horns are rubbed against tree trunks.</P>
    5330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5212
    53315213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5214
     5215
    53345216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, duiker meat is much sought in many African countries, and the animals are regularly hunted. The meat is lean with little or no intramuscular fat (marbling). </P>
    5335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5217
    53365218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers also have promise as experimental animals. They are true ruminants, with four-part stomachs, and they produce cud. Some are only rabbit size, they need far less room or feed than sheep, and thus are potentially an efficient test animal for determining the nutritional value of forages. Blue duikers, for instance, have a digestion efficiency comparable to that of sheep, but, because of their small size, a test needs only four rabbit cages and 5-10 kg of feed. Sheep, by comparison, require much more spacious facilities and 150 kg of feed.</P>
    5337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5219
    53385220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Nigeria, blue duiker pelts are used in making karosses, a traditional dress. A single garment may contain up to 60 pelts.</P>
    5339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5221
    53405222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5223
     5224
    53435225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nothing is known about rearing duikers, but they seem to tame easily and perhaps may be kept in backyards like goats. Indeed, they reportedly make good house pets when hand raised. They are attractive, and from the day of capture young ones can be handled and petted.5</P>
    5344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5226
    53455227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nigerian researchers who bred blue duikers to the fourth generation bottle-fed young specimens five times a day. Older animals were given feeds that included banana, plantain, and papaya; leaves of hibiscus, cassava, and banana; and dried corn. Variety seemed to be important, and the researchers could not predict the quantity of particular foods the animals would choose on any given day. In addition to varied vegetables, a small dish of salt or a salt lick was sometimes required.6</P>
    5346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5228
    53475229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are unlikely to run away, except when startled. However, providing an enclosure is worthwhile. It enables them to establish a territory by marking poles, bushes, and fences. Although needing space in which to run, as little as 10 m&Yacute; is reportedly sufficient for 24 animals.</P>
    5348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5230
    53495231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satisfactory shelters include an open-ended oil drum laid on its side, a lean-to made of palm frond, or a small hut made of local matting. Apart from providing shade and protection, shelters should be built so that excited animals can run through them. When cornered, duikers tend to either flee for shelter or jump upwards; a run-through shelter can prevent a frightened one from accidentally leaping over the fence.</P>
    5350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5232
    53515233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on their own experiences, researchers at Pennsylvania State University in the United States report that blue duikers raised in captivity are easy to maintain, reproduce well, and are not fussy about environmental conditions. In fact, they say, blue duikers seem to enjoy living in cages.7</P>
    5352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5234
    53535235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to raise duikers successfully, post-pubertal males must be separated. A female should be bred with the same male throughout her productive life span.</P>
    5354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5236
    53555237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE BLUE DUIKER</P>
    5356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5238
     5239
    53585240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one sense, the blue duiker is the most important animal in Africa. It is the only one found throughout the continent south of the Sahara. It occurs at a greater range of altitudes than most - as low as sea level in many places to almost 5,000 m elevation in Kenya. It occurs in habitats from dense rainforests to dryland savannas. And, in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, the blue duiker is eaten more than any other animal (although in West Africa it is generally called Maxwell's duiker).</P>
    5359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5241
    53605242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This very small antelope, caught by snare or net, can be found in the meat markets of villages, towns, and cities in all countries from Senegal to Madagascar. It is a source of food for tens of millions. Bushmen, Pygmies, Dinkas, and Mandingos, thousands of miles apart; all share the same fondness for duiker meat and for duiker-skin clothes.</P>
    5361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5243
    53625244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, scientifically speaking, this is one of the world's least-known animals. And its numbers are diminishing rapidly. Areas that used to have plenty now have few or none. Overhunting and destruction of the rainforests are jointly contributing to their decline.</P>
    5363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5245
    53645246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the losses, people are snaring as many as they can, and there is no sense of concern - not even among most conservationists. However, in many locations there is already evidence that the animals won't be around much longer. Unless something is done - and soon - people will lose their major source of animal protein. If that happens, it is likely that they will move on to larger animals, such as gorillas, which would be an even worse disaster.</P>
    5365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5247
    53665248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best long-term solution is to organize duiker husbandry. Learning to rear duikers would benefit people throughout Africa. The blue duiker is the most suitable species; it is the most common and the most important. Also, it inhabits the edges of the forest and could therefore become a suitable species for ranching without denuding the forest.</P>
    5367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5249
    53685250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are easy to maintain in captivity. They tame readily and like to shelter and sleep In boxes or cages. They are good converters of vegetation and produce top-quality lean meat. In addition, they are neither affected by tsetse flies nor are very susceptible to diseases.</P>
    5369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5251
    53705252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key now is to learn how to keep these very timid creatures under different conditions. We need to know their foods (especially foods that might be harvested from forests) and reproductive biology. We need to know the right numbers to house together. Most of all, we need projects aimed at rearing and breeding them in captivity under village conditions.</P>
    5371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5253
    53725254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vivian J. Wilson</P>
    5373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5255
    53745256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5257
     5258
    53775259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many African countries already have a ready market for duiker meat. It is somewhat similar to goat meat, but most people agree that it is superior.</P>
    5378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5260
    53795261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal can live on fibrous vegetation. Unlike conventional ruminant livestock, it is suitable for feeding an average family at one meal.</P>
    5380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5262
    53815263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to forage in undergrowth where other domestic livestock do not thrive makes duikers potential livestock for tropical forest and bushland regions. They can be raised for meat without cutting the trees or bushes to create pastures.</P>
    5382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5264
    53835265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5266
     5267
    53865268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are easy prey for predators: eagles, pythons, wildcats, and people, among others. Thus, they probably require more sophisticated management than common livestock such as goats. However, the quality of their meat could more than compensate for the extra effort.</P>
    5387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5269
    53885270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some species are territorial, which means that they may do poorly in captivity, unless their social organization can be altered.</P>
    5389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5271
    53905272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions, the ideal slaughtering age reportedly occurs at 8-10 months, when the blue duiker can weigh 4 kg. Compared to rabbits and guinea pigs, production is relatively slow because of long gestation and lack of multiple births.</P>
    5391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5273
    53925274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
    5393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5275
    53945276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One general problem is that duikers have short, sharp horns designed specifically for jabbing. This could be a potential danger, especially since the males of some species become aggressive when their females are receptive. However, the horns can easily be clipped and taped to limit the danger. </P>
    5395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5277
    53965278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5279
     5280
    53995281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the duikers' secluded lifestyle, much has still to be learned about their habits. Specific information on behavior and breeding is needed.</P>
    5400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5282
    54015283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists in Africa should gather small herds for comparative studies. This will provide insights into whether duiker temperaments facilitate or hinder their utilization. In addition, assessments of diet, growth rates, behavior in captivity, reproductive rate, adaptability, and future potential can be made. Management considerations include clipping horns, trimming hooves, and controlling lice and fleas.</P>
    5402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5284
    54035285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research of particular value would be chemical analysis of duiker milk and of other characteristic glandular secretions. The latter lend themselves especially to a study of animal communication.</P>
    5404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5286
    54055287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parming duikers might help rescue the wild populations by relieving hunting pressures. Programs in this area are recommended for locations where overhunting is occurring. </P>
    5406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5288
    54075289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g036a.png"></center><br>
    54085290 FIGURE</P>
    5409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5291
    54105292<B><P></P>
    54115293<!--
    … …  
    54165298  </Description>
    54175299-->
    5418 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5300</B>
    54195301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g037a.png"></center><br>
    54205302 Klipspringer</P>
    5421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5303
    54225304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The least known and most obscure of all antelope are the delicate African creatures called dikdik, suni, royal antelope, pygmy antelope, and klipspringer. The smallest is a West African form of the royal antelope that stands a mere 25 cm high and weighs less than 2 kg. The four-horned antelope of South Asia is a similarly tough, tractable animal that is also the size of a small dog.</P>
    5423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5305
    54245306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of these has previously been seriously considered for use as livestock, but they are possibly amenable to rearing in captivity and they provide some of the finest game meat in the world. Given New Zealand's experience with various deer species (see page 288) and Africa's experience with large antelopes, basic research to test out the possibility of organized dwarf-antelope production could prove to be rewarding.</P>
    5425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5307
    54265308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
    5427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5309
     5310
    54295311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The areas where these antelopes might be used are sub-Saharan Africa for the African species and South Asia for the four-horned antelope.</P>
    5430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5312
    54315313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5314
     5315
    54345316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these animals, some, such as the pygmy antelopes, have a crouched appearance with an arched back and short neck; others have a more upright posture with a long neck and a raised head. In all species, the males are smaller than the females and bear tiny spikelike horns. </P>
    5435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5317
    54365318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5319
     5320
    54395321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, these antelopes have native ranges covering huge areas of Africa and part of Asia.</P>
    5440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5322
    54415323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik: Six species occur in two discontinuous distributions - one from Somalia and Ethiopia southward through Kenya and Tanzania, the other in Namibia and Angola. </P>
    5442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5324
    54435325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunis: Eastern Africa, from Kenya to South Africa.</P>
    5444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5326
    54455327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Royal antelope: West African forests. </P>
    5446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5328
    54475329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy antelope: Central Africa from southeastern Nigeria to Zaire. </P>
    5448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5330
    54495331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer: Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. </P>
    5450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5332
    54515333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-horned antelope: India. </P>
    5452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5334
    54535335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5336
     5337
    54565338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many forms are protected by local laws, but none of the species is on the international endangered-species list.</P>
    5457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5339
    54585340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5341
     5342
    54615343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals occupy habitats from dense, moist forests to dry, rocky outcrops and even to deserts. Their ranges have almost certainly been affected by humans - sometimes for the better, since many prefer the secondary growth that invades disturbed areas, notably after overgrazing or slash-and-burn agriculture.</P>
    5462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5344
    54635345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although dikdik and klipspringer usually frequent dry areas with scattered brush, the other dwarf antelopes normally stay in dense vegetation. All seem to live in definite areas and do not migrate. For instance:</P>
    5464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5346
    54655347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dikdik live near streambanks.</P>
    5466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5348
    54675349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunis inhabit dry country with thick bush, but they can also be found in reed scrub along rivers and in forests up to 3,000 m elevation.</P>
    5468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5350
    54695351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Klipspringers live on stony mountain slopes, rocky outcrops' or the sides of steep gorges at altitudes from sea level to 4,000 m.</P>
    5470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5352
    54715353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four-horned antelopes live in undulating or hill country and shelter in tall grass and open jungle, a terrain more common to deer than to antelope. </P>
    5472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5354
    54735355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5356
     5357
    54765358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these antelope browse on shrubs. They are "concentrate selectors," taking easily digested vegetation such as buds, fruit, and succulent young leaves.</P>
    5477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5359
    54785360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, most obtain much of their water requirement from dew and the vegetation they consume. Klipspringers, for example, are able to live for months without drinking. Sunis and four-horned antelope, on the other hand, drink regularly and seldom live far from water sources.</P>
    5479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5361
    54805362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known of the reproduction and general performance of these animals. Females become sexually mature at about 6 months in the smaller species and 10 months in the larger. Males become sexually mature at about 14 months. The young are born throughout the year, but births peak with the vegetation flush following the first rains. Where there are two rainy seasons a year, two birth peaks occur. Usually a single calf is born. Dikdik is the only one whose reproduction has been studied in detail. Its pregnancy lasts 172 days, one young is born at a time, and the birth weight is 600-800 g.</P>
    5481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5363
    54825364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their longevity is unknown but is probably in the range of 10-12 years.l</P>
    5483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5365
    54845366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5367
     5368
    54875369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These tiny creatures have some of the habits of deer. They are shy and elusive and generally rely on concealment to escape detection. Their first response to a predator is to freeze, and then to flee like hares - dashing off in a series of erratic, zigzag leaps.</P>
    5488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5370
    54895371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They live alone, in pairs, or in small family groups, but sometimes congregate in larger groups in thorn thickets. The species that have been studied most (dikdik and klipspringer) are strongly pair bonded. (A male, a female, and one or two young is typical, and a klipspringer rarely moves more than 5 m from its mate.) However, the royal and pygmy antelopes and the suni are more solitary in their behavior. Four-horned antelope are usually seen alone or in pairs.</P>
    5490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5372
    54915373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals feed mostly in the early morning and late afternoon Some species deposit dung and urine on particular sites. And they repeatedly daub secretions from glands in front of the eyes onto plant stems, where a sticky mass accumulates. Glands near the hooves mark the ground along frequently traveled pathways. Males also mark females with the scent, thus reinforcing the bond. </P>
    5492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5374
    54935375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four-horned antelope has a whistling call, which helps keep the family group together. Males repeat it frequently in hot weather. Gestation is 8-8.5 months. If taken young, they reportedly tame easily.</P>
    5494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5376
    54955377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5378
     5379
    54985380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much more research needs to be done before attempts are made to convince anyone to domesticate these antelope. There are likely to be considerable difficulties. Guinea pigs, rabbits, and giant rats can successfully be kept in cages or small enclosures, but most antelope probably cannot. Larger enclosures will be needed.</P>
    5499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5381
    55005382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food habits and general behavior of these small animals must be studied closely. They are strictly monogamous, and it may be necessary to keep them in pairs. Reproduction, growth, and general performance must become understood under different environmental and nutritional conditions. Mixing species is another aspect to be examined - whether these antelope can be kept with other species in the same enclosure (typical of livestock farming in most poor nations) is not known.</P>
    5501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5383
    55025384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To settle such questions, representative species of microantelope should be gathered for comparative assessment. Researchers should focus on the animals' social structure, on husbandry methods for maintaining them over generations, and on how best to breed them. If the findings are promising, then a campaign to domesticate these antelope could be mounted.</P>
    5503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5385
    55045386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5387
     5388
    55075389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout most of their ranges these animals are highly sought "bushmeats." The meat is lean and of extremely high quality. In Zaire's Ituri Forest, for example, pygmies net and kill large numbers of pygmy antelope, hanging the carcasses on sticks by the roadside for sale.</P>
    5508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5390
    55095391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their small size, these species might make good laboratory animals for ruminant studies. The dikdik, for instance, becomes a fully functioning ruminant at a body weight of about only 1.5 kg.2 However, their digestive physiology is quite different from that of cattle, sheep, and goats, which makes them atypical ruminants.</P>
    5510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5392
    55115393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given organized production, it is likely that dwarf-antelope pelts could become commercially important. North Africa exports the hides of medium-size antelopes to Europe for use in fine sueded leathers. Hides of the small species would almost certainly be in demand as well if a steady supply could be obtained as a by-product of meat production.</P>
    5512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5394
    55135395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5396
     5397
    55165398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microantelope provide some of the finest game meat. They are small and perhaps tractable. Most are already widely eaten and are being eliminated over broad areas of their range. Turning them into a sustainable, economic food source could provide motivation for their conservation.</P>
    5517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5399
    55185400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelope can digest, and are adapted to, the indigenous forage over vast areas of Africa and South Asia. They are native to tropical habitats, where cattle and other livestock often grow poorly. They also appear to be resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
    5519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5401
    55205402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5403
     5404
    55235405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some African peoples (for example, the Kalahari Bushmen) have superstitions or social injunctions that prohibit the eating of some of these species.</P>
    5524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5406
    55255407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small antelope are probably not as efficient as larger ruminants in digesting fiber: the retention time in the rumen may be too short. On the other hand, quickly digestible cell walls of lush green plants can be used efficiently.3</P>
    5526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5408
    55275409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The territorial behavior of most of these species may limit their rearing in large numbers under captive conditions.</P>
    5528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5410
    55295411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5412
     5413
    55325414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, preliminary research on dwarf antelope husbandry is required. Specifically, studies should be conducted to assess:</P>
    5533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5415
    55345416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates, feed efficiency, and reproductive rate;</P>
    5535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5417
    55365418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Carcass quality;</P>
    5537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5419
    55385420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Economics and the likely cost of production per animal unit; and</P>
    5539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5421
    55405422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studies of digestion.4 </P>
    5541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5423
    55425424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few statistics available today on the use of wildlife as food are probably much below actual consumption. Most food consumption surveys record food obtained by hunting or trapping under the indiscriminate heading of "Bushmeat" and neglect to include the many small animals that are normally collected by children. In Africa, an amazing variety of wildlife is eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, all cats, and many species of birds and reptiles.</P>
    55435425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization Ceres magazine</P>
    5544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5426
    55455427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the world's people must begin to overcome in themselves - and even more so in their children - senseless taboos about what is edible and what is not. Only then can we stop today's universal animal-protein wastage. How ironic it would be, in this scientific age, for mankind to starve largely because of a bunch of old wives' tales, irational beliefs, silly associations, and the lack of a sufficient spirit of culinary and gustatory adventure.</P>
    55465428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe Unmentionable Cuisine </P>
    5547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5429
    55485430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana is really good, a thousand times better than chicken.</P>
    55495431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omero Asinto, waiter Pochote Bar and Restaurant</P>
    55505432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barranca, Costa Rica</P>
    5551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5552 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     5433
     5434<B>
    55535435<!--
    55545436</Section>
    … …  
    55595441  </Description>
    55605442-->
    5561 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5443</B>
     5444
    55635445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large lizards have been important foods since prehistoric times and are still commonly hunted in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.1 Some (such as the monitor lizards seen in markets in Indochina) are carnivorous species that may be difficult to feed and raise economically. However, the iguanas of the Americas offer promise as microlivestock. They are herbivorous and feed primarily on leaves, flowers, and fruits, including many that are too high in the trees to be gathered by man or by other livestock.</P>
    5564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5446
    55655447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana meat is popular throughout much of Latin America, where consumers willingly pay more for it than for fish, poultry, pork, or beef. To fill the demand, several iguana species are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. Villagers (often small children) catch them for food for the family; professional hunters snare and sell them to vendors. Iguanas are hauled around in gunny sacks and wicker baskets by car, boat, horseback, and people on foot. In parts of El Salvador they have been known to arrive at the market by the truckload.</P>
    5566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5448
    55675449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this indiscriminate hunting, iguanas are now steadily becoming more scarce, and the destruction of their habitat makes the situation even worse. At present, many parts of Latin America's tropical forests are being cleared. The green iguana in particular depends on trees, and as forests disappear its populations are destroyed.</P>
    5568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5450
    55695451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, iguanas are forest-edge species: they will grow well on ranches and farms as long as patches of trees are left standing. This offers the hope that they can be raised as microlivestock. They reproduce so prolifically that, in principle, populations can build up exponentially. Mature females, for example, may produce 30 or more eggs a year for up to 10 years.</P>
    5570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5452
    55715453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past few years, a notable research program in Panama and Costa Rica (see page 351) has laid the practical foundation for iguana farming. It has artificially incubated and raised thousands of green iguana hatchlings. With less than half a square meter of living space per animal, the hatchlings have grown as fast or faster than their wild counterparts. Unlike their kin in the wild - which in their first year of life suffer 95 percent mortality from birds, snakes, and other predators— the captive-raised iguanas show almost 100 percent survival. This research project demonstrates that ranching iguanas both for food or for repopulating depleted habitats is feasible. In addition, experimental projects for farming green iguanas have begun in Curacao and El Salvador.</P>
    5572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5454
    55735455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As livestock, lizards have advantages. Being cold-blooded they do not carry human diseases (except for those such as salmonella that result from gross mismanagement). They can be kept in captivity in fairly high densities without diseases breaking out. Although often aggressive in the wild, they coexist in dense populations with few problems as long as they are well fed.</P>
    5574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5456
    55755457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an important conservation component as well. Farming these lizards may help check and may even reverse the downward trends of their populations by allowing large numbers to be released back to the wild at a size that inhibits predators.</P>
    5576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5458
    55775459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three alternatives for utilizing iguanas:</P>
    5578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5460
    55795461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To manage wild stocks as game animals;</P>
    5580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5462
    55815463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise iguanas on farms, like chickens and pigs; or</P>
    5582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5464
    55835465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise young iguanas in captivity and then release them into the wild where they can grow to full size and later be harvested on a sustainable basis.</P>
    5584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5466
    55855467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the green iguana has so far received the most attention, two other Latin American species are in farming trials. Black iguanas (garrobos) are being raised experimentally in El Salvador and Costa Rica. And the omnivorous tegu lizard, which produces a valuable leather, is beginning to be farmed in Argentina and is briefly described opposite. Both iguana species are described in the following chapters. </P>
    5586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5468
    55875469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEGU</P>
    5588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5470
     5471
    55905472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tegus (Tupinambis rufescens and T. teguixin) are large lizards of South America. They are highly prized for their skins, which are made into leather for handbags and similar items. Tegus are heavily exploited; on average, Argentina exports over one million skins a year - about $15 million worth. The 50-year-old tegu industry is estimated to support as many as 30,000 people, including tannery employees and people in rural areas who hunt the lizards full- or part-time. Poor agricultural conditions make farming difficult in the Chaco, and sale of a single tegu skin is worth more than a day's wages for a farmband. Some families also eat the tegu meat and use the fat for medicinal purposes. In many areas, the populations have already been driven to the verge of extinction. Husbandry, therefore, could be beneficial. Traders are hoping that captive operations run by families can eventually replace hunting.</P>
    5591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5473
    55925474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although usually associated with the arid regions of northern Argentina and Paraguay, the tegu's range actually covers much of South America - as far north as Colombia, including Trinidad and the Amazon basin. One species (T. rufescens) normally occurs in a dryland habitat, such as Argentina's Chaco region. It can occur in great numbers in pastures, probably because of the insects associated with cattle. But it also occurs in areas that are unsuitable for cattle. Some places where tegus are common are so dry that they can carry only a single cow in 10 hectares. There, farmers might find it profitable to raise tegus. This would maintain the native biological diversity while perhaps reducing the soil degradation that cattle cause.</P>
    5593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5475
    55945476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other species (T. tegubixin) occurs in wet forests, such as those found in Argentina's Formosa Province.</P>
    5595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5477
    55965478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegus are scientifically interesting. Little is known about their biology, and basic studies are needed. They are not much eaten, but in some areas the tail is considered a delicacy. Indeed, deteriorating economic conditions are already making them more important as a food resource. Convincing campesinos that they can increase their cash income and their meat production by rationally exploiting these large lizards should not be difficult.</P>
    5597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5479
    55985480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable exploitation could also benefit tegu conservation. Large populations still exist in some areas in Argentina and Paraguay, but, overall, the species are declining. A welldesigned management project could ensure the maintenance and reestablishment of large populations where numbers have drastically decreased. </P>
    5599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5481
    56005482<B><P></P>
    56015483<!--
    … …  
    56055487  </Description>
    56065488-->
    5607 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5489</B>
    56085490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g038a.png"></center><br>
    56095491 FIGURE</P>
    5610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5492
    56115493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) is consumed throughout Central America. It is already subject to heavy commercialization and its populations are plummeting. This is not likely to change: as human population increases, so does demand for iguana meat and eggs as well as for live iguanas, thousands of which are kept as house pets. </P>
    5612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5494
    56135495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its herbivorous diet, inoffensive nature, and high reproductive potential, this reptile is a prime species for intensive management. Alert, curious, and social, it is easily tamed from birth. Given minimal protection during the reproductive season, large populations can build up, and animals can be maintained in simple facilities.</P>
    5614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5496
    56155497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, although iguanas can be maintained as microlivestock, they may require three years to reach market size. Raising them to maturity entirely under captive conditions is thus probably uneconomic at present, when specimens can still be inexpensively (albeit often illegally) harvested from the wild. However, it has been found that if released into the wild, most will remain in nearby trees, especially if people erect simple feeding stations and keep them stocked with table scraps or weedy vegetation. This makes for very low-cost production during the years of waiting.</P>
    5616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5498
    56175499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given such findings, iguana farming has a promising future. With research, growth rates can undoubtedly be increased and maintenance costs reduced. Also, iguanas are becoming more valuable each year. Even now, farming them could be economic in some areas where wild iguanas are scarce, especially if the young are released into forested sites when they have grown to a size where mortality is low.</P>
    5618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5500
    56195501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although green iguanas will happily graze pastures, they need trees. Iguana farming, therefore, provides a way to keep tropical forests standing while still providing people with meat and income. By growing lizards, farmers don't have to fell the forests to create space for growing food crops or cattle. Iguana farming thus gives an economic incentive to preserve the beleaguered tracts of remaining trees. It may even render reforestation economically attractive. And it may promote the use of shelterbelts and contour strips of trees in cattle-ranching areas. Today's researchers estimate that 200-300 kg of meat can be produced per year per hectare from iguanas.</P>
    5620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5502
    56215503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5504
     5505
    56245506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana can grow to more than 2 m long, but more than half of that length is in its whiplike tail. Adults of breeding size generally weigh 2-4 kg. The scaly skin is green, yellowish, or golden brown with dark markings; color is a function of age and reproductive stage.</P>
    5625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5507
    56265508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5509
     5510
    56295511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This large lizard is indigenous to a vast region stretching from Mexico to northern Brazil and Peru, including a number of Caribbean islands. In Mexico, it occurs in tropical forests along both coasts.</P>
    5630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5512
    56315513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5632 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5514
     5515
    56345516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas were formerly abundant throughout Central America, but no longer. In the mangrove forests along Mexico's Pacific coast, for instance, only 5 percent of the former population remains. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, mere remnants are left. In El Salvador's jungles, the animals have declined to 1 percent of their former density. And in both Panama and Costa Rica, the species is now officially classified as endangered.</P>
    5635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5517
    56365518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5519
     5520
    56395521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana usually lives near water in tropical lowland forests. It thrives only as long as some trees remain. The forests may be either humid or seasonally dry. The animal normally inhabits the treetops, feeding on tender shoots and fruits in the canopy; few other herbivores can convert such forest foliage into food for humans.</P>
    5640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5522
    56415523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5524
     5525
    56445526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like cattle and other herbivorous mammals, iguanas have a specialized digestive system with an enlarged fermentation chamber in which bacteria break down plant cells. Vegetation is converted into meat about as effectively as in cattle, but not as quickly.</P>
    5645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5527
    56465528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After reaching sexual maturity, at 2 or 3 years of age, females lay one clutch of 10 85 eggs each year. (For most specimens the average is probably about 35.)</P>
    5647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5529
    56485530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p349a.png"></center><br>
    56495531 Native habitat of the green iguana</P>
    5650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5532
    56515533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5534
     5535
    56545536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are generally slow moving and lethargic when cold, but during the heat of the day they become extremely alert and can run, swim, and climb with speed and agility.</P>
    5655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5537
    56565538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They have a complex social structure and a defined annual reproductive cycle. Hatchlings adapt easily to captivity both when artificially incubated and when captured in the wild. However, captured adults, used to living free, are hard to keep in small enclosures.</P>
    5657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5539
    56585540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5541
     5542
    56615543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas are used mainly for food. The meat tastes somewhat like chicken and in Latin America is typically cooked in a spicy stew. The eggs are also consumed. Small and leathery shelled, they are considered special delicacies and are said to cure various ailments.</P>
    5662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5544
    56635545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sizable demand for live iguanas in the international pet trade.</P>
    5664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5546
    56655547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation has been mainly for the flesh; the skins are wasted in most cases. However, given organized production, green iguana skin could perhaps become a farm by-product. It sells in the international reptile-leather market under the trade name "chameleon lizard." The hide is typically up to 20 cm wide. Thin and relatively fragile, it is glued to a fabric or cowhide backing to prevent it from tearing. The prime uses are for ladies' accessories, belts, wallets, and shoes. It is inappropriate for uses that involve flexure because the scales overlap and repeated flexing causes them to separate. The skin then becomes rough to the touch and loses its glossy finish.</P>
    5666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5548
    56675549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IGUANA MAMA</P>
    5668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5550
     5551
    56705552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program that now offers hope for raising green iguanas as microlivestock is the brainchild of zoologist Dagmar Werner. She began in 1983 by collecting 700 iguana eggs and then learning what to do with them "on the job."</P>
    5671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5553
    56725554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a combination of luck and intuition, coupled with determination, she discovered appropriate conditions for incubating the eggs on the first try - no less surprising because her incubators (dirt-filled wooden boxes warmed with light bulbs) were in an apartment in a high-rise building in Panama City. Nonetheless, most of the eggs hatched and the several hundred squirming young lizards were quickly trucked to a forest park near the Panama Canal. Here, for five years, assisted by a steady stream of enthusiastic Panamanian biology students, Wemer experimented with cages, feeds, facilities, breeding genetic selection, and the myriad aspects of management.</P>
    5673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5555
    56745556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These dedicated researchers eventually devised what might be considered a production line, and they hatched and raised tens of thousands of green iguanas, reduced the animals' infant mortality rate, and created the basic underpinnings for economic production.</P>
    5675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5557
    56765558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, administration for the project was shifted to neighboring Costa Rica, where Werner established another research farm as well as a fund-raising foundation. From there, she hopes to catalyze all Central America to take up iguana production.</P>
    5677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5559
    56785560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her immediate goal is, paradoxically, to preserve the lizards by putting an iguana in every pot. That will help reduce the indiscriminate hunting that is taking these animals toward extinction in the wild.</P>
    5679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5561
    56805562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her system is based on setting up feeding stations in the woods and releasing iguanas at seven months, an age at which they are virtually immune to predators. Iguanas need trees, and her ultimate goal is to help save the vanishing rainforests. With profitable iguana farming, she hopes to persuade farmers to save the trees as homes for iguanas, rather than clearing them for crops and cattle.</P>
    5681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5563
    56825564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Iguana management and an international marketing system will protect, rather than exterminate, the iguana," Werner says. "I don't think iguana farming will stop deforestation. But I do think it will contribute a great deal." </P>
    5683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5565
    56845566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5567
     5568
    56875569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farming project in Panama and Costa Rica (see sidebar) provides a model for what might be done elsewhere. In its first five years of operation, the project raised more than 10,000 green iguanas.</P>
    5688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5570
    56895571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To create the farms, enclosures are constructed with sheet-metal wails sunk 30 cm in the ground.' Inside, the animals sleep in shelters made of bamboo and vegetation. Each shelter has an adjustable entrance slit through which young lizards can slither, but predators, which usually are larger, cannot. Most are set on stilts and food is served in the shade underneath. With this system, from 20 to 60 young iguanas are kept in an area of 10 m&Yacute; (0.5-0.17 m&Yacute; of land area per individual). In another "high-intensity" design, 30 hatchlings are kept in cages I m&Yacute; in size (only 0.05 m&Yacute; per individual).</P>
    5690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5572
    56915573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farms also include an artificial nest consisting of a "tunnel" leading to a sand-filled egg-laying chamber. (Both tunnel and chamber are made of concrete blocks or other predator-safe material.) Female iguanas (at least in captivity) prefer this to digging their own tunnels, and it is an important advance in iguana breeding because it produces a hatching success of close to 100 percent. Recent versions require no human intervention: the eggs incubate and hatch by themselves and the hatchlings climb out of the nest through a hollow bamboo "pipe" and fall into plastic bags, which can be easily emptied twice a day.</P>
    5692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5574
    56935575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguanas are fed mixtures of broken rice meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal, papayas, bananas, mangos, avocados, and a variety of leaves and flowers. Each day they receive fresh-cut leaves from plants such as beans, mustard, or hibiscus. Hatchlings are raised to an age of 6-10 months, when they are big enough to be released into forests, farmland with scattered trees, or into village backyards with almost no vulnerability to predators.</P>
    5694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5576
    56955577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5578
     5579
    56985580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With each female producing an average of 35 eggs annually, these animals have inherently high reproductive potential. And if the young are protected from predators during their first few months, populations can build up rapidly.</P>
    5699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5581
    57005582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas adapt well to second-growth forest and to backyard conditions and can feed on the leaves of fruit trees or timber trees while the farmer can harvest the fruits or wood. Unless grossly overstocked, they are unlikely to affect the productivity of the trees.</P>
    5701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5583
    57025584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5585
     5586
    57055587<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards may take three years to reach marketable size,2 and the cost of raising them to usable size entirely in captivity is currently greater than their market value as food. Less-expensive methods of raising the animals must be found if large-scale commercial iguana farming is to become economically feasible. The main problem is the high cost of the enclosures, not the cost of food. The food costs no more than that for raising a chicken to marketable size, but iguanas do not grow as fast as chickens. For smallholders the only cost of raising them is labor, and that is often unimportant. Free-ranging herbivorous lizards can damage home gardens.</P>
    5706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5588
    57075589<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5590
     5591
    57105592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For conservation purposes, the main need is to educate people throughout Latin America to the iguana's plight. For example, in Central America people catch pregnant females and cut out the eggs for food. (There is a widespread misconception that the females survive this brutality.) This is devastating to the iguana populations, yet by installing artificial nests, farmers could let the females live and still harvest the eggs. Moreover, people could eat half the eggs and incubate the other half to repopulate the trees around their farms.</P>
    5711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5593
    57125594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also important to develop an understanding of iguana reproduction in the wild. At present, the longevity, growth rate, and age of sexual maturity are not well known. Such information would provide baseline data for creating conservation measures to reverse the depletion of this natural resource.</P>
    5713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5595
    57145596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further husbandry research is needed. Costs must be reduced. The effectiveness of artificial nests must be tested in village practice. Survival rates of captive-raised young after release must be studied. And harvesting and recruitment schemes should be developed to secure optimum exploitation of the repopulated forests. </P>
    5715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5597
    57165598<B><P></P>
    57175599<!--
    … …  
    57225604  </Description>
    57235605-->
    5724 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5606</B>
    57255607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g039a.png"></center><br>
    57265608 FIGURE</P>
    5727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5609
    57285610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work on green iguana husbandry may apply also to the black iguanas' (Ctenosaura similis, C. acanthura, C. hemilopha, and C. pectinata). These are similar lizards that live in dry habitats throughout Central America </P>
    5729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5611
    57305612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation of wild black iguanas for food began in ancient times and has continued in most places over hundreds of years without much harm to the natural populations. Until the 1970s, Latin Americans could obtain the meat and eggs with little effort, and the animals sold cheaply in city markets. In recent years, however, the lizards have become scarce and prices have risen sharply. For instance, in 1976 the central market of San Salvador was selling large specimens for the equivalent of 80 cents, but by 1979 prices were generally from three to six times as much. Today, black iguana meat costs more than fish, poultry, pork, or beef.</P>
    5731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5613
    57325614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating small game animals is deeply rooted in the traditions of Central America and cannot readily be changed by legislation or education. Despite official edicts, campesinos on a subsistence diet will not willingly forego the little meat they get by capturing and eating lizards. Moreover, legislation is seldom effective because there are too few enforcement officials.</P>
    5733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5615
    57345616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the green iguana, it seems likely that when the factors causing hatchling mortality are reduced, a large harvestable annual surplus can be produced. Black iguanas efficiently convert vegetation into high-grade protein suitable for human consumption. Young ones, however, are insectivorous and carnivorous rather than purely herbivorous, and during their first weeks of life may require a more expensive diet (perhaps meat scraps) than green iguanas require. Moreover, most insectivorous lizards require moving prey. They may or may not accept meat scraps as food.</P>
    5735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5617
    57365618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5619
     5620
    57395621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas are smaller and more stocky than green iguanas, but weigh up to 3 kg. Their tails are spiny and short. The scales on the tail are enlarged, grow in spirals, and are sharp-pointed. Other than that (apart from being generally greyish black in color), the two animals are similar in appearance.</P>
    5740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5622
    57415623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5624
     5625
    57445626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different black iguana species range from northern Mexico along both coasts of Central America to Panama and Colombia's Caribbean islands. Most tolerate moderate human presence well, often thriving around town garbage dumps and cemeteries.</P>
    5745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5627
    57465628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5629
     5630
    57495631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as 1981, black iguanas were shipped to markets by the truckload. Today, they are generally limited or even absent over much of their original range. Nevertheless, they are still the major game animals across extensive areas of Central America. Many of those taken are gravid females, which is disastrous for the populations. Excessive insecticide spraying is also thought to be reducing their populations in some areas.</P>
    5750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5632
    57515633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5634
     5635
    57545636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas thrive in dry, open woodland. They particularly like rocky hillsides, for they depend for shelter on crevices, rock piles, or soft soil in which they dig burrows.</P>
    5755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5637
    57565638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5639
     5640
    57595641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These omnivores feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits, but also on insects and small vertebrates. Adults spend some of their time climbing trees, but they are much less arboreal than green iguanas. Hatchlings are initially terrestrial but have a mostly arboreal stage in their early weeks of life.</P>
    5760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5642
    57615643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females lay one clutch of 20-90 eggs each year. The eggs are much smaller than those of the green iguana and therefore are not as popular a food. </P>
    5762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5644
    57635645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p357a.png"></center><br>
    57645646 Distribution of the black iguana.</P>
    5765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5647
    57665648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5649
     5650
    57695651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards live in burrows or in holes in trees. A typical burrow has several entrances and is 1-2 m long. Several females may combine efforts to form a complex communal burrow with several individual nest chambers. They are such diligent diggers that many are caught while absorbed in the task of adding a new room.</P>
    5770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5652
    57715653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5654
     5655
    57745656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places, even where they are not common, black iguanas are still intensively hunted. Because their meat is valuable, the reward justifies the considerable effort involved in finding and killing them. Hence, where populations are so depleted that organized hunting is unprofitable, the animals are still subjected to relentless destruction by individuals.</P>
    5775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5657
    57765658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5659
     5660
    57795661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming black iguanas is a novel idea. However, it is not a foolish one. In 1981 the Centro de Recursos Naturales (CENREN) in El </P>
    5780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5662
    57815663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salvador started a black iguana farming project. Since then, its researchers have collected data on growth rates, feeding patterns, and the maintenance and reproduction of captive adults. The program offers some promise of maintaining breeding stock in large outdoor enclosures, of producing large numbers of hatchlings, and of restocking depleted areas.</P>
    5782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5664
    57835665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER IGUANAS</P>
    5784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5666
     5667
    57865668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other iguanas that deserve consideration for husbandry include the rock (rhinoceros) iguana (Cyclura cornuta), a herbivorous lizard of the Antillean region. This has been raised in considerable numbers at the National Zoo of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Captive-bred specimens have reproduced at the age of 32 months, average clutch size has been about 15, and the average incubation time has been 82 days (at 31&Yacute;C). The innate tameness of these island iguanas renders them better adapted for captive rearing than either the green or the black iguana, and their greater size is an advantage as well. On the other hand, the length of time required to reach maturity, and the relatively small egg clutch (about half that of the green iguana and one-third that of the black iguana) are definite disadvantages.</P>
    5787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5669
    57885670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related species, Iguana delicatissima, also deserves research and conservation attention. It occurs in the Leeward Islands and Martinique, and (as its specific name implies) is even better eating than the green iguana.</P>
    5789 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5671
    57905672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5673
     5674
    57935675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latins believe that various ailments are cured or benefited by the flesh of these lizards, so they willingly pay much more for their meat than they would for equivalent amounts of other meats. In most places where the two occur together, the black iguana is preferred over the green iguana.</P>
    5794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5676
    57955677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with green iguana, the black iguana reproduces readily in captivity and has an even higher reproductive potential (averaging 43 eggs per clutch). It has the additional advantage that it thrives in deforested and altered habitats. It can survive near human settlements despite the attacks of dogs and cats, and it attains dense populations in suburban lots or open spaces. (It survives even downtown in cities such as Managua, but not in dense populations because dogs, cats, and humans take so many.) Hence, even in towns and cities, there are habitats capable of supporting it.</P>
    5796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5678
    57975679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas will feed on weedy vegetation or garbage, and adults seem easier to maintain in captivity than their green iguana counterparts.</P>
    5798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5680
    57995681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5682
     5683
    58025684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long delay (probably at least two years) before the animals reach marketable size might make it difficult for the grower to compete with common meats such as poultry or fish. Certain parasitic worms can make the flesh inedible.</P>
    5803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5685
    58045686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although smaller than green iguanas, black iguanas are much more aggressive and will defend what they perceive to be their territory. They can inflict a painful bite. They also tend to escape from captivity more readily.</P>
    5805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5687
    58065688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these omnivores depend on animal matter during part of their life cycle.</P>
    5807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5689
    58085690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5691
     5692
    58115693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biology of the black iguana deserves much more study.</P>
    5812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5694
    58135695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management techniques developed for the green iguana should be tested for their applicability for black iguana species. Harvesting and recruitment schemes must be developed to create sustainable populations in the wild. The specific needs for feeding the young also need to be addressed.</P>
    5814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5696
    58155697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am convinced that in the Third World, it is only when poor people are assured of their livelihood that they will help us to safeguard their natural environments. So long as people remain hungry, it is very difficult to talk to them about conservation. As a result, I believe that development and conservation are inseparable. Only when conservation takes on a dimension of helping the poor, the downtrodden, the destitute, will it have an enduring impact.</P>
    5816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5698
    58175699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Swaminathan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources</P>
    5818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5700
    58195701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I suspect that wildness is an inherited characteristic as was found for the turkey by Starker Leopold. So in attempting domestication one should expect to have difficulty until there are enough animals that you can select breeding stock for quietness and tractability.</P>
    58205702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian McTaggart Cowan Emeritus Professor of Zoology</P>
    58215703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of British Columbia</P>
    5822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5704
    58235705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle will never be extinct for the simple reason that man eats cattle. The best way to preserve wild species is by demonstrating that they, too, can be a valuable resource.</P>
    58245706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernie Matteram</P>
    58255707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Times Magazine</P>
    5826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5708
    58275709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife utilization should be considered a legitimate form of land use, just as much as livestock husbandry. In fact, what has happened in the past is that Man has domesticated a limited number of animals, mainly in the temperate zones, while overlooking a considerable potential of other animals, which could be domesticated or used with equal validity.</P>
    58285710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon De Vos </P>
    5829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5830 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     5711
     5712<B>
    58315713<!--
    58325714</Section>
    … …  
    58375719  </Description>
    58385720-->
    5839 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5721</B>
     5722
    58415723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted in the preface, this report by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, frogs, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included fish, shrimp, and other aquatic life.</P>
    5842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5724
    58435725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that these are less worthy of consideration. The decision to leave them out was arbitrary, but with several recent breakthroughs in tropical beekeeping it seems prudent to include bees. Accordingly, the final chapter of this book describes the smallest livestock of all.</P>
    5844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5726
    58455727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees are one of the most promising microlivestock. They forage on flowers that are otherwise little utilized and produce honey, wax, and other products of high value. They are important as plant pollinators and can greatly increase the production of some crops. Bees can be kept virtually anywhere with little disruption of other activities, and they are easily available. </P>
    5846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5728
    58475729<B><P></P>
    58485730<!--
    … …  
    58525734  </Description>
    58535735-->
    5854 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5736</B>
    58555737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g040a.png"></center><br>
    58565738 FIGURE</P>
    5857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5739
    58585740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all the livestock reviewed in this publication, bees are the smallest, the least demanding of space, probably the most familiar, and perhaps the most easily adapted to worldwide rural development efforts. For all that, however, they are an often forgotten component in agricultural programs. This is unfortunate because bees can be particularly valuable to tropical countries, providing pollination of crops, useful products, and a premium source of income.</P>
    5859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5741
    58605742<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost every village in every tropical country traditionally has had a beekeeper or two. Most use "seat-of-the-pants" methods and "rustic" hives, and this generally leads to low yields and inefficiencies. Today, numerous innovative methods and appropriate equipment are coming available. Many are still not widely known; however, their importance is slowly being recognized. Indeed, some developing countries are already turning bees into a valued natural resource.</P>
    5861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5743
    58625744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in less than 10 years Kenya has become self-sufficient in honey production and - despite increased local consumption - is now exporting. In seven years, Papua New Guinea has met its local honey requirements and now also exports its surplus. In only four years, Thailand increased yearly production from practically nothing to more than 1,000 tons. In Brazil, beekeeping is more widespread and production greater than before the outbreak of the African honey bee. These achievements can be largely attributed to the promotion of innovative equipment, modern beekeeping techniques, and extension support for small-scale beekeepers.</P>
    5863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5745
    58645746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
    5865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5747
     5748
    58675749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees are generally easily recognized and need no description here. The major species and subspecies are all roughly similar in appearance and size. </P>
    5868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5750
    58695751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
    5870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5752
     5753
    58725754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among several hundred species of bees that store honey and pollen in harvestable amounts, only two "social" species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, produce multiple combs and can be kept in hives.' Given adequate forage and proper management, they can build up a honey surplus that can be harvested without harming their colonies.</P>
    5873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5755
    58745756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apis mellifera, the most widely distributed and exploited honey bee, comes from Europe and Africa. The subspecies from Europe (especially the Italian type, A. mellifera ligustica) is normally preferred because of its docility and high honey yields. It is now the predominant honey bee throughout the temperate zones of Europe, North America, Australasia, and China. </P>
    5875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5757
    58765758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the many subspecies in Africa, A. mellifera adansonii and A. mellifera scutellata have the widest native ranges. The latter was accidently released in Brazil in 1957. It has become naturalized and has dominated the European bees formerly kept by beekeepers. By l990, it had spread northwards to the southernmost areas of the United States and southwards deep into Argentina.</P>
    5877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5759
    58785760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The docile Asian hive bee, A. cerana, is found in Asia from the Middle East to Japan and as far south as Indonesia. Although it produces much less honey per hive than A. mellifera, its overall production in many Southeast Asian countries may be greater.</P>
    5879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5761
    58805762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
    5881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5763
     5764
    58835765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees do not face extinction. However, genetic diversity is disappearing due to loss of habitat, insecticides, displacement by massproduced, genetically uniform queens and exotic breeds, destructive harvesting, and the spread of diseases and pests such as protozoans, bacteria, insects, and mites.</P>
    5884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5766
    58855767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
    5886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5768
     5769
    58885770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees can exist in locations from deserts to rainforests and from near the Arctic to the tropics. They occur wherever there is nectar, pollen, tree resin (for nest building), shelter, and a little water. Heat, drought, and especially rain and humidity may curtail their activities, but a well-managed colony can survive periods of extreme adversity. </P>
    5889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5771
    58905772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
    5891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5773
     5774
    58935775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees live in rigidly hierarchical colonies. Normally there is a  single queen. After mating, she begins laying hundreds of eggs a day.  Those that are fertilized become sterile females, called workers; those  that remain unfertilized develop into males (drones), whose only role is  to fertilize future queens.</P>
    5894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5776
    58955777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two or three years the queen, worn-out, starts laying fewer  and fewer eggs, and the colony may replace her. At that time a few  female larvae are raised on royal jelly, a nutritious, little-understood  secretion that causes them to develop into queens.</P>
    5896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5778
    58975779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers perform different tasks as they mature. Young ones tend  the queen, guard the hive, and raise the larvae. Older ones, comprising  the vast majority of a colony's population, gather pollen and nectar and  water. Pollen provides the protein and fats, and the nectar, converted  into honey in the bee's body, provides carbohydrates to feed the colony.</P>
    5898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5780
    58995781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
    5900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5901 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5782
     5783
    59025784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee activities are dictated by weather, availability of food,  genetics, and the overall strength of the colony. They are mediated by  chemical interactions between the queen and the workers that control  almost all behavior.</P>
    5903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5785
    59045786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Asian and European hive bees are relatively docile, most  of the African subspecies are unpredictable and may defend their  colonies in great numbers and with great persistence. The threat of  "killer bees" has been greatly exaggerated, however. Africans have  provided them nests and hives - and harvested their honey - for  thousands of years.</P>
    5905 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5787
    59065788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally, large numbers of the bees in a colony split off from  their nest or hive. They usually cluster on a nearby tree or building,  calmly waiting for "scouts" to find a suitable new home. These  homeless swarms can be captured and will readily move into a hive—  the simplest and cheapest way for beekeepers to acquire a colony.</P>
    5907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5789
    59085790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
    5909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5791
     5792
    59115793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey and beeswax are two of nature's best known and most  valuable products. Honey can be employed in hundreds of foods. It is  widely used in baking because, in addition to its flavor, it retains  moisture better than sugar or syrup, and the product keeps longer. Honey-based alcoholic beverages are popular in many parts of the world.</P>
    5912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5794
    59135795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beeswax also is used in many products, including candles, lubricants, polish, waterproofings, soaps, cosmetics, and electronics. Beeswax can be locally important for `'lost-wax" metal-casting and sculptures as well as batik-dyed clothing.</P>
    5914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5796
    59155797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both bee pollen and royal jelly are used in cosmetics and can be eaten. Bee venom is used medicinally, particularly in Europe and the developing world. Bee larvae are eaten raw or fried in many parts of Asia and Africa and are considered a delicacy.</P>
    5916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5798
    59175799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
    5918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5800
     5801
    59205802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping bees means managing a colony so that it produces surplus honey or wax. Specifically this requires:</P>
    5921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5803
    59225804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Providing a suitable hive;</P>
    5923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5805
    59245806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Obtaining bees by collecting a swarm, transferring a wild colony, or purchasing a colony complete with an active queen;</P>
    5925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5807
    59265808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maintaining the colony free from natural enemies in an area that allows it to produce excess honey; and</P>
    5927 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5809
    59285810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Harvesting the excess honey without weakening the colony or causing it to flee (abscond).</P>
    5929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5811
    59305812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
    5931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5813
     5814
    59335815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few other livestock enterprises require less capital, less space, or less attention. Moreover, scarcely any other provides higher quality, more marketable products.</P>
    5934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5816
    59355817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is a respected and traditional activity in most areas of the world. It promotes self-reliance and requires little, if any, land or money. It is an easy-entry cottage industry that can be started with minimal equipment or training. It can be done by any member of a family as it requires no special strength or size. It is especially appropriate for increasing women's income in the many areas where men are away working.</P>
    5936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5818
    59375819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is suited to remote areas where many agricultural enterprises are at a competitive disadvantage because their products are bulky and far from the markets. Honey, wax, pollen, and other bee products can all be sold far from their point of origin, have high monetary value for their weight, and generally find a ready market. Local honeys often command premium prices (in part because many of them are considered medicinal). In addition, beekeeping encourages people to remain in rural areas rather than move to the city in search of an income.</P>
    5938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5820
    59395821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pollination increases the productivity of many crops, and therefore a few hives can boost local food production. By rotating hives among farmers' fields and orchards, a beekeeper performs a valuable service.</P>
    5940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5822
    59415823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is also an important adjunct to reforestation and desert reclamation projects. It can provide income during the long wait for the trees to reach marketable size. Many forests are potential reservoirs of honey and other products. In some cases, the bees also enhance the fruitfulness and standing value of forests. They also increase pollination in tree-seed orchards and tree nurseries. And in newly established forests, bees improve reseeding potential. </P>
    5942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5824
     5825
    59445826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BETTER BEEHIVES</P>
    5945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5827
     5828
    59475829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So many hives have been developed in recent years that a design now exists for almost any level of expertise. One of the most important for Third World beekeeping is the top-bar hive. This crate-like box, derived from an ancient Greek design, incorporates modern beekeeping principles but adds the innovation of sloping sides. Beneath its lid are removable boards (top bars) from which the bees hang the combs (because the sides are sloping the bees do not attach the edges of the comb to them). By lifting a top bar, the comb can be inspected and handled - and the honey harvested - with little disturbance to the colony.</P>
    5948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5830
    59495831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This simple hive can make beekeeping accessible to even the poorest people. It is easy to build and use, and can be locally constructed from scrap lumber. It is well suited for raising most types of honey bees.</P>
    5950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5832
    59515833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More elaborate and productive is the African long hive. In addition to having top bars, this square-sided box has removable frames within which the bees build their comb.</P>
    5952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5834
    59535835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most elaborate is the Langstroth hive - the type most common in temperate zones.* These yield the most honey. They can be made only where there are facilities for precise carpentry, where durable, nonwarping parts are available, and where there are good extension services to aid and assist beekeepers. Although traditional Langstroth hives are demanding to build and maintain, simplified designs have been created for use in developing countries.</P>
    5954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5836
    59555837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STINGLESS BEES</P>
    5956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5838
     5839
    59585840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By far the most common bees in the tropics, perhaps in the  world, are bees that cannot sting. Their stingers are so akophied  as to be essentially nonexistent (but some can deliver a pretty  fierce bite). They live in colonies and store their honey in wax  pots, some as large as egg cups.</P>
    5959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5841
    59605842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stingless bees can be abundant. In a two-block area in  downtown Panama City, 150 nests have been counted. However,  many species depend on trees and their populations are  plummeting as more and more tropical forests are felled.</P>
    5961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5843
    59625844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like honey bees, stingless bees have been "domesticated." For  thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Indians have raised  them in special hives made out of logs, gourds, clay pots, and  other simple containers. Cortes reported in 1519 that Indians on  the island of Cozumel, the now popular tourist spot off the east  coast of Yucatan, practiced beekeeping. That was almost 300 years  before the European honeybee was introduced. A popular Mayan  drink was honey wine, and Mayan beekeepers carved stone  earplugs to keep these bees out of their ears.</P>
    5963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5845
    59645846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey from stingless bees has less sugar than normal honey.  However, it is usually more tasty. It is used throughout the  tropics: the Americas, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia, for  instance. Normally, the nests are just robbed, which devastates  the bees because the queen cannot fly, and when she is disturbed  the colony dies. In some areas people open a little hole in the nest.  By putting in a plug, they can then harvest honey a couple of  times a year without destroying the colony.</P>
    5965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5847
    59665848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, a few scientists are reconsidering stingless beekeeping.  In the state of Maranhao in Brazil, an area of crushing poverty,  biologist Warwick Kerr is harnessing stingless bees. He began  after learning that peasants were spending a third of their meager  incomes buying sugar. As part of his experiments, he keeps 60  hives stacked in his garage on the outskirts of the city of San Luis.  (A notable feature of these bees is that there is no prohibition  against keeping them in populated areas.)</P>
    5967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5849
    59685850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kerr has found that stingless bees can be made to produce well.  After years of experimenting with different-sized boxes, he can  now obtain more than 4.5 lifers of honey per hive per year. He  reports that the stingless bees are easy to maintain, and can be  raised by poor peoole without land or equipment.  </P>
    5969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5851
    59705852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
    5971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5853
     5854
    59735855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared to raising four-footed livestock, beekeeping is inexpensive and fairly trouble free, but it is not without problems. Many things can go wrong, and include, for example:</P>
    5974 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5856
    59755857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Losses. Bees are susceptible to various predators, pests, and diseases. Although ways to avoid or control most afflictions are available, once a colony becomes infested it may have to be destroyed.</P>
    5976 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5858
    59775859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft. Hives or combs - usually kept in secluded areas - that are full of honey are tempting targets and may be stolen.</P>
    5978 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5860
    59795861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Swarming and absconding. Some or all of the bees may leave a hive and start a new nest, taking even the honey with them.2</P>
    5980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5862
    59815863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bad management. Beekeeping requires certain skills and knowledge, and sometimes frequent attention (such as when the colony is stressed, diseased, or swarming).</P>
    5982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5864
    59835865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lack of equipment. Beekeepers need hives, smokers (to quiet and repel the bees), hive tools, and - advisable but not absolutely necessary - gloves and a veil.</P>
    5984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5866
    59855867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate storage. Some areas lack the knowledge or the bottles in which to store liquid honey.3</P>
    5986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5868
    59875869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pesticides and herbicides. Nectar- and pollen-collecting bees are vulnerable to insecticides, which farmers may apply (often inappropriately) at the time their crops are flowering. Herbicides can destroy important sources of bee forage.</P>
    5988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5870
    59895871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Neighborhood concerns. Bees can sting people and livestock. Although wild bees (and other insects) are the principal culprits, the beekeeper is often blamed.</P>
    5990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5872
    59915873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stressful conditions. When rainfall, aridity, heat, or cold are excessive, bees often cannot produce surplus honey.</P>
    5992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5874
    59935875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
    5994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    5995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5876
     5877
    59965878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, much remains to be learned about the natural science of bees. Although some of the research requires sophisticated equipment and facilities, much can (or must) be performed locally by beekeepers because many factors - such as colony behavior, foraging habits, and microclimatic adaptation - depend on the local conditions. This research may include the following:</P>
    5997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5879
    59985880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Adaptation. The provision of locally adapted bee varieties is an important basis for developing advanced beekeeping. This can be done by selecting an appropriate local queen. Further, local breeding of queens and workers lessens the probability of importing exotic diseases and pests. Recent developments promise to move the mass production of queens and workers from the realm of high technology to common practice.4</P>
    5999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5881
    60005882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Integration. Continued developments in beekeeping cannot succeed without research, promotion, education, training, and extension services. These are essential for integrating beekeeping with agriculture and reforestation efforts. Thus, descriptions of agronomic plants should always include pollination requirements as well as nectar and pollen potentials. Planting nectar- and pollen-producing firewood species would increase the number of bees, which would in turn help ensure forest survival.</P>
    6001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5883
    60025884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bee plants. There is still much to be understood about the relative qualities that different plants bring to beekeeping. Recently, many valuable bee-forage plants have been identified.5 These deserve special consideration in any reforestation or beautification projects. Broad introduction of these plants may also encourage beekeeping that could produce high-value "specialty" honeys or ensure more continuous production of honey. There may also be a place for "bee farms," where every plant is bee forage.</P>
    6003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5885
    60045886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- New bee species. Nontraditional species of Apis as well as other members of the bee family (such as Anthophora, Bombus, Megachilae, Nomia, Osmia, Xylocopa, and especially Trigona and Melipona, which are stingless) should be studied to determine their role in pollination and - for some species - their further exploitation for honey. </P>
    6005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6006 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     5887
     5888<B>
    60075889<!--
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    6015 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5897</B>
    60165898<B><P></P>
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    60215903  </Description>
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    6023 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6024 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     5905</B>
     5906
    60255907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small selection follows of books and articles that are not too  difficult to locate and that will help readers explore each topic further. Obscure documents are accompanied by an address from which readers can obtain a reprint or photocopy.</P>
    6026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5908
    60275909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL</P>
    6028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5910
    60295911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grzimek, B. 1975. Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 1-13. Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company, New York.</P>
    60305912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
    6031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5913
    60325914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
    6033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5915
    60345916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1988. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties.  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Microcattle</P>
    60355917<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnard, J.P. and J.P. Venter. 1983. Indigenous and Exotic Beef Cattle in South West  Africa - A Progress Report. Available from Department of Agriculture and Nature  Conservation, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. (Sanga)</P>
    … …  
    60615943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thrower, W.R. 1954. The Dexter Cow. Revised third impression, 1980. The Spaulding Press, Bethel, Vermont, USA</P>
    60625944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
    6063 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5945
    60645946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
    6065 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5947
    60665948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of India. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
    60675949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ademosun, A.A. 1985. Capra spp.: The Emblem of Anarchy - The King-Pin of Man's Pastoral Life. Ife Lectures No. 3. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.</P>
    … …  
    61155997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117. Winrock International. 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.</P>
    61165998<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaltin, B.C. 1979. The Sheep Breeds of Afghanistan, lran, and Turkey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
    6117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     5999
    61186000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
    6119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6001
    61206002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
    61216003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals from Early Times. British Museum (Natural History), London.</P>
    … …  
    61316013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond, W.G. and J.H. Maner. 1984. Swine Production and Nutrition. AVI Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, USA.</P>
    61326014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
    6133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6015
    61346016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
    6135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     6017
     6018
    61376019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year by the World's Poultry Science Association, (c/o Institut f-r Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
    6138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6020
    61396021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry, an international journal on poultry, is published by Misset International, a department of Uitgeversmaatschappij, C. Misset b.v., Doetinchem-The Netherlands. (Address: Misset International, P.O. Box 4, 7000 BA Doetinchem, Netherlands.)</P>
    6140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6022
    61416023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Science is published monthly by the Poultry Science Association, Inc., 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, USA. British Poultry Science, a quarterly, is available c/o Longman Group Ltd., Subscriptions (Journals) Department, Fourth Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM195AA, UK. </P>
    6142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6024
    61436025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
    6144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6026
    61456027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA.</P>
    61466028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Domestic fowl. Pages 298-311 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    … …  
    61586040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, A.J. nd. Supplementation for scavenging animals. Unpublished paper. Copies available from A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.</P>
    61596041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R. 1984. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. BuDetin 469, University of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
    6160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6042
    61616043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Araucanian</P>
    6162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6044
    61636045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilhelm, G.O.E. 1965-1966. La Gallina Araucana (Gallus inauris castelloi 1914). Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, Boletia de Concepcion 40:5-26.</P>
    6164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6046
    61656047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
    6166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6048
    61676049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A film, Duck Farming—an Indonesian Tradition, is available from the CSIRO Film and Video Unit, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia. Soundtrack is in English or Indonesian and it is available in 16 mm or VHS/Beta Video.</P>
    6168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6050
    61696051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA. </P>
    61706052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Common duck. Pages 334-339 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    … …  
    61786060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
    61796061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yi Yung and Yu-Ping Zhon. 1980. The Pekin duck in China. World Animal Review 34:11-14.</P>
    6180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6062
    61816063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
    6182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6064
    61836065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Goose. Pages 345-349 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    61846066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1983. The Goose and its Possible Use for Controlling Weeds. Small Animals for Small Farms. GAN-I. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile.</P>
    … …  
    61886070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA Extension Service. 1983. Raising Geese. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2251. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
    61896071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
    6190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6072
    61916073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
    6192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6074
    61936075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many research papers have been published in French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian, but few in English.</P>
    61946076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ayeni, J.S.O. 1983. Studies of Grey Breasted Helmet Guineafowl (Numida meleagris galeata Pallas) in Nigeria. World's Poultry Science Journal 39(2):143-151.</P>
    … …  
    62046086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mongin, P. and M. Plouzeau. 1984. Guinea-fowl. Pages 322-324 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I . L. Mason, ed. Longman, London .</P>
    62056087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1970. Raising Cuinea Fowl. Leaflet No. 519. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
    6206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6088
    62076089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
    6208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6090
    62096091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Muscovy duck. Pages 340-344 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    62106092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Corville, H. 1972. La Production du Canard de Barbarie. Copies available from Institut nacional de la recherce agronomique (INRA), Nouzilly, France.</P>
    … …  
    62136095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.J., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1978. The Use of the Muscovy Drrck for Hatching of Alabio Duck &Yacute;ggs in the Swamplands of Kalimantan. Centre Report No. 7. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
    62146096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richet, M. 1985. La production du canard de Barbarie. Techniques Agricoles 3770.</P>
    6215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6097
    62166098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
    6217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6099
    62186100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abs, M., ed. 1983. Pltysiology and Behavior of the Pigeon. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
    62196101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hawes, R.O. 1984. Pigeons. Pages 351-356 in Evolution of Domesticated Anirnals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    … …  
    62246106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Wisconsin. 1977. Pigeons. Bulletin 4-H 135. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
    62256107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1963. Squab Raising. Farmers Bulletin No. 684. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
    6226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6108
    62276109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
    6228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6110
    62296111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bourquin, O. 1980. Biology of rhe Quail (Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus 1758). Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.</P>
    62306112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katoh, H. and N. Wakasugi. 1980. Studies on the blood groups in the Japanese quail: detection of three antigens and their inheritance. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 4:99-110.</P>
    … …  
    62396121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wakasugi, N. and K. Kondo. 1973. Breeding methods for maintenance of mutant genes and establishment of strains in the Japanese quail. Experimental Animals 22(Supplement): I 51 -9.</P>
    62406122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woodard, A.E., A. Abplanalp, W.O. Wilson, and P. Vohra. 1973. Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory. Department of Avian Sciences, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA.</P>
    6241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6123
    62426124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
    6243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6125
    62446126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, R. and D. Halvorson. 1985. Turkey Management Guide. Minnesota Turkey Growers Association, 678 Transfer Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, USA.</P>
    62456127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Turkey. Pages 325-334 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
    62466128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E. 1971. PoultryScience. InterstatePrintersandPublishers, Inc., Danville,</P>
    62476129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illinois, USA. Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
    6248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6130
    62496131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
    6250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     6132
     6133
    62526134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rabbit Research Center has been established at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. It publishes the Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, whose purpose is to convey current research information to those with an interest in commercial rabbit production. The journal describes research conducted at the center and reviews rabbit research results reported in the world's scientific literature.</P>
    6253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6135
    62546136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1976 in Paris, the World Rabbit Science Association (Typing House, Shurdington, Cheltenhem, Gloucestershire, GL51 SXF, UK) publishes a newsletter of coming events and chronicles the progress of rabbit farming in most countries of the world. Its aims are to facilitate the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry, disseminate knowledge, and study problems of production and marketing. Its members represent individuals and associations in 20 countries.</P>
    6255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6137
    62566138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The American Rabbit Breeder's Association (1925 South Main Street, Bloomington, Illinois 61701, USA) has published a book, Guide to Producing Better Rabbits, which contains an abundance of information concerning management and diseases of the domestic rabbit. The organization also publishes a bimonthly magazine, Domestic Rabbit, that includes a great deal of updated information on rabbit raising.</P>
    6257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6139
    62586140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asociacion Espanola de Cunicultura (Spanish Rabbit Science Association), Now, 23 08785 Ballbona d'Anoia, Barcelona, Spain, has a set of slides for training, covering breeds, handling, pathology, and commercialization.</P>
    6259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6141
    62606142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Workshop on Rabbit Husbandry. Copies of this report are available free of charge from the International Foundation for Science, Sibyllegatan 47, S-114 42 Stockholm, Sweden. </P>
    6261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6143
    62626144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Working Rabbit Literature Resources File. This materia, is directed at scientists working on some aspect of domestic rabbit research. It lists methods of computer searching for scientific reports in the world's scientific literature, various types of computer literature searches, including commerciaHy available ones, and government services. It a,so includes a list of prepared abstracts. The address is D.D. Caveny and H. L. Enos, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. </P>
    6263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6145
    62646146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
    6265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6147
    62666148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Livestock Development. 1981. Rabbit Production. Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development. Copies can be obtained from the Agricultural Information Centre, P.O. Box 14733, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
    62676149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1977. Rabbit Raising. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 Lynn</P>
    … …  
    62766158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sicivaten, J. and D. Stahl. 1982. A Complete Handbook on Backyard and Commercial  Rabbit Production. CARE/Philippines.</P>
    62776159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vogt, D.W. 1982. Raising Rabbits in Hawaii. Circular 499, Cooperative Extension  Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at  Manoa.</P>
    6278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6160
    62796161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
    6280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6162
    62816163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
    6282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6164
    62836165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing preliminary results in a captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from A. D. Cuaron (see Research Contacts for address).</P>
    62846166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deutsch, L.A., and G. Santos. 1984. Contribuitao pare o conhecimento do gOnero  Dasyprocta—reprodutao de cutias—entre cruzamente das espTcies Dasyprocta aguti,  Dasyprocta azarae e Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, II,  BelTm, 1984. Resumos. . .BelTm, SBZ/UFPalMPEC, p. 383-4/(Resumos 390). Copies  available from the authors, see Research Contacts.</P>
    … …  
    62916173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smythe, N. 1978. The Natural History of the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta  punctata). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 257. Smithsonian Institution,  Washington, D.C., USA. 52 pp.</P>
    62926174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tribe, C.J., R. Leher, M.C.O. Doglio, M.I.L. Rebello, D.S. Mello, and E.M.M. Guimar es.  1985. Uma tentative de esclarecimento do uso de espato e estrutura social na cutia  Dasyprocta a. aguti (Rodentia). Pages 296-7 in Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, 12,  Campinas, 1985. Resumos. . .Campinas, SBZ/UNICAMP, 1985. (Resumo 614.)  </P>
    6293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6175
    62946176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
    6295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6177
    62966178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A capybara bibliography, Bibliograf a sobre Chiguires (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), is available from E. Gonzalez-Jimenez and JosT Roberto de Alencar Moreira (see Research Contacts for addresses).</P>
    62976179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Puno.</P>
    … …  
    63066188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1973. Estudio Biologico del Chiguire o Capybara. Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuaria, Caracas, Republica de Venezuela. 27 pp.</P>
    63076189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zara, J.L. 1973. Breeding and husbandry of the capybara at Evansville Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 13:137-139.</P>
    6308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6190
    63096191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
    6310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6192
    63116193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Christen, M.F. 1978. Evaluacion nutritive de cuatro dietas mono especificas en la alimentacion del coipo (Myocastor coypus Molina 1782). Tesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.</P>
    63126194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deems, E.F., Jr., and D. Pursley. 1978. North American Fur bearers. Maryland Wildlife Administration, Department of Natural Resources, Cheltenham, Maryland, USA. pp. 155.</P>
    … …  
    63146196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murua, R., O. Newman, and J. Propelmann. 1981. Food habits of Myocastor coypus (Molina) in Chile. Pages 544-558 in Proceedings of rhe Worldwide Furbearer Conference, J.A. Chapman and D. Pursley, eds. Vol. 1. Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc., Frostburg, Maryland, USA.</P>
    63156197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria; Myocastor coypu. Pages 1059-1076 in Wild Mammals of NorthAmerica, J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. </P>
    6316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6198
    63176199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
    6318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6200
    63196201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ajayi, S.S. 1975. Domestication of the African Giant Rat. Department of Forest Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.</P>
    63206202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1982. Crude fibre tolerance by the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) (Potential sources of protein, Nigeria.) African Journal of Ecology 20(4):289-292.</P>
    … …  
    63246206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Studies 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
    63256207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    6326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6208
    63276209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
    6328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6210
    63296211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asibey, E.O.A. 1979. Some problems encountered in the field study of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) population in Ghana. Pages 214-7 in Wildlife Management in Savannah Woodland, S.S. Ajayi and L. B. Halstead, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</P>
    63306212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baptist, R. and G.A. Mensah. 1986. The Cane-Rat—Farm animal of the future? [Vorld Animal Review 60:2-6.</P>
    … …  
    63326214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pich, S. and K.J. Peters. 1985. Possibilities of using the cane cutter for meat production in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Copies available from K.J. Peters, Institute of Animal Breeding, Gottingen, Germany.</P>
    63336215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    6334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6216
    63356217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
    6336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     6218
     6219
    63386220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Let's Raise Guinea Pigs," a filmstrip on guinea pig farming, is available from World Neighbors International Headquarters, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma73112, USA.</P>
    6339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6221
    63406222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Huancayo, Peru. </P>
    63416223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1983. improvement of Guinea Pig Breeding as a Means of Increasing the Productivity and Production of Meat for Consumption oy the Rural Population in Peru. National University of Central Peru, Huancayo, Peru.</P>
    … …  
    63466228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muller-Haye, B. 1984. Guinea-pig or cuy. Pages 252-257 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
    63476229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stansfield, S.K., C.L. Scribner, R.M. Kaminski, T. Cairns, J.B. McCormick, and K.M. Johnson. 1982. Antibody to ebola virus in guinea pigs: Tandala, Zaire. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 146(4):483-486.</P>
    6348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6230
    63496231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
    6350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6232
    63516233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, S., C.A. Woods, G.S. Morgan, and W.L.R. Oliver. 1983. Geocaprornys brownii. Mammalian Species 201:1-5.</P>
    63526234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Ecomorfologia y rendimiento de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 279:1-19.</P>
    … …  
    63576239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1985. The Jamaican hutia or Indian Coney (Geocapromys brownii). A model programme for captive breeding and reintroduction? Symposium of the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 10:35-52. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    63586240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rowlands, I.W., and B.J. Weir, eds. 1974. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 34:1-482.</P>
    6359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6241
    63606242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
    6361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6243
    63626244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. and H. Genest. 1974. Le comportement social d'une colonide mares, Dolichotis patagonum Z. dans le Parc de BranfTrT. Zeitschrift fin Tierpsychologie 35:225-302.</P>
    63636245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taber, A.B. and D.W. Macdonald. 1984. Scent dispensing papillae and associated behaviour of the mare, Dolichotis patagonum (Rodentia: Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 203:298-302. </P>
    6364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6246
    63656247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
    6366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6248
    63676249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing progress in the captive-breeding project in Panama is available from Nicholas Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2071, Balboa, Panama. A report summarizing preliminary results in the captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from Alfredo D. Cuaron, (see Research Contacts).</P>
    6368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6250
    63696251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collett, S.F. 1981. Population characteristics of Agouti paca (Rodentia) in Colombia. Michigan State University, Publications of the Museum, Biological Series 5(7): 485-602.</P>
    63706252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matamoros, Y. 1982. Investigaciones preliminares sobre la reproduccion, comportamiento, alimentacion y manego del tepezcuinte (Cuniculus paca, Brisson) en cautiverio. Pages 961-992 in Zoologia Neotropical, Actas del VIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, P.J. Salinas, ed. (Copies available from Y. Matamores, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    6371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6253
    63726254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
    6373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6255
    63746256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E. nd. Growth rates in vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) in San Luis, Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, San Luis, Argentina. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    63756257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Llanos, A.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1952. Ecologia de la vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus maximus Blainv.) en el nordeste de la provincia de Entre Rios. Revista de Investigaciones Agricolas (Buenos Aires) 6:289-378.</P>
    6376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6258
    63776259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
    6378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6260
    63796261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1973. Lffe history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis Forster) in Botswana. Botswana Notes Record 5:209-213.</P>
    63806262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1979. Reproductive ecology of the springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana. Journal of Zoology 189:221-232.</P>
    … …  
    63856267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.</P>
    63866268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Velte, F.F. 1978. Hand-rearing springhaas Pedetes capensis at Rochester Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208. </P>
    6387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6269
    63886270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
    6389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6271
    63906272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Deer Farmer, a quarterly magazine, is published by the New Zealand Deer Farmers' Association, P.O. Box 2678, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
    63916273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Farming is the quarterly magazine of the British Deer Farmers Association (22 Levat Road, Inverness IV2 3NS, Scotland, UK).</P>
    6392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6274
    63936275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
    63946276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoffman, R.R. 1985. Digestion and feeding in deer: their morphophysiological adaptation. In Proceedings International Conference on Deer Biology and Production, eds. P.F. Fennessy and K.R. Drew. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
    … …  
    63966278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wemmer C., ed. 1987. The Biology and Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
    63976279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yerex, D. 1982. The Farming of Deer. Agricultural Publishing, Box 176, Carterton, New Zealand.</P>
    6398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6280
    63996281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
    6400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6282
    64016283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, R.N.B. 1987. The comparative anatomy and physiology of digestion in tragulids and cervids and its relation to food intake. In The Biology and Management of the Cenvidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
    64026284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1975. Le comportement du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia). Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 37:403-501.</P>
    … …  
    64076289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadran, M.K., S. Vellayan, and R. Karuppiah. 1983. Muscle weight distribution of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Pertanika 6(2):63-69. </P>
    64086290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, D.C. 1987. Captive Management of Tragulids at New York Zoological Park. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
    6409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6291
    64106292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
    6411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6293
    64126294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, J. 1981. Studies on digestion in Muntiacus reeves). M.Phil. thesis. Cambridge University. </P>
    64136295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrette, C. 1977. The social behavior of captive muntjac Muntiacus reeves) (Ogilby  1839). Zeitschrift f-r Tierpsychologie 43: 188-213.</P>
    … …  
    64226304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Ye Yingying, and Duan Xinsheng. 1980. Comparative cytogenetic studies on  the red muntjac, Chinese muntjac, and their Fl hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics  26:22-7.</P>
    64236305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yonzon, Pralad B. 1978. Ecological studies on Muntaicus muntjack. Journal of Natural  History Museum (Nepal) 2(2):91-100.</P>
    6424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6306
    64256307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
    6426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6308
    64276309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1974. Feeding musk deer in captivity and collecting musk from the live  animal. Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 2:11-14.</P>
    64286310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1975. Preliminary experience in raising the survival rate of musk deer.  Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 1 :17-19.</P>
    … …  
    64396321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang B. 1983. Musk-deer. Their capture, domestication and care according to Chinese experience and methods. Unasylva 35(139):16-24.</P>
    64406322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang, B.L., F.M. Dang, and B.S. Li. 1979. The Farming of Musk Deer. Agricultural Publishing Company, Peking.</P>
    6441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6323
    64426324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
    6443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6325
    64446326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England.</P>
    64456327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooke, A. and L. Farrell. 1983. Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). British Deer Society Publication No. 2. Elvy and Gibbs, Canterbury, UK.</P>
    64466328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1982. Quelques observations Tthologiques sur l'Hydropote de chine, Hydropotes inennis (Swinhoe, 1870) en captivitT. Zeitschrift fitr Saeugetierkunde 47: 175-185.</P>
    64476329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheng Helin and L. Housl. 1984. A preliminary study on the river deer (Hydropotes inermis) population of Shoushau Island (China) and adjacent islets. Acta Theriologica Sinica 4:161-166.</P>
    6448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6330
    64496331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
    6450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6332
    64516333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dittrich, L. 1972. Beobachtungen bei der Haltung von Cephalophus-Arten sowie zur Fortpflanzung und Jugendentwicklung von C. dorsalis und C. rufilatus in gefangenschaft. Zoologische Garten Lpz (N.F.) 42:1-16.</P>
    64526334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1980. L'Tcologie et la vie sociale du cTphalophe bleu (Cephalophus monticola Thunberg), petit ruminant forestier africain. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54: 205-266.</P>
    … …  
    64576339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schweers, S. 1984. The reproductive biology of the banded duiker Cephalophus zebra in comparison with other species of Cephalophus. Zeitschrift fur Saeugetierkunde 49(1):21-36.</P>
    64586340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whittle, C. and P. Whittle. 1977. Domestication and breeding of Maxwell's duiker. The Nigerian Field 42(4):13-21.</P>
    6459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6341
    64606342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope</P>
    6461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6343
    64626344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinage, C.A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Christopher Helm, UK. </P>
    6463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6345
    64646346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer</P>
    6465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6347
    64666348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. and P. Dunbar. 1974. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 35:481-493.</P>
    64676349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. 1979. Energetics, thermoregulation and the behavioural ecology of klipspringer. African Journal of Ecology 17:217-230.</P>
    64686350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. I . M . and E. P. Dunbar. 1 980 . The pairbond in klipspringer. A nimal Beha vior 28:219-229.</P>
    6469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6351
    64706352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik</P>
    6471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6353
    64726354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hendricks, H. 1975. Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 38:55-69.</P>
    64736355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1979. Observations Tcologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neltragus bates) de Winton, 1903, Artiodactyle, ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du gabon. Terre et vie 33: 159-239.</P>
    … …  
    64816363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morat, P. and M. Nording. 1978. Maximum food intake and passage of markers in the alimentary tract of the lesser mouse-deer. Malaysian Applied Biology 7:11-17.</P>
    64826364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yalden, D.W., M.J. Largen, and D. Kock. 1984. Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia. 5. Artiodactyla. Monitore Zoologico Italiano Supplemento 19:67-221.</P>
    6483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6365
    64846366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
    6485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6367
    64866368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
    6487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6369
    64886370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
    64896371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1977. Age and Sex Differences, Reproduction and Conservation of Iguana iguana. Milwaukee Public Museum Press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
    … …  
    64956377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. and T. Miller. 1984. Artificial nests for female green iguanas. Herpetological Review 15(2):57-58.</P>
    64966378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. 1986. Iguana management in Central America. BOSTID Developments 6(1). 4 pp. (Available from BOSTID Publications, HA 476, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.)</P>
    6497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6379
    64986380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
    6499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6381
    65006382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
    65016383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1978. Ecology and exploitation of Ctenosaura similis. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 51 :483-500. (Copies available from the authors, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    … …  
    65046386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez, M.G. 1986. Habitos alimenticios de iguanas y garrobos. La Prensa Grafica, San Salvador, May 5:55. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    65056387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanchez, S.A. 1985. El garrobo. El Diario de Hoy, San Salvador June 18:36. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
    6506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6388
    65076389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
    6508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6390
    65096391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donadio, O.K. and J.M. Gallardo. 1984. Biologia y Conservacion de las Especies del GTnero Tupinambis (Squamata, Sauria Teiidae) en la Republica Argentina. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia" Zoologia, 13(11):117-127. Agosto.</P>
    65106392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision Bibliografica de algunos aspectos de la Biologfa conservacion y explotacion de los lagartos del gTnero topinambis (Daudin, 1803) by Laura Venturino, Dr. Thesis, Universidad de la Republic (Uruguay) 1983).</P>
    65116393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report to World Wildlife Fund, USA, Biologia y aprovechamiento de una poblacion de Tupinambis references, by Claudio Blanco and Leohor Pessina (1985).</P>
    6512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6394
    65136395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
    6514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6396
    65156397<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the publications listed, many countries run beekeeping programs, and have literature and extension services available based on local experiences. </P>
    6516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6398
    65176399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Bee Research Association (IBRA) publishes a Newsletter for Beekeepers in Tropical and Subtropical Countries twice each year. Its purpose is to provide a forum for exchange of information about beekeeping. The Newsletter is funded by the United Kingdom Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and is distributed free of charge to those in developing countries involved with beekeeping. Write to the International Bee Research Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, United Kingdom, for subscription information. The IBRA can also provide information on forthcoming conferences, grant programs, and the names of other beekeepers in your country. The International Agency for Apiculture Development (IAAD) publishes a quarterly newsletter called Cornucopia that contains articles from beekeepers around the world, especially from the developing world. It provides information on producing, selling, and manufacturing hive products on a local level and discusses agroforestry and the pest and pesticide problems of honeybees. Write to Cornucopia, c/o M. Coleman, 6N 909 Roosevelt Avenue, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA, for a free sample. Subscriptions are $12 a year.</P>
    6518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6400
    65196401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adjare, S. 1984. The Golden Insect: a Handbook on Beekeeping for Beginners. Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in association with Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2 E8HN, UK. 103 pp.</P>
    65206402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, R.H., B. Buys, and M.F. Johannsmeier. 1983. Beekeeping in South Africa. Department of Agriculture BuHetin No. 394. Pretoria, South Africa. 207 pp.</P>
    … …  
    65396421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1978. Preparation of Honey for Market. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 544. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.</P>
    65406422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1976. Transitional hives for use with the tropical African bee Apis mellifera adansonii. Pages 181-189 in Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London. </P>
    6541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6423
    65426424<B><P></P>
    65436425<!--
    … …  
    65486430  </Description>
    65496431-->
    6550 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     6432</B>
     6433
    65526434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes the names and addresses of individuals and institutions who are familiar with the animal listed. Each person has agreed to answer requests for information and advice. This personal follow-through is the main way this book can stimulate the development of microlivestock.</P>
    6553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6435
    65546436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
    6555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6437
    65566438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle</P>
    6557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6439
    65586440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Ahunu, Animal Science Department, University of Ghana, P.O. Box 25, Legon, Ghana</P>
    65596441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
    … …  
    66086490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C.M. Trail, Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
    66096491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Warnick, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
    6610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6492
    66116493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
    6612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6494
    66136495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
    66146496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Adeloye, Faculty of Agriculture, Adeyemi College of Education, Onjo, Nigeria</P>
    … …  
    66876569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Wood, Highland Game Farm, Route 4, Box 450, Alexandria, Indiana 46001, USA</P>
    66886570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA</P>
    6689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6571
    66906572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep</P>
    6691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6573
    66926574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
    66936575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
    … …  
    67546636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Province Academy of Agricultural Sciences,  Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
    67556637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Yenikoye, FacultT d'Agronomie, UniversitT de Niamey, B.P. 10662, Niamey, Niger</P>
    6756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6638
    67576639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
    6758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6640
    67596641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
    67606642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,  University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  </P>
    … …  
    68076689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
    68086690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yong Shen Lee, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
    6809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6691
    68106692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
    6811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6693
    68126694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on poultry can generally be obtained from local ministries of agriculture or veterinary and livestock services. However, another source is the World's Poultry Science Association (c/o Institut fur Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has over 5,000 members from 40 national groups. Its objectives are (1) to advance poultry science and the poultry industry, (2) to disseminate and facilitate the exchange of knowledge pertaining to all branches of the poultry industry, (3) to encourage the promotion of world poultry congresses and regional conferences, and (4) to cooperate with other international organizations. It maintains working groups to explore and assess research work on tropical poultry problems. The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year. It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
    6813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6695
    68146696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
    6815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6697
    68166698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria </P>
    68176699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
    … …  
    68446726<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sunde, Poultry Science Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA</P>
    68456727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK </P>
    6846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6728
    68476729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
    6848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6730
    68496731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
    68506732<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ahmed, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
    … …  
    68936775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeong Shue Woh, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. No. 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
    68946776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cha Tak Yimp, Poultry and Swine Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Mahameru, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
    6895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6777
    68966778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
    6897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6779
    68986780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many universities have a department of animal or poultry science that should know about the culture and management of these birds.</P>
    6899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6781
    69006782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
    69016783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
    … …  
    69106792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
    69116793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
    6912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6794
    69136795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
    6914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6796
    69156797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
    69166798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Guinea Club, c/o Angie Papp, 620 Payne Road, New Albany, Indiana 47150, USA</P>
    … …  
    69346816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
    69356817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
    6936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6818
    69376819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
    6938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6820
    69396821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
    69406822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Primary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
    … …  
    69636845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua. Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
    69646846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
    6965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6847
    69666848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
    6967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6849
    69686850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
    69696851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
    … …  
    69876869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sim, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada</P>
    69886870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
    6989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6871
    69906872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
    6991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    6992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     6873
    69936874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people raise Japanese quail. Probably the best way to locate a local source is to consult local pet stores, the county farm advisor's office, university faculty of agriculture, game-bird fanciers, and the like. Finding people with local research experience is usually most useful to beginners. Coturnix International, Inc., is a nonprofit organization with primary interests in promoting small domesticated food animal production for both youth training and improved nutrition. The use of coturnix (Japanese quail) for these purposes is already well established in a number of Michigan schools and in the Dominican Republic, with special emphasis on science projects, especially where nutritional inadequacies exist. The address is Coturnix International Inc., International Headquarters, 1111 Michigan Avenue, Box 250O, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA. Avian Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
    6994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6875
    69956876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines </P>
    69966877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
    … …  
    70156896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Wakasugi, Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusaku, Nagoya, Japan</P>
    70166897<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, Archer Road, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6898
    70186899<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
    7019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6900
    70206901<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
    70216902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animaland Poultry Science, UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada</P>
    … …  
    70266907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
    70276908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences. Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
    7028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6909
    70296910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential New Poultry</P>
    7030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6911
    70316912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Duckett, P.O. Box 12378, 50776 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (barn owls)</P>
    70326913<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Marion, Department of Wildlife and Range Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (chachalaca)</P>
    70336914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Smal, Wildlife Service, Sidmonton Place, Bray County, Wicklow, Ireland (barn owls) </P>
    7034 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6915
    70356916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
    7036 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6917
    70376918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
    7038 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6919
    70396920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,  P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
    70406921<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
    … …  
    70786959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Valls, Institut de Recerce i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA), Torre Marimon, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain</P>
    70796960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Zaragoza, Departamento de Genetica y Mejora, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
    7080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6961
    70816962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
    7082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6963
    70836964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
    7084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6965
    70856966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brazilia, DF, Brazil</P>
    70866967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
    … …  
    71076988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    71086989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6990
    71106991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
    7111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     6992
    71126993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
    71136994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
    … …  
    71387019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
    71397020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7021
    71417022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
    7142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7023
    71437024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Carmichael, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1045, USA</P>
    71447025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Chapman, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
    … …  
    71507031<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szumiec, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Polish Academy of Sciences, Golysz 43-422 Chybie, Poland</P>
    71517032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7033
    71537034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
    7154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7035
    71557036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), P.O. Box 20, Achimota, Chana</P>
    71567037<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
    … …  
    71667047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
    71677048<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
    7168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7049
    71697050<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
    7170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7051
    71717052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Alexander, Department of Biology, Natal University, King George V Avenue, Durban 4001, South Africa</P>
    71727053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.O.A. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
    … …  
    71967077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. von Korn, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 G(ttingen, Germany</P>
    71977078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Walder, Presbyterian Rural Training Centre, P.O. Box 72, Bamenda, NW Province, Cameroon</P>
    7198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7079
    71997080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
    7200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7081
    72017082<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Pimary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
    72027083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
    … …  
    72357116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
    72367117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7118
    72387119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
    7239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7120
    72407121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Allen, Hope Zoo, Kingston, Jamacia</P>
    72417122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Canet, Instituto de Zoologla, Academia Ciencias de Cuba, Calle 214, esq. a Avenida 19, No. 17A 09, Reparto Atabey, Havana 16, Cuba</P>
    … …  
    72467127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    72477128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7129
    72497130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
    7250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7131
    72517132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.T. Blankenship, Animal Resources Center, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
    72527133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
    … …  
    72567137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.H. Pryor, Jr., School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
    72577138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
    7258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7139
    72597140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
    7260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7141
    72617142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
    72627143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
    … …  
    72807161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. VaidTs, Centro Universitario del Norte Carrera ZootTcnica, Coban, A.V., Ciudad Guatemala 16001, Guatemala</P>
    72817162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7163
    72837164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
    7284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7165
    72857166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
    72867167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
    … …  
    72887169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
    72897170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    7290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7171
    72917172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
    7292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7173
    72937174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.M. Butynski, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Zoology Department, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda (springhare)</P>
    72947175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Flannery, Australian Museum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
    … …  
    73047185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Van der Merwe, University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
    73057186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, POB 3497, Harare, Zimbabwe (springhare) </P>
    7306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7187
    73077188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
    7308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7189
    73097190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
    7310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7191
    73117192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
    73127193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
    … …  
    73287209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
    73297210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Whittow, Department of Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
    7330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7211
    73317212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
    7332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7213
    73337214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Barrette, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences et de GTnie, UniversitT Laval, QuTbec, GIK 7P4, Canada</P>
    73347215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
    … …  
    73667247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Wurster-HiH, Department of Pathology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA</P>
    73677248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Yahner, 320 Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA </P>
    7368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7249
    73697250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
    7370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7251
    73717252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
    73727253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
    … …  
    73877268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Co., The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
    73887269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
    7389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7270
    73907271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
    7391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7272
    73927273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Cooke, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI I UA, UK</P>
    73937274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Farrell, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI IUA, UK</P>
    … …  
    74027283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
    74037284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA 2263O, USA</P>
    7404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7285
    74057286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American Microdeer</P>
    7406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7287
    74077288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sampath, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlffe Breeders and Farmers Association, c/o 5 3/4 Mile Mark, Penal Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad, West Indies (red brocket)</P>
    74087289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA (pudu)</P>
    7409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7290
    74107291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
    7411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7292
    74127293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
    74137294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Projet Petits Ruminants, B.P. 65, Atakpame, Togo</P>
    … …  
    74277308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Varga, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 225B Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
    74287309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J. Wilson, Duiker Research and Breeding Centre, Chipangali Wildlife Trust, P.O. Box 1057, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
    7429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7310
    74307311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Small Antelope</P>
    7431 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7312
    74327313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
    74337314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
    … …  
    74467327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
    74477328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (dikdik, klipspringer, four-horned antelope)</P>
    7448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7329
    74497330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
    7450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7331
    74517332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
    7452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7333
    74537334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
    74547335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.M. Burghardt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA</P>
    … …  
    74687349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
    74697350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apa,-tado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
    7470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7351
    74717352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
    7472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7353
    74737354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
    74747355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
    … …  
    74827363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
    74837364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
    7484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7365
    74857366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Iguana</P>
    7486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7367
    74877368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Auffenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    74887369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Auth, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
    … …  
    74937374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
    74947375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Wiewandt, Wild Horizons, Inc., P.O. Box 5118, Tucson, Arizona 85703, USA</P>
    7495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7376
    74967377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
    7497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7378
    74987379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Blanco, Direccion Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Avenida Paseo Colon 922 2&Yacute;piso, (1063) Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
    74997380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.K. Donadio, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
    … …  
    75047385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
    75057386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
    7506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7387
    75077388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
    7508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7389
    75097390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Agriculture Extension Services and beekeepers are often the best source of information for beginning beekeeping. In addition, the following organizations can provide information: International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CF1 3DY, UK; International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
    7510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7391
    75117392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Abt, Centre for International Agricultural Development Cooperation, Tel Aviv, Israel M. Adey. International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
    75127393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.O. Adjare, Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
    … …  
    75677448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siriwat Wongsiri, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok7 Thailand (Apis cerana) </P>
    75687449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Yan-ru, Department of Insect Taxonomy and Faunistics, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haitien, Beijing, People's Republic of China </P>
    7569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7450
    75707451<B><P></P>
    75717452<!--
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    75767457  </Description>
    75777458-->
    7578 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7459</B>
    75797460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS retired in 1982 from the post of deputy director general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy, a post he held for four years. Among his earlier posts were that of professor and head, Animal Husbandry Department, Utah State University; senior animal husbandman in charge, Genetic Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); chief, Animal Production Branch and deputy director, Agriculture Division, FAO; and executive director, International Organization Affairs, USDA. Among his special assignments were: serving as consultant on animal breeding to the governments of China and India for the U.S. Department of State in 1943-44; and as scientific secretary for agriculture of the United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for the Benefit of Developing Countries, in Ceneva, Switzerland, 1962-63. Dr. Phillips holds a B.S. degree in agriculture from Berea College (1930), M.A. (1931) and Ph.D. (1934) degrees from the University of Missouri, and Honorary D.Sc. degrees from Berea College and West Virginia University. He has been awarded the Berea College Distinguished Alumnus Award and the USDA's Distinguished Service Award. He is author or coauthor of some 240 scientific papers, review papers, chapters in books, and books on various aspects of physiology of reproduction, genetics, livestock production, and international agriculture. In his research, writings, and international activities, Dr. Phillips has given particular attention to breeding in relation to the environment and to the identification and conservation of valuable animal genetic resources. He is also the author of a definitive history of FAO entitled FAO: Its Origins, Formation and Evolution, 19451981 and an autobiography, The World Was My Barnyard. </P>
    75807461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU is currently senior advisor to the president of the African Development Bank. He is also president of ESA Associates, Washington, D.C., and former director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A citizen of Ghana, he received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests cover many areas of tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries, he has also published extensively on tropical plants. Dr. Ayensu chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
    … …  
    76037484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS IS curator of mammals at the Florida State Museum and a professor of zoology at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. in zoology from the University of Denver and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts. He worked at the University of Vermont from 1970 to 1979 when he assumed his present position at the University of Florida. His principle research interests have been in the areas of mammalian ecology (Rodentia) and systematics and evolution and he is especially concerned with island biology. He has spent many years working in the West Indies on a variety of projects and has worked closely with the government of Haiti in establishing a plan for the National Parks of Haiti and in completing a biogeophysical inventory of the natural resources of Hispaniola. He is the ecological consultant for the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National in Haiti. He is the author of a number of scientific articles on the fauna of the Antilles including a multivolume series on the fauna of the mountains of Haiti. </P>
    76047485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL is associate dean for research and graduate training of the School of Veterinary Medicine, assistant director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and professor of pathobiology and of veterinary science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his B.S. in wildlife management from Utah State University in 1959 and his Ph.D. jointly in veterinary science and wildlife ecology in 1964 from the University of Wisconsin. His principal research interests are animal health and diseases of wildlife, including those transmissible to domestic animals and to man. He worked in Thailand for two years and has had active research programs in Colombia for 17 years, and Costa Rica for 5 years. He has recently become involved in animal health and production development in the Gambia, West Africa. Dr. Yuill is an executive committee member and immediate past president of the Organization for Tropical Studies and currently serves as president of the Wildlife Disease Association. He completed a five-year term as Chairman of the U.S. Virus Diseases Panel of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Biomedical Sciences Program. </P>
    7605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    7606 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     7486
     7487<B>
    76077488<!--
    76087489</Section>
    … …  
    76137494  </Description>
    76147495-->
    7615 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7496</B>
    76167497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER SHAKOW, Director, Strategic Planning and Review,</P>
    76177498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank, Washington, D.C., Chairman</P>
    7618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7499
    76197500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    7620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7501
    76217502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICIA BARNES-MCCONNELL, Director, Bean/Cowpea CRSP, East Lansing, Michigan</P>
    76227503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JORDAN J. BARUCH, President, Jordan Baruch Associates, Washington, D.C.</P>
    … …  
    76367517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARD P. DINEEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
    76377518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES B. WYNGAARDEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
    7638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     7519
    76397520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development Publications and Information Services (H A-476E)</P>
    76407521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
    … …  
    76427523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.</P>
    76437524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20418 U SA</P>
    7644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     7525</FONT>
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    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs National Research Council </P>
    18 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    19 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    20 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
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    2119<!--
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    2523  </Description>
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    27 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     25</B>
    2826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
    2927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
    30 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     28
    3129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropiate balance.</P>
    32 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     30
    3331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
    34 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     32
    3533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
    36 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     34
    3735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to developing countries.</P>
    38 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     36
    3937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN/ 5538-G-SS-1023-00.</P>
    40 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     38
    4139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding for this printing was provided by the Office of Agriculture, Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., under Grant No. DAN 1406-G-SS-4001-00.</P>
    42 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     40
    4341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983</P>
    4442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, July 1984</P>
    45 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     43
    4644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-061909</P>
    47 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     45
    4846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    4947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Study</P>
    50 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     48
    5149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
    52 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     50
    5351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors </P>
    54 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     52
    5553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMBAR ROESYAT, Research Institute for Animal Husbandry, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    56 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     54
    5755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. B. ARKA, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia </P>
    58 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     56
    5957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. S. F. BARKER, Professor of Animal Sciences and Head of Department, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    60 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     58
    6159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Research Department, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA </P>
    62 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     60
    6361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN BERESKIN, Research Geneticist, Nonruminant Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Animal Science Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
    64 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     62
    6563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALEIGH A. BLOUCH, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    66 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     64
    6765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. BONGERS, Nature Conservation Department, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
    68 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     66
    6967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France </P>
    70 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     68
    7169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. BOSMA, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
    72 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     70
    7371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. BUTCHER, Assistant Director, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    74 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     72
    7573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. CHILD, Wildlife and Parks Management Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
    76 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     74
    7775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, International Animal Consultant, Almansil, Algarve, Portugal </P>
    78 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     76
    7977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAUL CONRY, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Guam </P>
    80 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     78
    8179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD J. COOLIDGE, Former President, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA </P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     80
    8381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. P. CROWCROFT, General Director, Metropolitan Zoo, Toronto, Canada </P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     82
    8583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA </P>
    86 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     84
    8785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DEPPNER, Tropical Livestock Consultant, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
    88 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     86
    8987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, Head, Feed Resources and Animal Nutrition Branch, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
    9088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. DOLAN, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA DUKUT SULARSASA, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia </P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     89
    9290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. EPSTEIN, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel (retired) </P>
    93 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     91
    9492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. FINNIE, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     93
    9694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Director, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, JustusLiebig-Universitat, Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany </P>
    97 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     95
    9896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN FLETCHER, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    99 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     97
    10098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNIE P. GRAY, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland (retired) </P>
    101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     99
    102100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. B. GRIFFITHS, Director, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
    103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     101
    104102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. R. GRiMWOOD, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
    105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103
    106104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia </P>
    107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    108106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ULRICH HALDER, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, Basel, Switzerland </P>
    109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     107
    110108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES G. HICKMAN, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey </P>
    111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     109
    112110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOFFMAN, Veterinarian, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    114112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. G. HOLMES, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia </P>
    115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     113
    116114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. HUITEMA, Veterinarian, Osterbeek, The Netherlands </P>
    117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     115
    118116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. HUTASOIT, Director-General, Livestock Services, Jakarta, Indonesia </P>
    119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     117
    120118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENT JORGENSEN, Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark </P>
    121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     119
    122120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAT KlEFFER, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA </P>
    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     121
    124122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     123
    126124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
    127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     125
    128126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEINZ-GEORG KLOS, Director, Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, West Germany </P>
    129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     127
    130128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUSMAT TANUDIMADJA, Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     129
    132130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     131
    134132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. LUKAS, White Oak Plantation, Yulee, Florida, USA </P>
    135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     133
    136134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. MACDONALD, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
    137135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN MACKINNON, Representative, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     136
    139137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. McDOWELL, Professor, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA </P>
    140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     138
    141139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. McNEELY, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland </P>
    142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     140
    143141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Honorary Secretary, Institute of South-east Asian Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland </P>
    144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     142
    145143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[AN L. MASON, Animal Breeding Consultant, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
    146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     144
    147145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEERT MONTSMA, Vakgroepen Veefokkerij, Veehouderij, Tropische Veehouderij, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
    148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     146
    149147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria, Australia </P>
    150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     148
    151149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. MILLER, Chief, Milk Secretion and Mastitis Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
    152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     150
    153151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAN NARI, Director, Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     152
    155153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARVEY NEESE, President, Agri-Food Systems International, Inc., Troy, Idaho, USA </P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     154
    157155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. NITIS, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia </P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     156
    159157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER, Chairman, lUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom </P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     158
    161159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN PAYNE, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    163161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Tropical Animal Breeding Consultant, London, England </P>
    164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162
    165163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Arlington, Virginia, USA </P>
    166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    167165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Scientific Advisor, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    169167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID W. ROBINSON, Associate Dean, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California, USA </P>
    170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    171169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK J. ROBINSON, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, England </P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    173171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. ROLLINSON, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy </P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    175173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLIVE ROOTS, Director, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada </P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    177175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. SAYER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    179177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. E. SATTER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
    180178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORCE B. SCHALLER, New York Zoological Society, New York, New York, USA </P>
    181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     179
    182180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN SCHOTTLER, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industry, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
    183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     181
    184182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE SEIFERT, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
    185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     183
    186184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROGER V. SHORT, Professor of Reproductive Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia </P>
    187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     185
    188186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. C. SINHA, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
    189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     187
    190188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK J. SIMOONS, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Davis, USA </P>
    191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     189
    192190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. D. SIMPSON, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
    193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     191
    194192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. SITORUS, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     193
    196194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. SMITH, Royal School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
    197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     195
    198196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. J. STOLP-DIEPEVEEN, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
    199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     197
    200198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBANDRlYO, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     199
    202200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. SUMADI, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
    203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     201
    204202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. TALBOT, World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, Switzerland </P>
    205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     203
    206204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARREN D. THOMAS, Director, Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California, USA </P>
    207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     205
    208206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. THROP, Director, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     207
    210208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Private Consultant in Animal Production, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
    211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     209
    212210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
    213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     211
    214212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HELEN NEWTON TURNER, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     213
    216214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. VAN PUIJENBROECK, Curator of Mammals, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium </P>
    217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     215
    218216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. J. WARWICK, Visiting Professor, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
    219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     217
    220218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARTOMO HARDJOSUBROTO, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
    221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     219
    222220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. H. WHARTON, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia </P>
    223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     221
    224222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. WHEELER, Project Manager, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    225223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. WOODFORD, Wildlife Veterinarian, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
    226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     224
    227225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.A.YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada </P>
    228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     226
    229227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.ZULBARDI, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     228
    231229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Asian Animals Study Director </P>
    232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     230
    233231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
    234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     232
    235233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
    236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     234
    237235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
    238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    239237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE RECKS, Administrative Secretary </P>
    240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     238
    241239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    242240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is high time that the world was made aware of the valuable, large ruminant genetic resources of Southeast Asia.</P>
    243241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN Livestock Specialist Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute Kyabram, Victoria, Australia</P>
    244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     242
    245243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without utilization preservation is doomed to failure. Local breeds able to perform well in difficult habitats, such as in sparse vegetation, mountainous terrain, or the tropics, should be used for their agricultural potential. Breeds that demonstrate hybrid vigor on crossing with improved or exotic breeds also merit utilization. Genetically unique breeds should be retained for scientific studies of genetics, evolution, and biochemistry. And aesthetically attractive and historically important breeds should be maintained in parks and preserves for their educational and cultural values.</P>
    246244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. L. MASON Animal Breeding Consultant Edinburgh. Scotland </P>
    247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     245
    248246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p00.png"></center><br>
    249247 YAK</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    252 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     248
     249<B>
    253250<!--
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    258255  </Description>
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    260 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     257</B>
    261258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report began as a brief examination of the domesticated banteng, a little studied bovine that is an important livestock resource in eastern Indonesia. But the study expanded to include other possibly useful but obscure bovines of Asia: the madura (a hybrid between banteng and cattle), gaur, mithan, kouprey, anoa, tamaraw, yak, and yakows—hybrids formed by crossing yaks with cattle. Four pig species were also included (the bearded pig, the Sulawesi warty pig, the Javan warty pig, and the pygmy hog) that are important traditional resources in parts of Asia, as well as the babirusa—a piglike, wild animal of Sulawesi that may have a rudimentary rumen. (Asia also has some interesting, little-known breeds of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and the common pig, but in this report we have chosen to highlight unconventional species only.)</P>
    262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     259
    264260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are unfamiliar to international animal science. This report aims to kindle awareness of their possible promise and to stimulate their introduction into projects in the world's animal research facilities. Only through active investigation will the potential of these species - most of which are now familiar only to a small number of wildlife specialists - become clear. Many are threatened with extinction; their genetic merits should be assessed before it is too late.</P>
    265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    266262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development agencies and governments in the tropics should regard local species, such as those described in this report, as important genetic material for bolstering the long-term success of domestic livestock breeding programs. These indigenous resources can probably be improved genetically to compare favorably with imported livestock, particularly in difficult tropical environments.</P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    268264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared after Hugh Popenoe, Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI), and Noel Vietmeyer of the ACT! staff visited banteng researchers in Indonesia, northern Australia, and Papua New Guinea in May 1981. More than 90 researchers (see contributor's list) provided information to the report through correspondence.</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     265
    270266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI is a committee of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. It assesses unconventional resources and technologies that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. Current titles in the ACTI series Managing Tropical Animal Resources are: </P>
    271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     267
    272268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981)</P>
    273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     269
    274270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
    275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     271
    276272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
    277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     273
    278274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983). </P>
    279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     275
    280276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report.</P>
    281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     277
    282278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an exploratory volume. It will, perhaps, lead in a few years' time to a more complete book on indigenous Asian animals - and perhaps also to similar books on little-known animals of Africa and Latin America. If you have material to contribute to the future edition, please send it to Noel Vietmeyer, JH213, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418, USA, who will contact you when any new publication on this subject is planned.</P>
    283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    285 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     279
     280<B>
    286281<!--
    287282</Section>
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    291286  </Description>
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    293 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     288</B>
    294289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia has several domesticated animals about which little is known. Among them are the banteng ("Bali cattle") of Indonesia, the yak of Central Asia's high country, and the mithan of the border region of India, Burma, and Bangladesh.( *The promise of another Asian animal, the water buffalo, is described in companion report no 32. ) Some Asian farmers use domesticated bovine hybrids: the madura (banteng-cattle hybrid) in Indonesia and the yakow (yak-cattle hybrid) in Central Asia. In addition, domesticated forms of at least two Asian pig species (the Indonesian wild boar and the Sulawesi warty pig) are important husbandry animals in parts of Indonesia.</P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     290
    296291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among Asia's undomesticated animals are five interesting and potentially valuable species of wild bovines: the kouprey in Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea; the gaur in India and much of Southeast Asia; two species of anoas in Indonesia; and the tamaraw in the Philippines. There are also three species of undomesticated Asian pigs: the bearded pig, the Javan warty pig and pigmy hog. Perhaps the strangest Asian animal of all is the babirusa, a piglike species of eastern Indonesia that may be a rudimentary ruminant.</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     292
    298293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these animals are either threatened or endangered species, and some will soon be extinct unless scientists, governments, and resource managers take forceful action to preserve them. Scientific management and a better understanding of the animals themselves is required.</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     294
    300295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important need is to investigate their potential as livestock resources. All seem to be disease resistant and well adapted to difficult natural conditions. Some will interbreed with conventional livestock and might thereby pass on important characters to hybrid progeny. A few of the wild species are ancestors of domestic livestock and could be important genetic reservoirs for maintaining or improving the quality of their domestic descendants. Others may make useful new domesticates.</P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     296
    302297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation of their potential in the long-term for the world's agricultural development could create a momentum for the protection, preservation, and greater use of these little-known animals.</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     298
    304299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imported Livestock</P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     300
    306301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, many thought that the best way to raise animal productivity in tropical developing countries was to introduce high-performing breeds from temperate industrialized areas. The fact that the exotic animals were much more productive than local stock made this seem very appealing. But many such importations ended in failure when the animals either quickly died or their growth or reproduction rates declined so drastically that the herds dwindled away or became uneconomic. These introductions had been made without adequate consideration of the local environment that was expected to support the imported animal.</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     302
    308303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More recently, some animal scientists have decried the idea of wholesale importing of temperate-zone livestock into tropical countries without also evaluating the indigenous livestock. In many cases the local animals' apparent poor performance results not from their lack of genetic potential, but from inadequate feeding, breeding, selection, management, and health care.</P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     304
    310305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Animals</P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     306
    312307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until an objective evaluation of particular indigenous breeds is undertaken, governments should regard local animals as vitally important for the long-term development of their domestic livestock industries.</P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308
    314309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve an agriculture that is compatible with nature, we should try to raise an animal as much as possible within its own natural environment. Indigenous species are necessarily well adapted to their surroundings and have survival qualities that imported livestock often lack. They generally select food, either graze or browse, better than foreign species and can therefore exploit the habitat more efficiently and live within it more harmoniously.</P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     310
    316311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But most of the livestock species the world depends on today are best adapted to temperate conditions. This is because Stone Age peoples in what today are Europe, the Middle East, and eastern China domesticated the prototypes of agricultural animals that were available in those places. The world's best-known breeds of cattle, wool sheep, and horses, for example, usually perform well in temperate regions and poorly in the tropics.</P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     312
    318313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species described in this report offer promise as new and important alternative livestock resources for tropical regions. </P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     314
    320315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    321316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embryo Transplants</P>
    322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    323318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems likely that modern technology will substantially improve our ability to use new species and breeds of livestock. One of the most encouraging of the new biotechnology techniques is embryo transplantation. In this process multiple eggs (produced by hormonally stimulating female animals) are fertilized and transplanted to other female animals. The hormonal cycles of the donor and receiving animals are synchronized so that a pregnancy results.</P>
    324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    325320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique is widely used to transfer embryos between cattle, but researchers are now exploring transfers between different species and even between different genera. In 1981, for example, animal scientists at the New York Zoological Garden transplanted a fertilized gaur ovum into a Holstein cow, which carried the gaur calf to term. Now veterinarians at the University of Florida are attempting to transplant water buffalo embryos into both zebu and Holstein-Friesian cattle, and vice versa. If such pioneering work can become everyday practice, it will open possibilities of using common livestock to raise rare animals.</P>
    326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    327322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, because embryos are thought to be free of many diseases, their shipment between nations may soon be permitted without elaborate quarantine precautions. Methods for freezing embryos have been worked out so that the tiny bundles of cells can be air freighted inexpensively in small, insulated containers. This may make animals such as those discussed in this report available to Africans, Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans. It may vastly simplify the worldwide exchange of animal genetic material and become the animal counterpart of exchanging seeds.</P>
    328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    329324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional benefit of embryo transplants is that the surrogate mother's placental blood supply provides the fetus with natural immunity to some local diseases, thus perhaps reducing one of the most serious causes of failure when exotic animals are introduced to new environments. And at Utah State University it has been noted that raising wildsheep embryos in domestic ewes produces lambs that are more docile than if they were raised by their biological mothers. Embryo transplants may be a small step toward domesticating new animals.</P>
    330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     325
    331326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With these possibilities on the horizon, it becomes even more important that all countries preserve their indigenous animals. The rest of this report suggests and discusses Asian species for protection and study. </P>
    332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    333 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     327
     328<B>
    334329<!--
    335330</Section>
    … …  
    339334  </Description>
    340335-->
    341 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336</B>
    342337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable that two of our widely used livestock species were domesticated in the Asian tropics: the zebu or humped cattle in India and the water buffalo in the humid marshlands of northeastern India or Southeast Asia. (Both the chicken and some races of pig may also have a tropical Asian origin, but the exact sites of their earliest domestication is unclear.) There are, however, other, much more localized, domesticated bovines in Asia. These are not well studied and deserve greatly increased recognition.</P>
    343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     338
    344339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section highlights:</P>
    345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     340
    346341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Domesticated banteng</P>
    347342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banteng-cattle hybrids</P>
    … …  
    349344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak</P>
    350345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yakows. </P>
    351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     346
    352347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is time for the world's scientific community to study the genetics, evolution, and biochemical parameters of the unique animal resources, that are found in Southeast Asia. ALLEN D. TILLMAN Animal Consultant Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     348
    354349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though well adapted for survival in their own harsh tropical environments, many domestic livestock breeds are being neglected in the race to achieve temperate zone levels of productivity. CHARLES HICKMAN Department of Dairy Cattle Breeding Ottawa, Canada </P>
    355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     350
    356351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies should be made of the present and potential role, productivity and efficiency of all domestic animals and birds, large and small, before they are replaced by imported types. Many wild species also could make important contributions to human welfare with proper management. J. K. LOOSLI Department of Animal Science University of Florida .</P>
    357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     352
    358353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation of endangered genetic resources represents a genuine and welcome synthesis of the concerns of the agriculturalist and the wildlife enthusiast.</P>
    359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     354
    360355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN TINKER British Journalist</P>
    361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     356
    364357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06.png"></center><br>
    365358 MITHAN</P>
    366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     359
    368360<B><P></P>
    369361<!--
    … …  
    373365  </Description>
    374366-->
    375 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     367</B>
    376368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (*Bos javanicus is now the accepted name, but Bos sondaicus, Bibos banteng, and other synonyms have been used in the past. (See Hooijer, 1956.) The name "banteng" has traditionally referred to the wild form of Bos javanicus; the name "Bali cattle" to the domesticated form. This chapter describes the domesticated form, but we retain the name banteng to reinforce the fact that the animal is not a breed of cattle, but a distinct species. Despite a cattle-like appearance, the animals are at least as genetically remote from cattle as is the bison. Both produce sterile males when hybridized with European cattle. Australia. (N.D. Vietmeyer)) is a bovine that resembles a small cow. It is, however, an entirely different species from either European cattle (Bos taurus) or zebus (Bos indicus). </P>
    377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369
    378370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These docile animals thrive under hot, humid conditions and, like the water buffalo, have high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases. In parts of Southeast Asia they have proved acceptable for draft power and meat production, and they may have potential for many other regions of the world.</P>
    379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    380372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     373
    382374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are remarkably uniform in type and have changed little from their wild ancestors (see chapter 6). Bulls stand from 1.3 to 1.5 m high at the shoulders, while cows are about 1.2 m high. They have the general conformation of beef cattle. The skin is tight, the neck short, and the dewlap inconspicuous. The face is narrow and is carried horizontally with the large ears pointing forward. There is no hump, but the male possesses a distinctive crest over the thorax because the spines of the thoracic vertebrae are unusually elongated.</P>
    383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     375
    384376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On both sexes a striking white oval patch covers the rump and all four legs have white stockings. Calves and females are usually light brown with a thin black line along the middle of the back. Bulls are brown when young but usually turn near-black at maturity, unless castrated. Thus, in a herd the sexes - black males and brown females - are strikingly apparent.</P>
    385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     377
    386378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male horns grow sideways, upward, and outward from a horny mass on the forehead. Females lack this horny shield and their horns usually grow upward and back, eventually curving down again toward the head. Polled animals have not been reported.</P>
    387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     379
    388380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature banteng bulls can weigh from 450 to 500 kg. Under exceptional conditions they may reach 550 kg.</P>
    389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     381
    390382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     383
    392384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's domesticated banteng are found in Indonesia. They are particularly important on the islands of Bali, Kalimantan, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Timor. On Bali and Sumbawa, they are virtually uncontaminated by crossbreeding with other cattle and are thought to have been domesticated there in prehistoric times. Since 1913 government officials have enforced a law that prohibits crossbreeding so as to maintain the purity of the breed.</P>
    393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     385
    394386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small numbers of banteng have been introduced to Sumatra, Malaysia, and northern Australia, and there are experimental herds in Texas, USA, and New South Wales, Australia.</P>
    395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     387
    396388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    397389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
    398390 DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICATED BANTEG</P>
    399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     391
    400392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    402394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated banteng account for about 20 percent of Indonesia's total population of "cattle." The banteng population increased from 1.1 million in 1967 to 1.4 million in 1975 and is now estimated to be more than 1.5 million.</P>
    403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     395
    404396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    406398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are found mainly in lowland areas on Indonesian islands straddling the equator. The environment is monsoonal with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23° to 31°C. Most of the region receives heavy rainfall throughout the year, but dry spells as long as five months occur at some locations.</P>
    407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     399
    408400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     401
    410402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng normally have high conception rates. In northern Australia they regularly achieve 80-90 percent conception, as compared with the 50-60 percent of Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cattle. Similar conception rates have been recorded in Sulawesi.</P>
    411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     403
    412404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little basic information on the banteng's reproductive physiology has been reported. However, it appears that this differs little from that of cattle. Sexual maturity has been observed as early as 13 months and mating at 16 months.* The gestation period is about one week longer than that of cattle and twinning is not common. At birth, males weigh about 16-17 kg and females about 14-15 kg (about half the size of Brahman-Shorthorn calves). Calves are not weaned at any specific time, and dams may continue suckling a calf until the next birth.</P>
    413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     405
    414406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng will crossbreed with domestic cattle, producing hybrids with notable vigor and heat tolerance (see chapter 2).</P>
    415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     407
    416408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been reported that banteng have the ability to drink water with high salinity," and in northern Australia they have even been seen grazing seaweed on coral reefs at low tide.</P>
    417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     409
    418410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On high-quality diets, feed-conversion ratios approach those of other bovine species. For example, banteng bulls on high-concentrate diets have shown daily growth rates of 0.7 kg, compared with 0.7 kg in water buffalo, 0.8 kg in zebu cattle, and 0.9 kg in British cattle bulls.:"</P>
    419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411
    420412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the banteng matures, its weight remains lower than that of cattle of similar age. However, relative to mature liveweight, this disadvantage is only about 8 percent.§</P>
    421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     413
    422414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behaviour</P>
    423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     415
    424416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng cannot be handled as roughly as domestic cattle. Cows and calves are timid and easily upset. When stressed they may run into fences and walls, incurring head and spinal injuries. They also easily get into a state of shock. Special squeeze chutes and other special facilities, along with much care in handling the animals, are essential. However, despite their lively temperament banteng are docile if reared, as in Indonesia, with frequent human contact.</P>
    425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     417
    426418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     419
    428420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are promising beef producers. Gourmets consider banteng cuts among the finest of meats, and Indonesia cannot export enough to satisfy the demand in Hong Kong and Japan alone. The meat's outstanding characteristics are its tenderness and leanness. When the animals are maintained and finished under traditional village management, total fat content of the meat (both on a liveweight and carcass basis) is usually less than 4 percent. Little of the fat is deposited among the meat fibers (marbling); about two-thirds of it is mesenteric and the remainder is subcutaneous, laid down in small globules. The carcasses have a high dressing-out percentage.</P>
    429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     421
    430422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have proved to be useful as draft animals for the farm but are reportedly less suitable than zebus for hauling carts on roads. Traditionally, both male and female animals are worked, but Balinese farmers normally use females for cultivating light soils only. Banteng are trained when they are about 2 years old and are reportedly easier to train than zebus.</P>
    431 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     423
    432424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     425
    434426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like water buffaloes banteng can utilize low-quality feeds; they are similar in that they can live off forage unpalatable to cattle. It is rare to see banteng in poor condition. Animals of all ages appear to have an ability to maintain weight and body condition even when pasture quality is poor. In this respect, they have been noted to outperform cattle in Australia's Northern Territory. Moreover, due to their lower milk production banteng cows lose less weight and condition during lactation than, for example, Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
    435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     427
    436428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In comparison with cattle (European breeds) kept under similar circumstances in Australia, banteng are less infested with external parasites. Their hair is short and their hide tough, which helps them resist ticks. Under field conditions few adult cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are observed on the animals, except on malnourished individuals, and the incidence of tick-borne disease is said to be very low. Sarcoptic mange is known to affect the animals, but it has a low incidence as well.</P>
    437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     429
    438430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng also appear to tolerate several internal parasites. Liver fluke is probably the most prevalent. Although the animals themselves appear healthy at slaughter, some 80 percent or more of carcasses are found to have partially infected livers. In addition, intestinal worms are often present.</P>
    439 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     431
    440432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are only slightly affected by Asian trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma evansi). </P>
    441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     433
    442434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     435
    444436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are poor milkers; their udders are almost invisible. The lactation varies from 6 to 10 months and milk production is only 0.9-2.8 kg per day.</P>
    445 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     437
    446438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from reverting to the wild state, banteng may need close contact with humans or regular handling.</P>
    447 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     439
    448440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unidentified banteng disease first appeared on Bali in 1964. Known locally as "jembrana," it spread rapidly, causing mortalities from 10 to 60 percent in certain localities. It was originally thought to be rinderpest; it is now believed to be caused by a rickettsia transmitted by cattle ticks. Outbreaks have occurred with decreasing intensity and virulence since the original outbreak. The disease is under intensive investigation.</P>
    449 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     441
    450442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bali ziekte," a disease affecting only banteng, has also been noted. It is characterized by dry eczema, followed by severe necrosis of the skin and exposed mucous membrances.</P>
    451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    452444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their high susceptibility to bovine malignant catarrhal fever, banteng must not be brought in contact with sheep and some other animals. This virus is widely disseminated in sheep and several domestic and wild hoofed mammals.</P>
    453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    454446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     447
    456448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been few scientific studies of banteng and no coordinated attempt to improve their performance. They deserve more recognition and they merit testing in tropical locations outside their traditional home in Indonesia.</P>
    457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     449
    458450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The herds in northern Australia (descendants of animals remaining from an abortive colonization attempt in the 1820s) are in a relatively disease-free zone, and although they are feral, they can potentially provide animals for breeding and use in other nations. Although these few hundred banteng are a valuable resource, they are vulnerable to destruction if adverse environmental conditions arise or exotic diseases break out in Australia. Representatives of the herd should therefore be distributed and viable breeding stock established at several new locations. (Their genes and gene combinations may even prove valuable for the indigenous herds in Indonesia, and banteng research and development would make a valuable topic for cooperative research between Australia and Indonesia.)</P>
    459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     451
    460452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is particularly needed to identify the reasons for the banteng's apparent ability to maintain weight and body condition on poor-quality grazing.</P>
    461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     453
    462454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problems of bovine malignant catarrhal fever, Bali ziekte, and jembrana need increased attention, particularly directed toward prevention and control. </P>
    463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     455
    464456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p13.png"></center><br>
    465457 FIGURE</P>
    466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     458
    469459<B><P></P>
    470460<!--
    … …  
    475465  </Description>
    476466-->
    477 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     467</B>
    478468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng and cattle have the same number of chromosomes, and they will interbreed. Few scientific details on the hybrid progeny are available, but on the Indonesian island of Madura they are a "stabilized crossbreed" because they seem to be genetically uniform. This hybridization took place some 1,500 years ago, when Indian invaders brought zebus of the Sinhala, or Ceylonese, type to Madura and crossed them with the banteng.</P>
    479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     469
    480470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These maduras† reportedly show better growth rate than the pure banteng species itself. They are thrifty, hardy, and able to perform well under extremes of heat and poor nutrition. Though a hybrid in origin, both sexes of the madura are fully fertile. ‡</P>
    481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     471
    482472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 15 centuries the winners of the bull races ("kerapan sap)") have been the herd sires of Madurese villages. This long breeding history has led to an animal with the following characteristics:</P>
    483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     473
    484474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Long legs and small feet</P>
    485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     475
    486476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elongated muscles of the rear legs</P>
    487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     477
    488478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heavy muscling over the back, loin, and shoulder</P>
    489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     479
    490480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Quick reactions and nervous temperament</P>
    491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     481
    492482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Great heat tolerance</P>
    493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     483
    494484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ability to perform well as a work animal.</P>
    495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     485
    496486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     487
    498488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-cattle hybrids vary in appearance, depending on whether European or zebu cattle are used in the cross as well as on the amount of backcrossing.</P>
    499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     489
    500490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras (banteng x zebu) are graceful animals. Their bodies are neat, compact, and deep, with well developed forequarters. The cows attain an average weight of about 210 kg and bulls range from 350 to 375 kg at maturity.</P>
    501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     491
    502492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Superficially, maduras are like Jersey cattle, except for having a much smaller udder. In most of them the banteng dominates the body structure and coat color. Bulls have a well-developed hump; females have almost none. There is no distinct dewlap. Horns are medium sized and curve upwards and slightly backwards. Ears are medium length and horizontal. Breeders on Madura accept only red-brown animals.</P>
    503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     493
    504494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     495
    506496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, crossbreeds of banteng and zebu are distributed throughout Indonesia. On the other hand, hybrids between banteng and European cattle have been made only in small programs in the United States and Australia. For example, researchers in central Texas are producing a cross that is one-eighth banteng/seven-eighths Charolais. They believe this will result in a beef animal able to grow well in warm, humid conditions. In the Northern Territory of Australia, no problems have been encountered in mating banteng bulls to Brahman-Shorthorn cows. Calves that are one-fourth banteng/three-fourths Brahman-Shorthorn have since been produced.</P>
    507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     497
    508498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     499
    510500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually all of the 575,000 "cattle" on the Indonesian island of Madura are hybrid animals resulting from crossing indigenous domesticated banteng with zebus. More than 200 head of banteng/Charolais hybrids are found near Easterly, Texas, and a score or so banteng/ Brahman-Shorthorn hybrids are on a research station near Darwin, Australia.</P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     501
    512502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     503
    514504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environment in Madura, where most of these hybrids occur, is monsoonal, with mean average temperatures as high as 31°C in the hot season, and dry spells as long as 5 months. It seems likely that judicious selection of the cattle breed could result in hybrids suitable for many other environments.</P>
    515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505
    516506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    518508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the animals on Madura are bred to be raced. They are probably the fastest running bovines. From a standing start, a yoked pair pulling a sled can reach 50 kph by the end of the 130-meter course. An unencumbered individual can approach the speed of a horse (about 68 kph).</P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     509
    520510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other bovine genotypes in Indonesia, the performance of these hybrids is more closely related to the banteng than the zebu ancestry."</P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     511
    522512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cross between banteng and European cattle all F1 bulls are sterile; their sperm development ceases at the secondary spermatocyte stage.‡ Infertility also exists in most one-fourth banteng (although some sperm are present) and in all three-fourths banteng bulls. The fertility of the F1 cows, on the other hand, is high - 90 percent as compared with 70 percent for Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     513
    524514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     515
    526516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids have a lively temperament. However, when they are reared with other domestic cattle or handled on a regular basis, they are almost as docile as cattle. For instance, they remain calm even in Madura's extremely crowded towns. Nevertheless, personal contact probably must be maintained to keep them accustomed to human management.</P>
    527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     517
    528518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cows are very protective of their calves.</P>
    529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     519
    530520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     521
    532522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several reports from the livestock service of the former Dutch colonial government, as well as several books on the East Indies, state that meat from the madura is the tenderest of any known breed. In addition, the hides are pliable and superior to those of cattle and are used in the highest quality leather goods. They command a price about 20 percent higher than zebu hides.</P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     523
    534524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed is reportedly one of the best draft animals for its size in the world.</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     525
    536526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    537527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    539529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have several desirable traits, including those outlined below:</P>
    540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    541531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feed efficiency. With grain rations, yearling bulls can gain 1 kg on less than 7 kg of ration.</P>
    542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    543533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thriftiness. The breed can maintain its body condition on low quality forages.</P>
    544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    545535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heat tolerance. The madura has a high rate of cutaneous evaporation and is therefore well adapted to the tropical monsoonal climate. Teams of madura can plow or cultivate land for more than 6 hours, even at high temperatures.</P>
    546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    547537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    548538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carcass quality. The madura fattens readily on a high-quality diet and  produces carcasses with high dressing percentages, a large rib-eye area, and  high yields of lean meat.</P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     539
    550540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· External fat thickness. A well-finished madura normally has only a slight  covering of fat over ribs and lower round. Maximum thickness (over the top  round) is less than 1.5 cm.</P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     541
    552542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Intelligence. These animals are responsive and easily trained. The famous  dancing cattle of Madura, for instance, are actually these banteng-cattle  hybrids.</P>
    553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     543
    554544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parasite resistance. Despite often high levels of fluke infections, the  animals continue to work, reproduce, and maintain body condition.</P>
    555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     545
    556546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     547
    558548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have been bred for one thing - speed. Some of their genetic  limitations are:</P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     549
    560550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low birth weight. The calves begin small, weighing 12-14 kg at birth, and  they continue to be slow weight gainers. [Feeding trials with yearling bulls  have shown daily gains of over 600 g for 180 days.</P>
    561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     551
    562552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Poor lactation. Milk production is normally less than 1.5 lifers per day and lactation ends after about 4 months. The cows often fail to produce milk. Much of this is probably caused by poor nutrition.</P>
    563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     553
    564554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     555
    566556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the important features of the madura is that its genetic variation has been largely removed during 1,500 years of continuous breeding; with study much valuable information could be obtained that is beneficial to all bovine breeds.</P>
    567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     557
    568558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following topics need further study:</P>
    569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     559
    570560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fertility levels</P>
    571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     561
    572562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to test the effect of using a wider range of cattle breeds*</P>
    573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     563
    574564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assessment of the hybrid's advantages over the pure banteng</P>
    575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     565
    576566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Performance under a wide range of environments.</P>
    577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     567
    580568<B><P></P>
    581569<!--
    … …  
    586574  </Description>
    587575-->
    588 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576</B>
    589577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan (Bos frontalis) is believed to be a domesticated form of gaur (see chapter 6).t (However, it resembles the banteng and some authors have proposed that it is a gaur-cattle cross, others a gaur-banteng cross.) The mithan is a domestic animal indigenous to parts of India, Burma, and Bangladesh. Because of large size and the high butterfat content of its milk it is widely used to crossbreed with cattle in Bhutan. It deserves greater recognition both in Asia and elsewhere.</P>
    590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    591579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    592580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     581
    594582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a handsome animal. Bulls may occasionally exceed 1.7 m at the shoulder and weigh 1,000 kg, but the average bull is about 1.5 m tall and weighs 540 kg. Cows are shorter and weigh less.</P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     583
    596584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a dorsal ridge on the crest of the shoulders, a small but pronounced dewlap, and a generally flat forehead. Mithan horns are often of unusual girth; they are straight or gently curving, and many have an enormous base that practically covers the top of the skull.</P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     585
    598586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most calves and females are brown, but adult males are generally black with white stockings on all four legs. Some, however, are light brown, white, or piebald.</P>
    599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     587
    600588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the hill ranges of Assam, where gaur are still plentiful and interbreeding between mithan and gaur frequently occurs, the mithans are massive and gaurlike. But in the Chin Hills, where gaur are scarce, the mithans have lost their bulky proportions, probably by interbreeding with cattle. With them, the high dorsal ridge on the shoulder (which lends so much to the imposing stature of the gaur) has disappeared, the horns are cowlike, and the varied coloring of the domestic cow begins to appear.</P>
    601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    602590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    603591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592
    605593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan are kept in a domesticated condition by the hill tribes of northeastern India (Mishmis, Mizo, Nagas), the Chittagong Hill tracts, and some Burmese hill ranges (Arakan and Chin Hills). It is the main domestic animal of the Nagas of Nagaland.</P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    607595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     596
    609597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India feral herds totalling some 50,000 head roam the jungles of Arunachal Pradesh. Recently the Royal Government of Bhutan has established two herds by purchasing animals from Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutanese farmers have some 60,000 head of animals that are hybrids of mithan and the local breed of cattle.</P>
    610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     598
    611599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Bhutan is breeding mithans on government farms and distributing males to private breeders to improve the genetic base.</P>
    612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     600
    614601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    615602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     603
    617604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a grazing animal, but in some areas herds are allowed to browse freely in the woods; some return to the villages for protection at night, while others remain largely in the forests. The villagers keep the forest mithans nearby by providing salt, for which the animals have an insatiable craving.</P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     605
    619606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feral mithan live in the same habitat as gaurs and are said to move equally skillfully in mountainous terrain. Usually they are found at elevations from 600 to 3,000 m. However, in the Chittagong Hill tracts and the Mishmi country they descend to 300 m and lower, while in Bhutan they have been reported grazing in summer at altitudes as high as 3,300 m, for example around Thimphu.</P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     607
    621608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
    622609 Mithan distribution. (after Simoons and Simoons, 1968)</P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     610
    624611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     612
    626613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithans are fully fertile amongst themselves. Also, they interbreed freely with the gaur, banteng, yak, and cattle of both the taurus and zebu types. Naga owners encourage the interbreeding with gaur, regarding it as an improvement of the race. (They arrange this by placing salt licks in the forest. After gaur bulls have formed a habit of coming to the licks, mithan cows are left there and in due course mating takes place.)</P>
    627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     614
    628615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crosses between mithan and zebu are also encouraged in certain districts. Unlike most crosses between bovine species, those between mithan and cattle result in fertile male and female offspring (although some owners indicate that the F1 male is not a reliable breeder).</P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     616
    630617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     618
    632619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an unusually gentle animal with a quiet disposition, as revealed in the Chin tribe's expression "gentle as a mithan." Normally even a stranger is safe to approach one; if he gives it a bit of salt, it will usually follow him about. Thus, mithans are easily managed in a regular cattlerearing operation.</P>
    633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     620
    634621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mithans are not domesticated in the strict sense. Their herds live in a semi-tame state near jungle villages and come to settlements only in the evening to lick salt.</P>
    635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     622
    636623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     624
    638625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of northern India, mithans are used for field work and as draft animals. They are also important as a meat supply. The Bhutanese government is establishing a national dairy-mithan breeding program, which could result in a valuable dairy animal.</P>
    639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     626
    640627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many tribes of northeast India and Burma, mithans serve mainly as sacrificial animals. The Nagas use them as a kind of "currency" to pay for goods, to buy brides, and to pay penalties.</P>
    641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     628
    642629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids resulting from backcrossing mithan with common cattle are also used as work animals. For at least a century, Bhutanese livestock breeders, particularly those in the eastern section, have mated mithan bulls to siri cows (Bos taurus) from India. This produces very profitable hybrid offspring that have high milk production. The milk is rich in total solids and produces exceptional yields of cheese and butter.* The male of the cross (called "jatsha") is a powerful draft animal, and the female ("jatshum") is a prized milk cow. To this day, extensive crossing continues.</P>
    643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     630
    644631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     632
    646633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is potentially an animal that can be used in difficult terrain where most domestic cattle breeds do not perform well. Mithans are superior when it comes to feeding on steep slopes and cliffs and for grazing native grass and the leaves of local fodder trees. They are also adapted to tropical and subtropical environments. And they are able to maintain themselves in small herds (6-10 head) in dense jungle.*</P>
    647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     634
    648635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan could prove valuable in other parts of the world, and it could be important particularly for the genetic improvement of cattle in the tropics.</P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     636
    651637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    652638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    654640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If they are disturbed, mature mithans can be temperamental. They can be difficult to hold with normal fences or chutes, because of their size. When given injections or otherwise subjected to pain, they are liable to bolt to the jungle and not return.</P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    656642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    657643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     644
    659645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The productivity of these animals needs to be better characterized and defined. Attention should be given to their grazing efficiency as compared with that of cattle.</P>
    660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     646
    661647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two farms the Bhutan government has established for breeding mithans provide an opportunity to gather genetic information on the species and to have experimental matings take place to establish the most suitable animal for various conditions.</P>
    662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     648
    663649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic relationship of mithan to gayal, gaur, and cattle needs to be clarified. Although it is believed that the mithan and gayal are the same animal, one of this report's reviewers points out that the mithan of Bhutan are strikingly different in color, body shape, and horn structure from gayals seen in zoos in Europe and India. Although the mithan is now considered a domesticated gaur, many in the past have claimed it as a gaur-cattle hybrid. Physiological research could remove lingering doubts. </P>
    664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     650
    665651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p26.png"></center><br>
    666652 FIGURE</P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     653
    669654<B><P></P>
    670655<!--
    … …  
    675660  </Description>
    676661-->
    677 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     662</B>
    678663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak (Bos grunniens), is a grazing animal that is accustomed to traveling great distances in a harsh environment. Nothing is known about when it was first domesticated, but there has probably been a close association between man and yaks ever since the first humans migrated into the high mountains of Asia.</P>
    679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     664
    680665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     666
    682667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated yaks are about the size of ordinary cattle and rarely exceed heights of 1.3 m at the shoulder. Their liveweight is generally 250-550 kg for the males and 180-350 kg for the females. They differ little from wild yaks except that they are smaller, have shorter and thinner horns, and may be rusty brown, black, silver grey, or piebald instead of black.† Often they have whitish spots on their faces.</P>
    683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     668
    684669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak's hair is long, especially on the flanks, where it forms a shaggy fringe that often reaches the ground. This, together with an underlying layer of thick, fine wool, protects the animal from the bitter cold of its native region. The yak has an enormous tail with a brush of long hair coming from its root, which is rare in bovines.</P>
    685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     670
    686671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long extensions of the thoracic vertebrae give the yak shoulders that look like a hump, but this is different from the boneless hump in zebus. The body is long, short-legged, and compact, with particularly large forequarters because, like the bison, the yak has 14 or 15 pairs of ribs instead of the 13 of domestic cattle.</P>
    687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     672
    688673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns spread outward and upward, and the head is held low, like that of the bison. While no hornless domestic yaks have been reported in Nepal, more than 90 percent of those found in Mongolia lack horns.</P>
    689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     674
    690675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     676
    692677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most yaks are found especially in the mountains and plateaus of Tibet and western China, however they occur from northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bhutan to Mongolia, and the Soviet Union.</P>
    693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     678
    694679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     680
    696681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than one million domestic yaks in the world.</P>
    697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     682
    698683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     684
    700685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Himalayas the domestic yak is almost always found above 2,000 m elevation. Males are sometimes brought as low as 1,700 m for mating with cattle (see chapter 6), but they do not fare well at such altitudes. In Mongolia and Buryatiya (U.S.S.R.), however, they are found as low as 1,500 m elevation.</P>
    701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     686
    702687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    703688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29.png"></center><br>
    704689 Yak distribution. (after J. Bonnemaire, 1976)</P>
    705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     690
    706691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild yak lives in desolate mountain areas at altitudes of 4,000-6,000 m. Its habitat is the alpine tundra and the cold desert regions of the northern part of the Tibetan plateau. These barren mountain regions are remote and at higher elevations than the zones of human habitation.</P>
    707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     692
    708693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     694
    710695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks look ungainly, partly because they are covered with long hair, but they are agile climbers and can maneuver narrow mountain paths. Their long hair is one adaptation to the cold climate. Other adaptations are the small, compact scrotum of the male and udder of the female, the small teats (only 2-3 cm long) and covering of hair over the udder, and the covering of short hair over the muzzle, except just around the nostrils.</P>
    711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     696
    712697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In early summer yaks graze the lush grass in valley bottoms, but for much of the year they live on dry, coarse mountain grass and for long periods obtain water by eating snow.</P>
    713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     698
    714699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation length is 258 days - slightly shorter than that of cattle.</P>
    715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     700
    716701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     702
    718703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic yaks are docile and easily managed.</P>
    719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     704
    720705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     706
    722707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are especially useful as riding and pack animals; they can manage loads of more than 150 kg. At altitudes up to 6,000 m they may carry a pack or a person at a steady pace for days and still remain in good condition. In some regions they are the only feasible pack animal. Yak bulls (generally castrated) are also used for plowing and for threshing grain.</P>
    723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     708
    724709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally the yak is slaughtered for meat. The meat is particularly important in parts of the USSR and in Mongolia, where in the cold, high-altitude environments it reportedly costs only half as much to produce as beef.</P>
    725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     710
    726711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas milk production is an essential aspect of yak husbandry. Yields vary considerably according to management and nutrition, but they average about 600 kg and can be more than 1,000 kg per lactation. Yak milk is golden colored. It is much richer than cow's milk; a typical analysis is: total dry matter, 17.35 percent; fat, 6.5 percent; protein, 5.3 percent; and sugars, 4.6 percent. The fat globules are much larger than those in cow's milk. People of Tibetan stock use yak butter as a food staple and as a lighting fuel.</P>
    727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     712
    728713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak hide, though apparently not as good as that of cattle, is used for many purposes. It makes outstanding saddles. Yak hair is used for making ropes, saddle blankets (purportedly the best in the world), grainstorage bags, and tents. The fine wool that occurs beneath the long hair is used for making felt. The annual yield of adult females and males is about 750 g and 1,600 g of hair and about 350 g and 600 g of wool, respectively.</P>
    729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     714
    730715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because yaks are often found above the timberline their dung is an important fuel in many areas. </P>
    731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     716
    732717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
    733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    734719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks can live and work hard in a cold climate. They are the only bovines to thrive at high altitudes. In cold, high areas they can work and produce meat and milk more efficiently and cheaply than cattle.</P>
    735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    736721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    738723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are not well able to eliminate surplus heat because their heavy coat reduces their ability to sweat. In warm climates their respiration rate and body temperature increase and they become exhausted and susceptible to infections. At low altitudes in Nepal yaks die of a variety of diseases. Apparently not even yak-cattle hybrid animals (see next chapter) can successfully live below 700 m in that part of the world. This is probably due to overheating, since during the first half of this century yaks grew successfully in trials at low altitudes in Alaska and northern Canada.</P>
    739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    740725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    742727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak improvement programs are much needed. It seems probable that the genetic potential of the species is far from realized because Buddhist beliefs oppose the deliberate killing of stock. Techniques for deep freezing yak semen have been successfully developed at Regents Park Zoo, London and should prove invaluable for improving the breed.</P>
    743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    744729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As a result of uncontrolled hunting the wild yak is endangered and is now restricted to remote barrens on upland plateaus and highlands in northern Tibet and Chinghai, inhospitable even to domestic yaks. The numbers of wild yak are unknown. They require total protection throughout their range and the establishment of adequately protected reserves with good pasture. To preserve their genetic purity, it is important to isolate wild yaks from domestic yaks and thus keep them pure.</P>
    745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    746731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A primary need is to catalog the numbers and locations of purebred yaks. Today we have little idea of the total breeding population. Gathering such information is difficult, owing to the geographical isolation of the communities involved.</P>
    747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    748733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is also important to catalog the movement of yaks between different areas to see if enough genetic exchange occurs to prevent inbreeding of the population. Exchanges between local pastoralists were much more frequent in the past (for example, between Tibet and Nepal), but this is now more difficult because of border restrictions and because many yak </P>
    749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    750735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">herders that used to move herds long distances have become sedentary farmers.</P>
    751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    752737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding strategies, herd management, product processing, and herd hygiene in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, northern India, and northern Pakistan, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Soviet Union all differ greatly. It is important to get an overall perspective so that the strengths of the different systems can be judged and the weaknesses reduced.</P>
    753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    754739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There are clearly different domestic yak "breeds" in terms of their appearance, and these need to be identified and compared systematically. </P>
    755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    756741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p33.png"></center><br>
    757742 FIGURE</P>
    758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     743
    760744<B><P></P>
    761745<!--
    … …  
    766750  </Description>
    767751-->
    768 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752</B>
    769753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks and cattle have the same diploid number of chromosomes (60). And in the regions where yaks are found, they are often interbred with cattle, either the humpless cattle (Bos taurus) of Tibet and Mongolia or the zebu (Bos indicus) of South Asia. As with mules, the hybrid offspring of cattle and yak surpass their parents in strength and vigor. Yakows* grow faster than their parents, and they suffer less from high temperatures than yaks. The hybrid cow reaches sexual maturity earlier and yields larger quantities of milk than the yak cow. The males, however, are sterile.</P>
    770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    771755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    773757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yakow's appearance varies with the type of cattle used in the cross. But because of the phenomenon of hybrid vigor (heterosis), the hybrids are considerably bigger than the mean size of their parents. (For instance, in one test the liveweight was approximately 18 percent higher than the average weight of the parents.) The hybrids also excel in hardiness, working ability, growth rate, and milk production.</P>
    774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     758
    775759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, their appearance and performance is closer to that of the mother than of the father. Because of this, the yakows can be "custom designed" for various altitude zones. For example, the farmer at lower altitudes may produce cattle-like yakows by breeding yak bulls to domestic cows, while farmers at higher altitudes would use the reverse cross.</P>
    776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     760
    778761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows have shorter hair and a much less downy undercoat than purebred yaks. They are similar in color to yaks. (In Nepal, black is most frequent, but brown shades and even white may occur.)</P>
    779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     762
    780763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    782765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows are found in parts of northeastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northeast and northwest India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet, western China, Mongolia, and southeastern Russia. They are found notably in the Himalayan region of Nepal, where they are bred by people of Tibetan culture and language. Sherpas, for instance, supply hybrid cows and heifers to dairy farmers throughout northeastern Nepal. Hybrids are also much bred in Ladakh (northern Pakistan) and Mongolia.</P>
    783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     766
    784767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas farmers in Nepal tend to use zebus to cross with yak, the inhabitants of the Tibetan plateau generally use Bos taurus cattle. People in some areas favor mating yak bulls to cows, while those in other areas prefer the reverse. But even within one village there can be a degree of specialization by different families, depending on wealth and the location of traditional grazing grounds. Generally, however, the crosses between domestic cattle bulls and yak cows are the predominant ones.</P>
    785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768
    786769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    788771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of yak-cattle hybrids in the world is unknown.</P>
    789 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    790773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    792775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the yak, the hybrid can live in cold, barren, upland terrain, but it has the advantage of being able to adapt to lower altitudes. In winter, caravans of hybrids may come down as low as 1,600 m in some parts of Nepal, and hybrid herds (especially those resulting from crossing yak bulls with zebu cows) can spend several weeks grazing at altitudes as low as about 1,700 m in winter.</P>
    793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    794777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    795778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     779
    797780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female hybrids are fertile when mated with either parent stock. Male hybrids, however, are sterile. Although they have fully developed secondary sexual characters and show libido, their testes do not produce spermatozoa because the seminiferous tubules are poorly developed and the spermatogonia and their nuclei are degenerate.</P>
    798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     781
    799782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few normal or motile spermatozoa may be found in the semen of backcrosses of the F1 hybrids to either parent, but as a rule the spermatozoa are normal and dead.* Backcrossing is reportedly not common, however, as the progeny do not retain hybrid vigor.</P>
    800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     783
    801784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     785
    803786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan farmers prefer the hybrids for plowing because of their docile temperament. The yak is said to be more stubborn.</P>
    804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     787
    805788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     789
    807790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids are valued as beasts of burden and draft, and are often preferred over yaks. Male hybrids are generally castrated at about 3 years of age so as to increase their strength and size.</P>
    808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     791
    809792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     793
    811794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where pastures occur over areas of greatly varying altitude, the use of hybrid livestock is likely to be more efficient, in biological terms, than the use of yaks or cattle. By judiciously selecting cattle, yaks, or hybrids all altitudes from sea level to above 5,000 m can be utilized with best efficiency.</P>
    812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     795
    813796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrid's milk is intermediate in composition between that of its parents. However, hybrids yield up to 7 kg of milk per day against the yak's 3 kg. (It seems that the hybrid derived from cattle bull and female yak produces considerably more milk, with a higher fat content than that derived from yak bull x cattle female.) Also the female hybrids produce larger quantities of milk than Nepalese zebu cows on the same hill pastures. They also produce a calf each year, while under normal herd management yaks tend to produce a calf every 2 years.</P>
    814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     797
    815798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    816799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     800
    818801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids do not tolerate extremes of altitude or cold as well as purebred yaks.</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     802
    820803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The normal gestation period for yaks is about 1 month shorter than that of cattle, and the gestation period for a hybrid is intermediate between that of the parents - hence there may be problems at calving when a female yak is sired by a bull from a large cattle breed.</P>
    821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     804
    822805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     806
    824807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to identify differences in altitude tolerance between various hybrids. This should include measurements of hemoglobin count, respiration rate, and pulse rates at different altitudes.</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    826809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on all production characteristics, particularly on the meat and milk production potentials.</P>
    827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     810
    828811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cataloging the breeding strategies of different areas where hybrids occur would be useful, along with a historical perspective.</P>
    829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     812
    830813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to determine the most productive hybrids by crossing different yak and cattle "breeds" in areas with different environmental conditions could be extremely useful. </P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    833 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     814
     815<B>
    834816<!--
    835817</Section>
    … …  
    840822  </Description>
    841823-->
    842 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     824</B>
    843825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various parts of Southeast Asia there exist little-known relatives of cattle and water buffaloes. Many of these wild animals are close to extinction, and attention is drawn to them in hope their populations will be preserved. All of them survive in tropical regions subject to environmental extremes - flooding annual rains, searing droughts, and swarming pests and parasites. These are conditions to which conventional livestock are poorly adapted.</P>
    844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     826
    845827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of Africa's bovines is threatened with extinction, and both the European and American forms of bison are being preserved by governments and individuals. In Asia, however, there has been an alarming drop in the numbers of wild water buffalo, wild yak, wild banteng, kouprey, gaur, and tamaraw in recent years.</P>
    846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     828
    847829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section describes:</P>
    848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     830
    849831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wild banteng</P>
    850832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Gaur</P>
    … …  
    852834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tamaraw</P>
    853835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Anoas</P>
    854 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     836
    855837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not molested, many of these animals can thrive side by side with human settlements. They may therefore have an important future role in the development of the tropics. </P>
    856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     838
    857839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little point in conservation for conservation's sake, but loss of irreplaceable resources through ignorance, greed, or thoughtlessness should be avoided. It may be that these Asian animals have little merit other than their uniqueness, but at the very least, sufficient numbers should be conserved until we have time to find out. A. J. SMITH Royal School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
    858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     840
    859841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rapid human increase and relative poverty deny hope that any land can lie idle when so many would be robbed of an opportunity simply to exist. For wildlife to survive, let alone at its breathtaking best, we must think of new and better ways to justify its future, preferably by having it contribute to the welfare of those hard-pressed humans who inevitably are further disadvantaged by the creation of national parks. DAVID WESTERN New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA </P>
    860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     842
    861843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an urgency to conserve and study nontraditional animal species, especially for use in the environmentally challenging tropical areas of the world. The philosophy plant scientists apply to exploring the potential of the plant kingdom needs to be more enthusiastically adopted for the world's animal species. G. W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer Department of Primary Production Darwin, Australia</P>
    862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     844
    863845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p40.png"></center><br>
    864846 GAUR</P>
    865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     847
    868848<B><P></P>
    869849<!--
    … …  
    873853  </Description>
    874854-->
    875 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     855</B>
    876856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild banteng (Bos javanicus)* are the most cowlike of all the wild bovines and are the parent stock of the 1.5 million domesticated banteng in Indonesia (see chapter 1). They have a scattered distribution throughout Southeast Asia, and three subspecies are recognized:</P>
    877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     857
    878858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Java banteng Bos javanicus javanicus (Java and Bali)</P>
    879859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Borneo banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Borneo)</P>
    880860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus (Burma, Thailand, Indochina).</P>
    881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     861
    882862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     863
    884864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have been called the most beautiful of all wild relatives of cattle. The cows are usually a vibrant reddish brown, while adult bulls are mostly blackish-brown and sometimes even blue-black (although in Burma and Indochina bulls remain golden brown like the cows, and in Thailand a few banteng have been recorded with white, deerlike spots on their brown coats). Both sexes have white "stockings" and a large white patch on their rumps.</P>
    885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     865
    886866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are larger than their domesticated counterparts. Average-sized bulls of the Java and Burma subspecies stand 1.6 m high and weigh 635 kg, but bulls as large as 1.9 m and 825 kg have been recorded. Cows average 1.4 m in height and weigh 400 kg. The Borneo subspecies is smaller.</P>
    887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     867
    888868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of banteng bulls are angular, turning out and then up, with inward-pointing tips and reaching a spread of 60-75 cm. The horns of cows are short and crescent shaped. There is a patch of thick, naked skin between the horns.</P>
    889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     869
    890870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    891871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     872
    893873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are found in restricted localities scattered over an area ranging from the northeastern edge of India, through Burma, Thailand, the northern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Indochina, and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Bali.</P>
    894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     874
    895875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     876
    897877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few thousand wild banteng survive, and their numbers are decreasing. Most populations are endangered because their habitats are being encroached upon by the growing human population. In Sabah, Malaysia, for example, the areas where an estimated 300-550 banteng (the last remaining herds) occur are scheduled for conversion to permanent agriculture. The animals are being forced to use smaller and smaller habitats, thus increasing losses caused by malnutrition, diseases, and parasites. In addition, throughout much of the animal's range, hunting, military operations, and perhaps interbreeding with domestic cattle are further reducing the original stocks.</P>
    898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     878
    900879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
    901880 Distribution of wild banteng. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
    902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     881
    903882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     883
    905884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng's general distribution lies in the zone of deciduous monsoon forest in Southeast Asia. Habitats vary between the extremes of dry wooded parkland with large grassy plains to tropical rain forest with small clearings. The animals prefer flat or undulating terrain. In northern Kampuchea and eastern Java, they inhabit grassland savannas. In western Thailand, they live in a belt of grass and bamboo thickets along upper slopes of dry mountains.</P>
    906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     885
    907886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng inhabit sites from sea level to around 2,000 m elevation. They avoid large human settlements and plantations.</P>
    908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     887
    909888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas there are no pronounced hot or cold seasons, but dry seasons can be long.</P>
    910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     889
    911890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     891
    913892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng prefer feeding on grass, but are fond of herbs, leaves, fruits and blossoms, as well as the sprouts of trees, brush, and young bamboo. Under favorable conditions they drink daily, preferring standing water. During droughts, they seem able to survive several days without water. In coastal areas where there are no mineral licks they can meet their need for salt by occasionally drinking seawater. </P>
    914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     893
    915894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sex ratio at birth is 140 males to 100 females, but mortality of bulls is heavy and the adult ratio is about three cows for every bull.</P>
    916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     895
    917896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calves are suckled until they are 14-16 months old.</P>
    918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     897
    919898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     899
    921900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed conditions, the banteng's daily activity has a more or less fixed rhythm. During daytime, the animals alternate active and resting periods of 2-3 hours each. The active periods predominantly involve feeding, drinking, and social interactions. While resting, the animals commonly ruminate.</P>
    922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     901
    923902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a reaction to heavy rains or human disturbances, the animals retreat into dense vegetation. In regions with frequent human disturbance they generally appear in the open only at night. However, where they find particularly suitable localities they become somewhat accustomed to human presence and will venture out in daylight.</P>
    924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     903
    925904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng live alone or in small groups of up to eight members. Males separate from their mothers at an age of 2-3 years. Sometimes female calves continue living with their mother even beyond maturity.</P>
    926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     905
    927906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows and dominant bulls command the best pastures, and young and weaker bulls roam widely, rarely leaving the protection of the thick forest.</P>
    928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     907
    929908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng bull has a reputation for extraordinary savagery, but stories of its lightning attack have been exaggerated. Wildlife biologists in Indonesia have not been able to document any such attacks and have no qualms about walking in banteng habitats.</P>
    930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     909
    931910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     911
    933912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng show important promise for improving domesticated banteng (see chapter 1) or for interbreeding with cattle (chapter 2). Almost 170 years ago Sir Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, noted that in Java "The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into the forest to couple with the wild benteng, for the sake of improving that breed."</P>
    934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     913
    935914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could be developed in areas where these magnificent animals occur.</P>
    936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915
    937916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    939918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are large, robust animals fully at home both in the heat and humidity of the wet season and in the hot dry season. Their genetic </P>
    940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     919
    941920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">endowment for such tolerance could be of significant value fin improving domestic stock.</P>
    942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     921
    943922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible Limitations</P>
    944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     923
    945924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng may prove to have a special susceptibility to diseases of domestic animals. Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoli) and mucosal disease have caused heavy losses in banteng in European zoos.</P>
    946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     925
    947926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capture of wild banteng may prove difficult.</P>
    948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     927
    949928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     929
    951930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on the physiology, production potential, and possible uses of wild banteng is needed.</P>
    952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     931
    953932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunting and destruction of its habitats menace the wild banteng over all of its range. The only promising means for conservation is creation of nature reserves where hunting and forest destruction are forbidden. Conservation efforts should particularly include:</P>
    954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     933
    955934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Supporting government of Thailand efforts to conserve banteng in western Thailand and the Petchabun Range;</P>
    956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     935
    957936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the Burmese government in surveys to locate the best banteng habitats;</P>
    958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     937
    959938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the governments of Kampuchea and Laos to identify banteng habitats and establish appropriate protective measures; and</P>
    960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     939
    961940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carrying out research in Java's nature reserves (Ujung Kulon National Park and Baluran Reserve) to ascertain the genetic distinctiveness of the banteng, its status, and its characteristics.</P>
    962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     941
    963942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sabah and other areas of Southeast Asia there are cattle breeding projects that use imported stock exclusively. Experimental crossbreeding of local banteng with this stock should be encouraged. There are some feral and domestic banteng, as well as hybrids between wild banteng and feral cattle, that should also be tested.</P>
    964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     943
    965944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
    966945 FIGURE</P>
    967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    968 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     946
    970947<B><P></P>
    971948<!--
    … …  
    976953  </Description>
    977954-->
    978 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     955</B>
    979956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur (Bos gaurus) would seem to be an ideal meat-producing animal. It is a large bovine with massive muscular development, and it has already been domesticated (see mithan, chapter 3). Gaurs, which are threatened with extinction, deserve much greater attention.</P>
    980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     957
    981958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two subspecies of gaurs are recognized.</P>
    982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     959
    983960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus gaurus (India, Nepal) </P>
    984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     961
    985962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus laosiensis (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea, West Malaysia). </P>
    986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     963
    987964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     965
    989966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With its huge head, massive body, and sturdy limbs, the gaur is the embodiment of vigor and strength. It is among the biggest of bovines. Bulls weigh 600-940 kg and stand 1.6-1.9 m tall at the shoulder, but a record bull of 2.2 m and 1,225 kg has been recorded. Cows are only about 10 cm shorter in height, but they are more lightly built and weigh 150 kg less.</P>
    990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     967
    991968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On their shoulders gaur bulls have a striking muscular ridge that slopes down to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt dip. The horns are crescent shaped, creamy yellow, and taper to a sharp point, which is usually tipped in black.</P>
    992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     969
    993970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are a light golden yellow, but soon darken to coffee or reddish brown, the color of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black, their bodies almost hairless. Gaurs have light colored forehead and yellowish or white stockings. Their eyes are brown but in certain lights, because of reflection, they appear blue.</P>
    994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     971
    995972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs excrete an oily, aromatic sweat, unique to this species and to the mithan. It gives the animals a strong bovine smell and may be an adaptation for keeping away insects.</P>
    996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     973
    997974<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     975
    999976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once common throughout South and Southeast Asia, gaurs now survive only in scattered remnant herds of up to 30 animals in the hill forests of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
    1000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     977
    1003978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
    1004979 Gaur distribution. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
    1005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     980
    1006981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the largest concentrations have coexisted with farmers in areas of shifting cultivation. The animals adjust to disturbed land, and they also adapt to man's presence if not unduly harassed. For example, gaurs will feed in agricultural fields, along roadsides, and near occupied houses. Herds in national parks feed peacefully while tourists stand by. Gaurs in zoos also become quite tame and manageable.</P>
    1007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     982
    1008983<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     984
    1010985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Populations not protected in parks and reserves are in immediate danger of extinction. Even in the remotest hill forests gaurs are harassed by hunting, exposed to the diseases of domestic cattle, and driven from their natural habitat by human invasion. Most herds outside of parks or wildlife reserves are threatened by agricultural development, hydroelectric dam projects, human settlement, or extensive logging.</P>
    1011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     986
    1012987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, large populations still exist in the larger sanctuaries such as </P>
    1013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     988
    1014989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mudumalai and Kanha Park. In Thailand diseases carried by domestic animals, poaching, and habitat destruction have reduced total gaur numbers to fewer than 500. In Malaysia, the population is estimated to be only 400 animals. †</P>
    1015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     990
    1016991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     992
    1018993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs typically live on gentle, undulating terrain with natural mineral licks. They inhabit gaps in the forest, such as abandoned clearings, where they can find grasses and shrubs. In the northern portions of their range, they inhabit deciduous and semideciduous hill and mountain forests with light brush and many grassy clearings. In the lowlands they live in open bamboo jungles, grassy plains near forests, or dense forests broken by glades or open meadows. (In the forest they probably depend to some extent on the slash and burn agriculture of hill people.)</P>
    1019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     994
    1020995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals appear to be adapting to increased human presence. They make use of such man-modified habitats as logged forests and fringe areas of agricultural estates that abound with grasses and early secondgrowth vegetation.</P>
    1021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     996
    1022997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     998
    1024999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are combination grazers and browsers. They feed on the grasses of forest openings as well as on the young leaves, fruits, twigs, and bark of shrubs and juvenile trees. In one study in Malaysia, grasses comprised 41 percent of their diet, fortes 23 percent, and woody browse 36 percent."</P>
    1025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1000
    10261001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent condition on relatively low-quality feed. In the Malaysian study, crude protein content of grass species varied from 7.0 to 7.6 percent and phosphorus content varied from 0.11 to 0.17 percent; yet calves reached weights of 300 kg or more during their first year.</P>
    1027 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1002
    10281003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birth and survival rates of up to 100 percent have been reported for wild gaur populations. Calves are born at any time of the year. The gestation period is 270 days, a little shorter than for banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak or kouprey.</P>
    1029 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1004
    10301005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Captive gaurs calve first at 2.5 years of age.</P>
    1031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1006
    10321007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur interbreeds with the mithan, and both have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.</P>
    1033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1008
    10341009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1010
    10361011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By nature gaurs are shy and timid. As with most wild bovines, their hearing and eyesight seem comparatively poor. Their defense lies in their massive size and acute sense of smell. When a herd with juveniles is threatened by a predator, the adults form a protective circle around the young. Although individuals retreat from danger if they can, they have a unique form of threat: they approach their opponents broadside instead of head on, displaying the huge muscular body and dorsal ridge.</P>
    1037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1012
    10381013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In common with other wild bovids, gaurs habitually visit mineral licks, which appear to be necessary to their habitat and influence the herd's movements.</P>
    1039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1014
    10401015<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike water buffaloes, gaurs do not wallow. They take cover in the forest during the heat of the day and may feed at night and in the early morning during hot weather. In populated areas such as near agricultural estates, they may feed only at night to avoid people.</P>
    1041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1016
    10421017<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, gaurs associated in loose herds of up to 400 animals, but today groups of only 5 to 12 animals are normally found. The herds, which are of more stable composition than those of banteng, are separated by sex for most of the year; however, during the rut stronger bulls form a series of "tending bonds" with estrous cows.†</P>
    1043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1018
    10441019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1020
    10461021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are thought to be interfertile with domestic cattle. If so, their attributes of size, massive muscular development, tolerance of heat and humidity, and resistance to diseases and parasites can contribute to beef production in the tropics. A gaur-cattle hybrid might also have immunity to some cattle diseases; if it retained the mild temperament of the domesticated parent, an extremely powerful beast of burden could be produced.</P>
    1047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1022
    10481023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur is a truly majestic animal. Its habit of using grassy forest clearings and salt licks makes it a likely tourist attraction in parks and reserves.</P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1024
    10501025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    10511026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1027
    10531028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a climate and environment where domestic cattle are susceptible to heat stress and parasite infestation, gaur thrive and maintain body condition. Further, they are able to develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent body conditions on relatively low-quality forage by feeding on a variety of woody browse, grasses, and fortes.</P>
    1054 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1029
    10551030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining its wild instincts for survival, the gaur is better able to withstand predator attacks them domestic cattle. This could be an advantage when animals graze in remote areas. Adult gaurs are strong enough to defend themselves against a predator as powerful as a tiger. In addition, they are also very protective of their young.</P>
    1056 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1031
    10571032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1058 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1033
    10591034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs have little immunity to some cattle diseases. In many regions of India, cattle driven into the forests to graze infect gaur herds with rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cattle plague, and other contagious diseases. Severe losses occur. Gaurs also appear very susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever.</P>
    1060 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1035
    10611036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur numbers are declining throughout their range. If this trend is not reversed, it could effectively prohibit the use of gaur for domestication or crossbreeding purposes.</P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1037
    10631038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are shy and excitable, making them difficult to catch, but once in captivity the animals calm down. Second generation zoo populations are easily worked and handled.</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1039
    10651040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs on occasion damage cultivated crops such as young rubber trees and cassava. They require sturdy and well-kept fences.</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1041
    10671042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1043
    10691044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia there is special need to support the efforts of the governments of Malaysia and Thailand to conserve this species and to identify important gaur populations. Similar protective measures are needed in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam.</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1045
    10711046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to establish and manage new gaur herds in forest reserves and build up the gaur population in the world's zoos. Techniques have been developed to capture and release wild gaur safely.</P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1047
    10731048<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilized gaur ova have been successfully transferred into a foster Holstein cow. The cow carried the gaur fetus to a successful delivery. This could be the forerunner of an important means of rapidly expanding captive herds by transferring gaur embryos into cattle in different parts of the world.</P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1049
    10751050<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on the basic physiology and production potential of gaur.</P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1051
    10771052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding experiments should be started immediately to establish the degree of interfertility between the gaur and other bovine species.</P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1053
    10791054<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52.png"></center><br>
    10801055 FIGURE</P>
    1081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    10821057<B><P></P>
    10831058<!--
    … …  
    10881063  </Description>
    10891064-->
    1090 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1065</B>
    10911066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is the most primitive of living cattle. Its features are typical of some forms that existed in the Pleistocene era, 600,000 years ago. Discovered by Western scientists only in 1937,† the kouprey was the last large mammal to enter the biology books. It is perhaps the most primitive of living cattle and is closely allied to Bos namadicus, the wild ancestor of zebu cattle. In 1964 it was declared Cambodia's national animal. It is now perilously close to extinction, and for a decade no koupreys have been observed close enough for a positive identification by a specialist. In 1982, however, five of the animals were believed sighted in Thailand, near the border with Kampuchea. Thus there are hopes that the kouprey still exists.</P>
    1092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1067
    10931068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1069
    10951070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is large. Males stand 1.5-2 m high at the shoulder and may weigh 900 kg. Females are approximately three-quarters the height and weight of the males. The body is slender and long-legged. The hump from the withers to the center of the back is smaller than that of the gaur, but larger than that of the banteng. There is a well-developed dewlap from the throat to the mid-chest, which in old animals is sometimes so pendulous that it drags through the grass in front of the forelegs.</P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1071
    10971072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young bulls are gray, with black on the head and dewlap. Old bulls are entirely black and cows are mouse gray or dullish light brown. As in the gaur and the banteng, the lower parts of the legs have white stockings, but kouprey stockings have a streak of dark hair down the front.</P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1073
    10991074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11001075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey. (P. Pfeffer)</P>
    1101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1076
    11021077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey horns are among the longest and widest of any bovine. The tips of the adult male horns are surrounded by rough, frayed tissue caused by the animals' habit of digging in the soil with their horns. The females have slender, lyre-shaped horns that corkscrew upwards, unlike those of any other wild or domesticated cattle.</P>
    1103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1078
    11041079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to have a grace more reminiscent of deer than cattle. They move at a light trot, as fast as 32 kph.</P>
    1105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1080
    11061081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1082
    11081083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's prevalence in ancient times is evidenced by prehistoric cave-paintings in Kampuchea. The animal was also a favorite of the ancient Khmers, who carved kouprey statues and featured the animal in bas-reliefs on temples, including the monuments of Angkor Wat. </P>
    1109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1084
    11101085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, whatever kouprey exist are restricted to an area along both sides of the Mekong River in northern Kampuchea, the Dangrek Range, and other parts of eastern Thailand to the far south of Laos, and to the westernmost part of Vietnam. Although one or two small herds may still exist in remote pockets of Laos and Vietnam, the bulk of the population has always been centered in Kampuchea.</P>
    1111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1086
    11121087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are no koupreys in captivity.</P>
    1113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1088
    11141089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1090
    11161091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their large size, gregarious behavior, comparatively low reproductive rate, and preference for open areas, kouprey are vulnerable to hunting. The impressive horns and other tissues are valued as trophies and as medicinals.</P>
    1117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1092
    11181093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1964 it was estimated there were about 500 kouprey in Kampuchea, but by 1970 fewer than 70 were left. The subsequent fate of the species is unknown because of the years of warfare in the area. (Early in 1970, the three nominal kouprey reserves of Kampuchea were overrun by military forces.)</P>
    1119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1094
    11201095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p55.png"></center><br>
    11211096 KOUPREY DISTRIBUTION. (AFTER C.H. WHARTON )</P>
    1122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1097
    11231098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975 the kouprey stocks in Laos and Thailand were estimated at only 50 and 20 animals, respectively. By now, hunting and habitat destruction probably have all but eliminated the kouprey from Thailand. However, a reported sighting of five animals that had strayed across the border from Kampuchea was made in July 1982. (By the time Thai zoologists arrived to investigate, the herd apparently had crossed back into Kampuchea.)</P>
    1124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1099
    11251100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1101
    11271102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the banteng, the kouprey inhabits open sites such as light savannas, woodland meadows, and scattered glades in the monsoon forests. It is adapted to dry country. This type of habitat is not widespread in Indochina, and the range of the kouprey is consequently limited.</P>
    1128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1103
    11291104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey spend most of the year among low rolling hills in open areas where grazing and visibility are good. These open areas are a fire climax mosaic of dry dipterocarp savannas and patches of dense forest. Fires occur each dry season, most of them deliberately set by man. Kouprey capitalize on the young growth in burned-over areas. They feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and tree leaves. They also require salt licks and a supply of water in the dry season.</P>
    1130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1105
    11311106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1107
    11331108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation period is thought to be about 8.5 months. Cows leave the herd before parturition and return with their calves after about a month. They nurse their calves for about 6 months.</P>
    1134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1109
    11351110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1111
    11371112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to be even more shy than banteng and gaur. They feed in erratic patterns and are always alert and nervous.</P>
    1138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1113
    11391114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loose herds of 20 or more have been reported. These were of mixed composition, often with more than one adult male, and were usually led by an old female. Adult bulls sometimes form bachelor herds.</P>
    1140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1115
    11411116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey utilize some of the same feeds as wild banteng, and the two animals often live in a loose association. They graze together, and, especially after the mating season, solitary kouprey bulls often associate with banteng herds. The two species do not, however, interbreed in the wild. </P>
    1142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1117
    11431118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1119
    11451120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is a candidate for domestication and has important potential as breeding stock. It is a wild animal, but it may have been domesticated temporarily during the Khmer culture, 400-800 years ago.* Both Vietnam and Laos have cattle breeds that resemble kouprey, and a kouprey bull, reputed to be a domestic animal of the Stieng tribe, was exhibited in the Paris Menagerie in the mid-nineteenth century. It may be that kouprey are domestic even today in parts of Indochina.</P>
    1146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1121
    11471122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1123
    11491124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey survival has worldwide significance. The animals could be important for studies of bovine evolution and as a genetic resource for crossbreeding to improve disease resistance and other characteristics of domesticated bovines. For instance, the kouprey is thought to be resistant to rinderpest, a killer disease of domestic cattle. Also, kouprey bulls are distinctive for their long dewlap, and they probably have more skin area for their weight than other bovines and are therefore better able to eliminate body heat. This genetic trait may help large cattle breeds survive in the tropics.</P>
    1150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1125
    11511126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1127
    11531128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's potential may be moot - there may be none left in the world. It is feared that the warfare of recent years may have caused its extinction. However, if enough animals survive and can be protected, the kouprey could probably recover its numbers, as a higher calf-to-cow ratio (1:3) was reported for this species than for either banteng (1:4) or gaur (1:10).*</P>
    1154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1129
    11551130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wild kouprey are found, their capture is likely to be difficult.</P>
    1156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1131
    11571132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1133
    11591134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a long-term sequence of research needs for the kouprey, which includes the following:</P>
    1160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1135
    11611136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.  Working with the governments of Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea to identify any remaining pockets of this species and to establish conservation programs;</P>
    1162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1137
    11631138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing one or more captive breeding herds (because there is little chance of the animal surviving in the wild owing to the fighting and turmoil in the area);</P>
    1164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1139
    11651140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying the animal's basic physiology and production potential;</P>
    1166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1141
    11671142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exploring its possible commercial utilization; and</P>
    1168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1143
    11691144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Investigating the kouprey's genetic relationship to zebu cattle and the transferability of genetic characters through interbreeding. </P>
    1170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1145
    11711146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p58.png"></center><br>
    11721147 FIGURE</P>
    1173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1148
    11751149<B><P></P>
    11761150<!--
    … …  
    11811155  </Description>
    11821156-->
    1183 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1157</B>
    11841158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is related to the water buffalo, one of Asia's most important animal resources, but it has never been domesticated or studied and is threatened with extinction.</P>
    1185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1159
    11861160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1161
    11881162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw looks rather like a miniature water buffalo of the swamp type that is found in Southeast Asia. It reaches about I m in height and 300 kg in weight. It is much more stockily built and is blacker than the swamp buffalo. The tamaraw has white marks on the fetlocks, instead of completely white lower legs like the banteng, gaur, and kouprey. It has short (35-50 cm), very stout horns that curve out and back slightly.</P>
    1189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1163
    11901164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1165
    11921166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro the tamaraw is now virtually restricted to three small areas (Mount Iglet/Mount Baco, Mount Calavita, and Sablayon) in Mindoro Occidental.</P>
    1193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1167
    11941168<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1169
    11961170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its limited distribution, the tamaraw's future is of concern to conservationists. Until World War II, hunting was carefully regulated in its native region and no serious concern was felt for the animal's safety. Since then, however, increases in human population, lumbering, and ranching have restricted the tamaraw's habitat, and the availability of rifles and automatic weapons has seriously threatened its numbers. In 1971, research teams counted 148 head, consisting of 116 adults and 32 calves. The latest estimate is 150-200 head.</P>
    1197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1171
    11981172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these last remaining animals, about 80 are located at Mount Iglit, a game refuge established in 1961 primarily to protect the tamaraw. Recently an active tamaraw conservation program has been started in a 400-hectare enclosed area on the refuge. Stockade traps have been built and tamaraw are beginning to move into them. The goal is to establish a small, semicaptive population that can be properly guarded, studied, and managed.</P>
    1199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1173
    12011174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p61.png"></center><br>
    12021175 Tamaraw distribution. (courtesy Wildlife magazine)</P>
    1203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1176
    12041177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1178
    12061179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The habitat requirements of the tamaraw appear to be fairly flexible, and present habitat use reflects human pressures rather than the animal's preferences. In the past, tamaraw were found in virtually all parts of Mindoro, from sea level to mountain tops. They occupied open grasslands or glades, but hunting pressure and habitat change have forced it to retreat into forest environments.</P>
    1207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1180
    12081181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present the tamaraw is found primarily in remote areas that have been partly cleared, largely by fire, so that only small pockets of trees remain among coarse grasses such as Imperata cylindrica (a widespread, unpalatable tropical weed commonly called cogon, kunai, alang alang, lalang, or blady grass), and "tahalib" (Saccharum spontaneum). The tamaraw uses the forest pockets for rest and retreat and the open land for grazing. It must have a supply of water for wallowing and drinking.</P>
    1209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1182
    12101183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1184
    12121185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to cattlemen, tamaraw eat both Imperata grass and tehalib but only when these are short and green. During the wet season when most forages are tall and unpalatable, the animals are known to feed on bamboo shoots.</P>
    1213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1186
    12141187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy is about 20 years. </P>
    1215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1188
    12161189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12171190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1191
    12191192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw are reputed to be nocturnal, ferocious, and retiring. However, in earlier times they were reportedly relatively tame, diurnal animals of open areas. It was the continual hunting that made them increasingly nocturnal and secretive, and like other wild bovids they can become aggressive and dangerous when harassed or wounded. Given effective protection they doubtless would revert to placid, diurnal behavior.</P>
    1220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1193
    12211194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1195
    12231196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw appears to be a possible livestock animal. Its meat and hides were highly regarded by local peoples, cattlemen, and visiting hunters. Because of its close relationship to the water buffalo, it may be able to provide genetic material for improving the health and hardiness of that valuable animal resource.</P>
    1224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1197
    12251198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
    1226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1199
    12271200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is renowned for hardiness and resilience to heat, humidity, and poor forage, as well as its capability to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions.</P>
    1228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1201
    12291202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1203
    12311204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraws have only once produced offspring in a zoo and may prove difficult to raise in captivity. However, they have been kept in captivity so seldom that the prospects are unclear. Experiences with other wild bovids suggests that captivity and captive breeding should be no problem.</P>
    1232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1205
    12331206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1207
    12351208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw must be protected and preserved. There is urgent need, for example, to establish more secure parks in the Philippines to rebuild the wild population to safe levels. Other conservation measures should include:</P>
    1236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1209
    12371210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing and maintaining more reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations, and</P>
    1238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1211
    12391212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
    1240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1213
    12411214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed on the tamaraw's physiology, production characteristics, behavior, and genetic relationship to the water buffalo. None of these is well understood. </P>
    1242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1215
    12431216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
    12441217 FIGURE</P>
    1245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1218
    12471219<B><P></P>
    12481220<!--
    … …  
    12531225  </Description>
    12541226-->
    1255 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1227</B>
    12561228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)* are small bovines that are related to the water buffalo but that are scarcely bigger than goats.</P>
    1257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1229
    12581230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1231
    12601232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with other bovines, the anoa is tiny. It stands only 0.75-1 m tall at the shoulder. The mountain anoa is smaller than its lowland counterpart. The limbs are short, the body plump, and the neck thick.</P>
    1261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1233
    12621234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoa horns are short and straight, reaching a maximum length of about 380 mm; they are ringed and triangular in cross section at the base in lowland species and simple and conical in cross section in mountain species.</P>
    1263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1235
    12641236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the young are thickly covered with yellowish-brown woolly hair, the mountain anoa adults tend to have curly hair, while lowland anoa have straight hair or are hairless. Adults vary from dark brown to black, with frequent blotches of white on the face, nape, throat, and lower limbs. In mountain anoas the entire lower limbs are creamy white. The underbody parts are usually light brown. Males are generally darker than females.</P>
    1265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1237
    12661238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hide is exceptionally thick.</P>
    1267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1239
    12681240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1241
    12701242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are native to dense, mature forests of Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia.</P>
    1271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1243
    12731244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12741245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1246
    12761247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species are abundant and well distributed on Sulawesi. Most of the northern, eastern, and southeastern peninsulas and the central area of Sulawesi are still forested and have anoa populations, and there are several large nature reserves to protect them. *</P>
    1277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1248
    12781249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the world's zoos have anoa collections (see Research Contacts).</P>
    1279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    12801251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    12821253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate of Sulawesi is hot, but tempered by sea winds; annual rainfall varies from 500 mm to 4,000 mm. The eastern and southeastern peninsulas have a sparse population and a scattering of subsistence agriculture.</P>
    1283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1254
    12841255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland species is found in forests and was once common along the coasts. The mountain anoa is found in primary forests at high altitudes.</P>
    1285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1256
    12871257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p66.png"></center><br>
    12881258 DISTRIBUTION OF ANOA</P>
    1289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1259
    12901260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1261
    12921262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a wide-ranging diet that includes grasses, ferns, saplings, palm, ginger, and fallen fruit, especially figs. It is of particular interest that the animals can live on a diet that contains no grass.</P>
    1293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1263
    12941264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a high requirement for minerals. They visit mineral-rich hot springs and salt licks, and they even drink from the sea.</P>
    1295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1265
    12961266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The San Diego Zoo in the United States and Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia have successfully bred and reared the animals in captivity. The gestation period is 276-315 days, and there is generally only a single birth. The life expectancy is about 20-25 years.</P>
    1297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1267
    12981268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1269
    13001270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are shy animals, but they can be aggressive. The sideways and upwards stab of their straight, sharp horns can be dangerous.</P>
    1301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1271
    13021272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except when the cows are about to give birth, anoas apparently associate in pairs rather than in herds. They enjoy water and frequently wallow in mud. Their gait is a trot, but a times they make clumsy leaps. During the morning they feed alone. In the heat of the afternoon they seek refuge under shade trees.</P>
    1303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1273
    13041274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1275
    13061276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi anoas are prized for their hide, horns, and meat. The flesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well flavored.</P>
    1307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1277
    13081278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1279
    13101280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although somewhat aggressive and pugnacious, anoas might make a suitable livestock animal. They grow and reproduce well in captivity and are adaptable and intelligent. Their small size makes them easier to handle than many other wild bovines.</P>
    1311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1281
    13121282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    13131283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1284
    13151285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the habits of these animals because of their wary nature, secluded environment, and restricted range. They can be tamed enough to obey commands ("lie down," for example) but they remain nervous and likely to butt strangers.</P>
    1316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1286
    13171287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1288
    13191289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surveys are needed throughout Sulawesi to determine the distribution and taxonomy of possible races of the two species, with a view to establishing a protected-area system that will ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of this group.</P>
    1320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1290
    13211291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on social organization and tameability, as well as on the anoa's biological relationship to the tamaraw and water buffalo.</P>
    1322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1292
    13231293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One target should be to build up the zoo populations of both species. </P>
    1324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1294
    13251295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68.png"></center><br>
    13261296 FIGURE</P>
    1327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1329 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1297
     1298<B>
    13301299<!--
    13311300</Section>
    … …  
    13361305  </Description>
    13371306-->
    1338 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307</B>
    13391308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Asia wild and feral pigs are often the most abundant source of meat. These animals are predominantly variants of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa, or of its ancestor, the Eurasian wild boar. Also contributing to the pig population are five Asian species:</P>
    1340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1309
    13411310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bearded pig</P>
    13421311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sulawesi warty pig</P>
    … …  
    13441313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pigmy hog</P>
    13451314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babirusa</P>
    1346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1315
    13471316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia hybridization between these species and common pigs has resulted in a confusing diversity of forms and interrelationships. Because of their value, these pigs have been spread since prehistoric times by traders and migrating peoples, creating odd and unpredictable distribution patterns.</P>
    1348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1317
    13491318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species listed represent a gene pool of potential importance for the further development of one of man's most important sources of food. </P>
    1350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1319
    13511320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas of the world, one must start with the native animals adapted to that environment. In many cases, they are the only animals the native human population can afford to begin with. And it is amazing the increased animal production that can result from the use of better production practices with them. TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California, USA </P>
    1352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1321
    13531322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitting the animal to the vegetation might be a better approach than trying to fit the vegetation to the animal, especially on ranges that have been changed or degraded by man. JAMES TEER, Director Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas, USA </P>
    1354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1323
    13551324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now widespread realization that breed importation is not necessarily the quickest route to increased animal production. Indigenous, adapted breeds should be examined more closely and, where necessary, steps should be taken to ensure conservation of at least some of them. HELEN NEWTON TURNER Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
    1356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1325
    13571326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximizing the animal harvest, essentially of animal protein, assumes in concept that all animals will be fully exploited in efficient and economic production systems. C.DEVENDRA Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
    1358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1327
    13591328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p70.png"></center><br>
    13601329 FIGURE</P>
    1361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1330
    13631331<B><P></P>
    13641332<!--
    … …  
    13681336  </Description>
    13691337-->
    1370 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1338</B>
    13711339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it apparently has never been domesticated, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) has a long history as an important resource in Southeast Asia. Human remains from the Niah Caves in Sarawak are accompanied by large numbers of its bones and teeth, indicating that 40,000 years ago it was the most commonly eaten large animal. Today in Sarawak and some other areas the bearded pig is still probably the most sought after source of wild meat.</P>
    1372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1340
    13731341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1342
    13751343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded pigs are large. Boars measure 1-1.6 m in length (crown to rump), up to 1 m in height, and may weigh as much as 150 kg. Sows are smaller. Adult males have small facial warts (infraocular and preocular) and a bushy tuft of hair on the cheek. Both sexes vary in color from pale red-brown to yellow-brown or black. They have elongated skulls with longer, more flexible snouts than the common pig.</P>
    1376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1344
    13771345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1346
    13791347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five subspecies are recognized. They range through the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan and offshore islands, Calamianes, Luzon, Mainit, Mindanao, Jolo, Mindoro, and Cebu) to Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
    1380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1348
    13811349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1350
    13831351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Borneo subspecies (Sus barbatus barbatus) is still abundant in some parts of Sabah, Sarawak (including several wildlife reserves), and </P>
    1384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1352
    13851353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalimantan. It remains an important food resource for some hill tribes, although with the spread of Islam, attitudes toward pork are changing in some areas. The Malayan subspecies (Sus barbatus of) is now rare in the Malay Peninsula. It is also becoming rare in Sumatra as the lowland forests are logged and broken up by commercial interests and as the human population expands. The status of the three Philippine subspecies is currently unknown.</P>
    1386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1354
    13871355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1356
    13891357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig is most commonly found in both primary and secondary evergreen forests. However, it seems to have wide adaptability, and in Sarawak bearded pigs are found in virtually all habitats from the beaches to the upland rain forests.</P>
    1390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1358
    13911359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1360
    13931361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No biological research has yet been conducted on bearded pigs, but naturalists have made several observations. The pigs eat the seeds of trees (for example, those of species of Dipterocarpaceae and Fageceae), fallen fruits (of Moraceae, Bombacaceae, and other plant families), roots, stems of wild bananas, herbs, and probably earthworms, and along the coast they dig up and eat turtle eggs.</P>
    1394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1362
    13951363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Births occur throughout the year in Sabah, but the peak coincides with the fruiting season of forest trees, usually August-September. The litter size is from 3 to 11 piglets.</P>
    1396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1364
    13971365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p73.png"></center><br>
    13981366 FIGURE</P>
    1399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1367
    14001368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14011369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1370
    14031371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No behavioral studies have been conducted, but observations suggest that bearded pigs are generally sedentary animals, although in some areas they congregate into large groups that may travel long distances together.</P>
    1404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1372
    14051373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1374
    14071375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species might be used (alone or together with other pig species) as a local source of meat, or even as the foundation of a meat industry. The bearded pig is accustomed to living in groups, which may make it suitable for husbandry or game management.</P>
    1408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1376
    14091377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is evidence that the bearded pig will interbreed with the common pig, producing young in which both sexes are fertile.* The progeny might have considerable hybrid vigor.</P>
    1410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1378
    14111379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1380
    14131381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig may have tolerance (if not actual resistance) to tropical diseases and conditions that affect the common pig. The species survives in areas of Southeast Asia where feral herds of common pigs are not common, apparently owing to their inability to cope with disease or other environmental challenges.</P>
    1414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1382
    14151383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1384
    14171385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No negative qualities have been reported, but the animal's biology, behavior, management, and potential uses are so far virtually unstudied.</P>
    1418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1386
    14191387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1388
    14211389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aspects of the animal's general biology that should be investigated include:</P>
    1422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1390
    14231391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chromosome type and variability, and chromosomal differences between the bearded pig and other wild and domesticated pig species</P>
    1424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1392
    14251393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive physiology</P>
    1426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1394
    14271395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional physiology</P>
    1428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1396
    14291397<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
    1430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1398
    14311399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assist in the selective capture of young bearded pigs in the wild, external features that characterize the species at an early age need to be identified.</P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1400
    14331401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assess the bearded pig's potential for contributing hybrid vigor, crossbreeding with other pig species should be attempted under controlled conditions.</P>
    1434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1402
    14361403<B><P></P>
    14371404<!--
    … …  
    14421409  </Description>
    14431410-->
    1444 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1411</B>
    14451412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig (Sus celebensis) is one of the world's few domesticated animals. It is maintained as a village or household animal in a few areas of Southeast Asia, such as on the Indonesian island of Roti. The common pigs of New Guinea and parts of the Moluccas group are hybrids between this species and the common pig.</P>
    1446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1413
    14471414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1415
    14491416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi warty pigs are medium sized, averaging about 60 cm high and 40-70 kg. Boars are larger than females and have longer (10 cm) tusks on both jaws. Boars have three pairs of prominent facial warts: on the snout, the cheek, and on the angle of the jaw. In sows these warts are small or absent entirely.</P>
    1450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1417
    14511418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are usually red-brown with sharply marked white and yellow undersides; older animals have a round white spot (about 3 cm in diameter) on each side of the upper cheek. Piglets have horizontal stripes on the body, which disappear as they mature.</P>
    1452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1419
    14531420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body is covered with scanty coarse hair, but stiff bristles, which become erect when the animal is alarmed, occur along the mid-dorsal line of the body. The longest and stiffest occur on the head and nape.</P>
    1454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1421
    14551422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1423
    14571424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to mainland Sulawesi and certain surrounding islands, the Sulawesi warty pig has been introduced to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Sumba, Roti, Semau, and Timor), the Moluccas (Malmahera and Buru), and Simaleue, a small island west of Sumatra. In some parts of the Philippines (for instance, Naujan and Mindoro Oriental) the animal either occur naturally or has been introduced. </P>
    1458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1425
    14591426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids between the Sulawesi warty pig and the common domestic pig occur on New Guinea, Ternate, Morotai, Bacan, Amron, Seram, Kei island, Aru island, and Sulawatti.</P>
    1460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1427
    14611428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1429
    14631430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many islands of eastern Indonesia, this species is widespread and common. In a few places it is extremely abundant, particularly at higher altitudes; in others, it has been greatly reduced by overhunting, deforestation, and expanding human settlement.</P>
    1464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1431
    14651432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, however, Sulawesi warty pig populations are declining, probably due to increased hunting and to human alterations of the animal's habitats.</P>
    1466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1433
    14671434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1435
    14691436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This pig inhabits varied environments, including rain forest, mountain forest, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</P>
    1470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1437
    14711438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p77.png"></center><br>
    14721439 FIGURE</P>
    1473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1440
    14741441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14751442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1443
    14771444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the common pig, the Sulawesi warty pig has broad dietary preferences. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots. The bulk of its food consists of vegetable materials, but it also feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic invertebrates, rats, birds, and even carrion.</P>
    1478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1445
    14791446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The uterus and placenta are anatomically indistinguishable from those of the common pig. The litter size is from 2 to 8 piglets, with an average of 5.</P>
    1480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1447
    14811448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sows can give birth throughout the year, but usually have their young in April or May. The gestation period is about 4 months.</P>
    1482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1449
    14831450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1451
    14851452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding and farrowing occur in the forest and in open Imperata cylindrica grasslands. The pregnant female makes a nest of grasses, leaves, twigs, and branches, which she collects and places over a hole (approximately 2 m long) that she has previously dug. Here she gives birth.</P>
    1486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1453
    14871454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foraging is the main activity of the day and usually takes up several hours, mainly in the early morning and evening. In the wild the pigs travel in small groups, the young always traveling with an adult female. On the move, warty pigs feed and rest intermittently.</P>
    1488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1455
    14891456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1457
    14911458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a source of meat the Sulawesi warty pig has been recognized and exploited by local populations since prehistoric times. The presence of feral specimens far outside the pigs' natural range indicates that traders or migrants have long carried it with them on voyages, either as domestic stock or as wild specimens to be released for later capture.</P>
    1492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1459
    14931460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tusks, which can be carved like ivory, are a resource for local artisans. Wild specimens are suitable for sport hunting.</P>
    1494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1461
    14951462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1463
    14971464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a body of unrecorded indigenous experience with this animal as a domesticate, but the information needs to be collected and appraised.</P>
    1498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1465
    15001466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig may be expected to possess resistance or tolerance to the many diseases prevalent in its native habitat.</P>
    1501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1467
    15021468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is promising potential for hybridization between this species and domestic pigs, which might lead to the improvement of common pigs in tropical regions.</P>
    1503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1469
    15041470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1471
    15061472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the unwritten knowledge of the indigenous people who raise the species, very little information is available on the characteristics and management of this animal.</P>
    1507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1473
    15081474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1475
    15101476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic variability within the species, as well as the karyotypic differences with common pigs and other Sus species, should be defined. Further, the hybrid vigor resulting from crossbreeding with other Sus species should be- quantified under controlled conditions. Apart from producing potentially important heat-tolerant livestock, crossbreeding may shed important light on the origins of the common pig in Asia.</P>
    1511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1477
    15121478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's nutritional requirements and reproductive biology also need study. </P>
    1513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1479
    15141480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p79.png"></center><br>
    15151481 FIGURE</P>
    1516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1482
    15181483<B><P></P>
    15191484<!--
    … …  
    15241489  </Description>
    15251490-->
    1526 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1491</B>
    15271492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) apparently has never been domesticated, but it has been a resource for hunting peoples for centuries. Now, however, the human population in its native region is predominantly Moslem, and all pigs are widely regarded as agricultural pests. Increasing numbers of them are poisoned each year.</P>
    1528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1493
    15291494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1495
    15311496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig can be up to 1.35 m long and 0.9 m tall. Mature males usually weigh between 80 and 120 kg; females are only half that weight - an unusually dramatic example of sexual dimorphism. The animal has a markedly elongated face with large warts, particularly the infraorbital wart and the smaller preorbital and mandibular warts. Body hairs can be black, red, or yellow, with black tips.</P>
    1532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1497
    15331498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1499
    15351500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bawean. It was formerly found on Madura as well, but because of deforestation it is now thought to be extinct there. Two extant subspecies are recognized. The nominate one, Sus verrucosus verrucosus, occurs on mainland Java. The second, Sus verrucosus blouchi, a smaller animal, has recently been described on Bawean.</P>
    1536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1501
    15371502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1503
    15391504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For years it was thought that the Javan warty pig was extinct in the wild, but in October 1981 a herd was found in a small area on Mount Penanggungan in East Java. This population may prove to be substantial, and there is reason to hope that other populations can be found. Overall, however, it is clear that the Javan warty pig is endangered and declining in numbers. In many areas the animals are subjected to uncontrolled poisoning and hunting.</P>
    1540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1505
    15411506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five new reserves have recently been proposed to protect the animal in a variety of habitats because it is not found in appreciable numbers in any of Java's nature reserves.</P>
    1542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1507
    15431508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bawean subspecies is believed to be relatively secure since the establishment of a large reserve.</P>
    1544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1509
    15451510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A breeding colony of 12 Javan warty pigs at the Surabaya Zoo includes 5 young ones born in captivity.</P>
    1546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1511
    15471512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1513
    15491514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitats of the Javan warty pig appear to be confined to elevations below about 800 m. The animals prefer relatively large expanses of grassland or secondary vegetation, where human population is sparse. </P>
    1550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1515
    15511516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p82.png"></center><br>
    15521517 FIGURE</P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518
    15541519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15551520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1521
    15571522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The piglets can be born throughout the year; in one study of 8 sows the litter size ranged from 2 to 8, with a mean of 5.</P>
    1558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1523
    15591524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The (diploid) chromosome number has been found to be 38, the same as that of the common pig. Hybridization between these species is thought to occur in the wild, but apparently not with enough frequency to contaminate the Javan warty pig gene pool.</P>
    1560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1525
    15611526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1527
    15631528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unreported.</P>
    1564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1529
    15651530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1531
    15671532<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are omnivorous, adaptable animals that might make useful domesticates.</P>
    1568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1533
    15691534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1535
    15711536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small size of the sows could make this species particularly appropriate for households or smallholder farms. The animal's genetic "distance" from the domestic pig may make it a useful generator of hybrid vigor in crossbreeds. It could have particular value because its meat is much leaner than pork from the common pig.</P>
    1572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1537
    15731538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1539
    15751540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers in the wild are now too few to permit any cropping.</P>
    1576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1541
    15771542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15781543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1544
    15801545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the Javan warty pig populations that still exist. An immediate need is to isolate pure populations in reserves because it is essential to protect the animal from crossbreeding with other species. In addition, current specimens in zoos should be cataloged and a breeding program established. Other captive breeding colonies should also be started.</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1546
    15821547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to determine the genetic differences between the Javan warty pig and the common pig, as well as the levels of existing hybridization between them. It is also necessary to determine what variation in karyotype may exist within the populations.</P>
    1583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1548
    15841549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic ecological and behavioral studies are needed, as well as studies of the dietary requirements, growth rates, and nutritional physiology of captive specimens. The reproductive biology of the animal should be studied, and the possibility of crossbreeding it with other Sus species should be examined under controlled conditions.</P>
    1585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1550
    15861551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig's potential for local meat production should be evaluated. The benefit to rural people of converting an agricultural pest into a profitable source of income should be explored within the local religious context. </P>
    1587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1552
    15881553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p84.png"></center><br>
    15891554 FIGURE</P>
    1590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1555
    15921556<B><P></P>
    15931557<!--
    … …  
    15981562  </Description>
    15991563-->
    1600 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1564</B>
    16011565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius), a shy and very small pig of northeastern India, is close to extinction because of hunters and the destruction of its habitat.</P>
    1602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1566
    16031567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1568
    16051569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog is only about 60 cm long, with a shoulder height of about 25 cm and a body weight of less than 10 kg. The hair is medium brown on the sides, darkening to blackish brown along the mid-dorsal line. A facial band of short, dark hair extends from the bridge of the nose to below the eye. The tiny tail is only 3 cm long.</P>
    1606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1570
    16071571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1572
    16091573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal was once widely found along the southern foothills of the Himalayas; today, it is definitely known to occur in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam.</P>
    1610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1574
    16111575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1576
    16131577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hogs are seriously endangered; in the wild they are close to extinction. Captive animals are now reduced to a single male in the Assam State Zoo and four male siblings in the Zurich Zoo.</P>
    1614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1578
    16151579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1580
    16171581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few remaining pigmy hogs mainly inhabit tall-grass savannas, but it seems likely that they could adapt to other environments. </P>
    1618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1582
    16191583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
    1620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1584
    16211585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1586
    16231587<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is omnivorous and consumes roots, tubers, grass, leaves, insects, earthworms, eggs, and carrion. While foraging, it undoubtedly consumes large quantities of earth as well.</P>
    1624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1588
    16251589<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chromosome number, 38, is the same as that of the common pig. The karyotype is similar to that the common pig, but small, significant differences have been demonstrated using chromosome banding techniques.*</P>
    1626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1590
    16271591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The age at puberty, time of weaning, length of gestation and estrous cycle, and season of breeding are not yet known with certainty. However, the animal is known to have a single well-defined birth peak (April/May) that coincides with the onset of the rainy season when the food supply increases. The uterus and placenta are anatomically similar to those of the common pig. The litter size varies from 2 to 6. It is not known if the animal can be crossbred with the common pig.</P>
    1628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1592
    16301593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p87.png"></center><br>
    16311594 Distribution of pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
    1632 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1595
    16331596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1597
    16351598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are shy, but can be tamed. They tend to forage and run in groups. Nest building is carried out by both males and females and is not restricted to pre-farrowing periods.</P>
    1636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1599
    16371600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1601
    16391602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no evidence that the pigmy hog has ever been domesticated; it has, however, been extensively hunted and trapped, and recently it was still being sold for human consumption. There would probably be no inherent difficulty in maintaining this species in husbandry.</P>
    1640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1603
    16411604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1605
    16431606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog's small size may make it useful in studies of the physiology of pigs and like mammals. In particular, a study of the uterine capacity may contribute to our understanding of the maternal factors that influence the number and size of mammalian young at birth.</P>
    1644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1607
    16451608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unknown if the animal carries genetic resistance to diseases of the domestic pig, but given its habitat, such resistance seems likely.</P>
    1646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1609
    16471610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1611
    16491612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small numbers of surviving pigmy hogs obviate any consideration of its use in husbandry at the present time. Moreover, its nervous temperament might restrict its potential as a domesticate. </P>
    1650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1613
    16511614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1615
    16531616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential to ensure the survival of this animal. Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the populations that still exist. If its habitat could be protected by preventing the annual dry-season burning of grasses, it is possible that substantial populations could be established. Attempts should also be made to acquire two or more females as mates for the male pigmy hogs at the Assam and Zurich zoos.</P>
    1654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1617
    16551618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an urgent need to ensure that the animals breed successfully in captivity, and the wealth of international expertise in pig reproduction should be applied to that end. For example, the reproductive biology of the animal could be studied by swine experts; the age at puberty, the length of the estrous cycle, the season of breeding (and whether it is influenced by light or temperature), the length of gestation, and time of weaning all need to be determined.</P>
    1656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1619
    16571620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is an omnivore, but the physiology of its digestion has not been studied. Thus, its nutritive requirements are not well enough known to ensure its survival in captivity or reserves.</P>
    1658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1621
    16591622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments should be made to determine if pigmy hog embryos can be brought to term in the uterus of the common pig. If so, such embryo transfers could be used to distribute embryos and set up new herds, lessening the risk of this species" extinction.</P>
    1660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1623
    16611624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p88.png"></center><br>
    16621625 Adult male of the common pig (wild boar Sus scrofa) and pigmy hog drawn to the same scale. (W.L.R. Oliver) </P>
    1663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1626
    16661627<B><P></P>
    16671628<!--
    … …  
    16721633  </Description>
    16731634-->
    1674 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1635</B>
    16751636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is a piglike animal whose closest relative appears to be an ancestral animal that lived in Europe 35 million years ago. It is easily tamed, and in its native area there is an ancient tradition of raising young babirusa for meat and for the males' unique tusks. The animal appears to reproduce well in captivity, and with good management techniques it might gain wide use in the tropics.</P>
    1676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1637
    16771638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
    1678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1639
    16791640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male babirusa can be up to 110 cm long and 80 cm tall and weigh up to 100 kg; females are smaller. The male has large upper canines that grow upwards, piercing right through the flesh of the snout and curving back and downwards towards the forehead without ever entering the mouth. The female may sometimes have small upper canines projecting through the skin of the upper lip.</P>
    1680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1641
    16811642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is more slender than a pig of similar size. It has a gray or brown-grey skin color, although one subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, has light body hair that is fawn colored or black.</P>
    1682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1643
    16831644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
    1684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1645
    16851646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is unique to a few islands of eastern Indonesia: north, central, and southeast Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, and the Sula (Taliabu and Sulabesi) and Buru Islands. On Sula and Buru it is probably not native but was introduced in prehistoric times.</P>
    1686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1647
    16871648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
    1688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1649
    16891650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi the babirusa remains abundant, despite hunting and the widespread clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, disturbances created by wood and rattan collectors, hunters, loggers, and farmers threaten the babirusa's survival. Throughout the rest of its range, it is also vulnerable to extinction.</P>
    1690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1651
    16911652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biologists are particularly concerned about some of the babirusa subspecies. The one from the north of mainland Sulawesi, Babyrousa babyrussa celebensis, is still relatively abundant in places and is probably in no immediate danger. The Togian Islands' subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis, is abundant in small islands but is threatened by Indonesia's settlement programs and deforestation. The Buru and Sula Islands subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, may already be extinct; there have been no confirmed sightings in recent years.</P>
    1692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1653
    16931654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1981, there were 26 male and 27 female babirusa held in six zoo collections; 22 of these animals are in the Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia, where they breed well. Most, if not all, are believed to belong to the mainland Sulawesi race.</P>
    1694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1655
    16951656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
    1696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1657
    16971658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals mainly inhabit moist forests at low altitudes.</P>
    1698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1659
    16991660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p91.png"></center><br>
    17001661 FIGURE</P>
    1701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1662
    17031663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17041664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
    1705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1665
    17061666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precise details of babirusa biology are unknown, but the stomach has an extra sac, suggesting that the animals may have some ability to break down cellulose. Indeed, they browse leaves, a behavior more often found in a deer than in a pig, and have been referred to as "ruminant pigs." Babirusa also live on roots, berries, and grubs, making them true omnivores. Compared to other pigs, they do little rooting, and in captivity their enclosures remain quite grassy.</P>
    1707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1667
    17081668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa are said to be sexually mature at 5-10 months, but this depends on nutrition. Gestation length is about 158 days. One or two young are produced although there are some reports of litters of three.</P>
    1709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1669
    17101670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One specimen was kept for 24 years in captivity.</P>
    1711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1671
    17121672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17131673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
    1714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1674
    17151675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is a social animal that moves in groups. A retiring native of the dense jungle, it is a fast runner and swims readily. Mating behavior in captivity generally resembles that of domestic pig. Evidence from zoo animals suggests that the male must be removed from the young at birth but that by the time they are a month old the young are safe from paternal attack.</P>
    1716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1676
    17171677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
    1718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1678
    17191679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When captured young or reared in captivity, the babirusa is easily tamed. It has potential as a domesticated species, and with appropriate management may provide a useful source of meat. The meat is tasty and of good quality.</P>
    1720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1680
    17211681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its unique tusks, the skull of the male finds ready markets. This could provide additional income to farmers raising babirusa for meat. The ivory of the tusks could also be a resource for local artisans.</P>
    1722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1682
    17231683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
    1724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1684
    17251685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the anatomy of the stomach suggests that the babirusa may be able to make more efficient use of fibrous foodstuffs than other pigs.</P>
    1726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1686
    17271687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
    1728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1688
    17291689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa produces only one or two young after a gestation period of just over five months; it may therefore take considerable time to build up herds.</P>
    1730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1690
    17311691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the babirusa is easily tamed, it is not known whether it can be husbanded in large groups. Also, present lack of knowledge of the animal's nutrition may restrict its husbandry.</P>
    1732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1692
    17331693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
    1734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1694
    17351695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of animals in the wild is decreasing, and attempts should be made to determine their exact status. Particular attention should be paid to the subspecies Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis and Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa. Captive breeding programs for these subspecies should be started.</P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1696
    17371697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p93.png"></center><br>
    17381698 When seen in longitudinal section, the stomach of babirusa presents striking similarities  to that of a relatively simple ruminant such as the domestic sheep. Every part except the  omasum, even including a rudimentary reticulum, is represented and occupies the same  relative position. The babirusa stomach differs from that of the domestic pig chiefly in  the enormous size of the diverticulum ventriculi, the prominence of the constrictions  that delimit its three main divisions, and in the size and complexity of the cardia. Regions  corresponding to parts of the ruminant stomach are labeled in brackets. (Information  from Davis, 1940; diagram courtesy Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.)</P>
    1739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1699
    17401700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations should be maintained in several regions to ensure that  the species" genetic base is retained. Advantage could be taken of the large  number of islands in eastern Indonesia to establish reserves for the different  babirusa subspecies.</P>
    1741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1701
    17421702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, little is known about the biology of the animal in the wild— its  diet, social behavior, or reproductive performance are almost unstudied. In  view of the relatively small number of babirusa in zoos and the scarcity of  information about the animal's growth rate and general biology, coordinated  studies between zoos could provide much basic information. It has been  suggested that a studbook be initiated for this species.</P>
    1743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1703
    17441704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from chromosome analysis that this pig differs markedly in  its karyotype from that of other pigs. However, more anatomical and  biochemical knowledge is needed.</P>
    1745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1705
    17461706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic parameters of the animal's reproductive physiology are not known.  Questions to be answered include:</P>
    1747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1707
    17481708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can the babirusa be induced to reproduce twice per year?</P>
    17491709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can babirusa embryos be developed to term in the uterus of the domestic  pig? If so, can the number of babirusas be rapidly multiplied in this way?</P>
    17501710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does the babirusa genotypic and gestation-length difference with the  common pig prevent the two from successfully crossbreeding? And if  crossbreeding can be achieved, will the progeny be fertile?  </P>
    1751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1711
    17521712<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p94.png"></center><br>
    17531713 FIGURE</P>
    1754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1757 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1714
     1715<B>
    17581716<!--
    17591717</Section>
    … …  
    17641722  </Description>
    17651723-->
    1766 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1724</B>
    17671725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Asian animals described in this report are a natural resource whose  potential is barely glimpsed. They are virtually unknown to established  livestock interests and there has been little thought to developing them as  livestock. As a result, the research and trials that could lead to further use of  these animals is scattered, small scale, and conducted outside the mainstream  of livestock science, mainly by wildlife conservationists.</P>
    1768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1726
    17691727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet these animals seem worth considering for use in husbandry in many  tropical regions, especially where poor grazing and harsh environments limit  the performance of conventional livestock. There is a pressing need for  research to develop these species and to explore their potential. Only through  rapid action can many of them be kept available for study and possible  inclusion in agriculture.</P>
    1770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1728
    17711729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One suggestion is that funds be provided to establish an Asian  native-livestock research-support team. Its primary purpose would be to  assist in the funding of research projects and to coordinate research being  done in various Asian countries. The team's goal would be to establish a  network of animal scientists based at institutions in Asia and elsewhere to  work cooperatively on the region's little-known bovines and pigs. In this  manner, relatively small sums of money could be used to stimulate and  coordinate Asia-wide research on indigenous animals.*</P>
    1772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1730
    17731731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Research</P>
    1774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1732
    17751733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time has come for basic studies on each of the 15 animals discussed in  this book. For each species, the following areas should be investigated:</P>
    1776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1734
    17781735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology</P>
    17791736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive requirements and fertility</P>
    … …  
    17871744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social structure (for example population density and distribution, social organization, leadership, herding potential, aggressiveness of bulls)</P>
    17881745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Habitat characteristics (behavior-habitat interactions and herd dynamics, for instance).</P>
    1789 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1746
    17901747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on better utilization of products, such as milk, meat, hides, horn, and hair, from these animals.</P>
    1791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1748
    17921749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experimental transfer of fertilized eggs of all of these animals into domestic species should be explored with a view to establishing herds in secure and disease-free areas.</P>
    1793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1750
    17941751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts specific to domesticated and wild species, and to hybrids of these species, are discussed below. The report concludes with brief discussions of a few promising species not taken up in the body of the text.</P>
    1795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1752
    17961753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Species Improving Performance</P>
    1797 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1754
    17981755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little data is available on the performance of the domesticated animals discussed in this report. Yet the main value of these species lies in the new and superior genes and gene combinations that can be adapted to animal production in the tropics.</P>
    1799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1756
    18001757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies need to be conducted with the indigenous species and strains in their native countries to determine if they will respond to improved conditions with improved performance. These projects could provide opportunities for geneticists and animal breeders to improve livestock production while conducting challenging basic research. It would be helpful to establish studbooks of captive specimens and to select and breed for desirable genetic qualities.</P>
    1801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1758
    18021759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic improvement must be directed towards remedying production deficiencies. Methods include selection of superior breeding animals, crossbreeding, and combinations of selection and crossbreeding. Different genetic improvement techniques will be required for each species. Progress should be regularly monitored against the unselected animals and the domestic livestock breeds.</P>
    1803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1760
    18041761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Introductions</P>
    1805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1762
    18061763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries should import breeding stock to evaluate the performance of some of these Asian animals in the local environment. Strict quarantine procedures must, of course, be observed.</P>
    1807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1764
    18081765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special emphasis should be placed on the domesticated banteng of eastern Indonesia. These animals are already an important source of human food and they may have considerable potential for increasing production elsewhere.</P>
    1809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1766
    18101767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Animals</P>
    1811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1768
    18121769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals contribute extensively to the welfare of people and economies of developing countries. In many areas they supply much of the animal protein consumed. But the contributions they make are largely unrecorded, and local officials and aid agencies seldom regard wildlife as an economic resource. As a result, few developing countries have analyzed how their people use indigenous animals for subsistence, and few nutritional studies recognize "bushmeat," although large numbers of people eat it.</P>
    1813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1770
    18141771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife's contribution justifies more detailed and precise evaluations. In many tropical regions few people even know what species are present, let alone in what numbers. Ecologists and animal scientists should be employed to identify and collect data on the fauna of the tropical forests and how it is used by local people. Their work will provide baseline information on the species present and on the potential utility of the undisturbed natural ecosystems.</P>
    1815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1772
    18161773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial Needs</P>
    1817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1774
    18181775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All wildlife utilization must be based on a thorough knowledge of the resource, its numbers, the animals' condition, annual recruitment in the </P>
    1819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1776
    18201777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">various populations, and the seasonal movements of the herds. In addition, it is important to understand the interactions of the species with its habitat.</P>
    1821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1778
    18221779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, the immediate need is for action to assure the preservation of populations of these animals until research studies can be conducted.</P>
    1823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1780
    18241781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, priority actions include the following:</P>
    1825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1782
    18261783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing adequate preserves</P>
    18271784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing total protection for remaining animals</P>
    18281785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preventing poaching.</P>
    1829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1786
    18301787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With few exceptions, the wild species described in this report are under the pressures of agricultural and human expansion. Without efforts to preserve their habitats it will be difficult for these species to survive.</P>
    1831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1788
    18321789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing Wildlife Resources</P>
    1833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1790
    18341791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments cannot stop hungry people from hunting game, but they can use this impetus to help protect some indigenous animals as well as forest and woodland habitats. Fostering the production and supply of wild animals such as those described in this book could open up a new: source of meat and other products, particularly for subsistence farmers in remote areas. In the last analysis, this may be the only way of protecting and maintaining these animals and developing local awareness of their value.</P>
    1835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1792
    18361793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International economic development organizations have traditionally shown little interest in wildlife or wildlife habitats. Yet maintaining these animals and their habitats is crucial to the continuing supply of many indigenous food animals, the most important of which are often the smaller ones that flourish in secondary growth. And the forests that support wildlife also protect some of the huge investments that AID, the World Bank, and other other agencies have made to help developing countries. The forest is the sponge that absorbs the water from tropical rains. Without trees covering the watersheds, heavy rains cause rushing water that erodes the land, despoils highways, silts up dams and reservoirs, knocks out bridges, and inundates towns, villages, and farm fields.</P>
    1837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1794
    18381795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle, the farming of tropical wildlife could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the tropical forests. Rational utilization of tropical animals offers productive alternative use of the land. In some cases, the farming of indigenous animals can fit smoothly into tropical habitats and into traditional village life, because the livestock and its needs are usually familiar to local people and are often ingrained in their traditions.( For successful examples see companion reports nos. 44 and 45, Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea and Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. </P>
    18391796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrid Animals)</P>
    1840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1797
    18421798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybridization may offer new prospects for using underexploited tropical animal resources. This is a speculative notion, but it deserves serious attention.</P>
    1843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1799
    18441800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding between the animals mentioned in this report holds exciting possibilities for expanding livestock options in the tropics. Some of the crosses, known or envisaged, are:</P>
    1845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1801
    18461802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· gaur x cattle</P>
    18471803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· banteng x cattle</P>
    … …  
    18531809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· domestic pig x warty pigs</P>
    18541810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· warty pigs x bearded pig</P>
    1855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1811
    18561812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care must be taken, however, to guard against the dilution of wild genes by the escape of hybrid or interbreeding domestic species, or the establishment of feral hybrid populations.</P>
    1857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1813
    18581814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    18591815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exchange of Pig Germ Plasm</P>
    1860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1816
    18611817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present veterinary restrictions effectively prevent the movement of pigs between most countries. Relatively few species of wild pigs are therefore maintained in zoos outside their countries of origin. This stifles the promising potential for the species described in Part III, as well as for captive-breeding safeguards and research on the endangered species. It is important that attempts be made to identify channels for the future establishment of viable captive stocks both within Asia and elsewhere. Transfer of embryos should be verified as a means of permitting disease-free movement across frontiers.</P>
    1862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1818
    18631819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Not Covered in this Report</P>
    1864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1820
    18651821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project, which began as a short report on banteng, quickly developed momentum as it brought in suggestion after suggestion of further species. Through pressures of time and budget, it was not possible to take up all of these interesting animals. Some of the omitted ones are listed below. </P>
    1866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1822
    18671823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).* A heavily built, Southeast Asian hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae, the takin lives in small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Though robust and short-legged, it can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. It stands up to about 1 m at the shoulder and has a shaggy yellowish- to blackish-brown coat. Both sexes have heavy horns that turn outward from the center of the forehead and then curve up and backward.</P>
    1868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1824
    18691825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goral (Naemorhedus goral).* This small Asian goatlike bovine has slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-grey coat. It is related to the chamois and serow (see below) but is distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, as well as by smaller size, shorter horns, and the absence of face glands. Gorals are native to a vast area, ranging from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia.</P>
    1870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1826
    18711827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serow (Capricorhis sumatrensis). The serow has been called a "goatantelope." Found in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, the eastern Himalayas, and China, it lives on forest-clad slopes, such as the mountains of southern China that are the home of the giant panda. Serows have coarse black hair, long pointed ears, a distinct mane, and short, backward pointing horns.</P>
    1872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1828
    18731829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native species of goats are also valuable genetic resources of Asia and examples include ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur). There are also various species of sheep, including the various races of argalis (Ovis ammon), which form small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Although robust and short-legged, these animals can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. Soviet animal breeders apparently are exploring some of the possibilities of using argalis in animal husbandry. They are crossing domestic sheep with arkhar (Ovis ammon karelini) to produce a commercially viable hybrid.</P>
    1874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1830
    18751831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marketable size of lamb might be increased appreciably to provide larger, leaner cuts of meat by crossing domestic sheep with the Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), which is as big as deer and has a mature body weight of 400-500 pounds. Marco Polo sheep meat is reported to have none of the "mutton" favor of domestic sheep. Thus, crosses might enhance consumer acceptance of sheep meat.</P>
    1876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1832
    18771833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia also has several species of deer that could have been included.§ The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is now domesticated in China for musk production and is a resource with a promising future. Also, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Asia's largest deer, may prove useful in husbandry. Several deer species are being farmed in New Zealand and ruse deer (Cervus rusa), which are native to South and Southeast Asia, are being farmed in Mauritius, Australia, and Papua New Guinea for meat and medicinal by-products. Two small, goat-sized Asian deer, the hog deer (Cervus porcinus) and the barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), may also be worth considering. </P>
    1878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1834
    18791835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
    18801836 KOUPREY</P>
    1881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1883 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1837
     1838<B>
    18841839<!--
    18851840</Section>
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    18891844  </Description>
    18901845-->
    1891 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1846</B>
    18921847<B><P></P>
    18931848<!--
    … …  
    18971852  </Description>
    18981853-->
    1899 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1854</B>
    19001855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    19011856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General</P>
    1902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1857
    19031858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bohlken, H. 1961. Haustiere und Zoologische Systematik. Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie76:107-113.</P>
    1904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1859
    19051860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
    1906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1861
    19071862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum of Natural History, London, England.</P>
    1908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1863
    19091864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
    1910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1865
    19111866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gray, A. P. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids: A Check-List with Bibliography. Commonwealth Technical Communication No. 10 (Rev.). Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland.</P>
    1912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1867
    19131868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honacki, J. H., K. E. Kinman, and J. W. Koeppl. 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.</P>
    1914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1869
    19151870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mochi, U. and T. D. Carter. 1953. Hoofed Mammals of the World. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</P>
    1916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1871
    19171872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Longman, London, England.</P>
    1918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1873
    19191874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C. T. In Press. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, USA.</P>
    1920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1875
    19211876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walker, E. P. 1975. Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and London, England.</P>
    1922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1877
    19231878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1969. Man, fire and wild cattle in Southeast Asia. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 107-167.</P>
    1924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1879
    19251880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated and Wild Banteng</P>
    1926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1881
    19271882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. C., G. Dryden, and A. C. Kondos. 1976. A comparison of the digestive efficiency of the water buffalo and Brahman and Banteng cattle. In Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 11.</P>
    1928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1883
    19291884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Budiarso, I. T., and S. Hardjosworo. 1976. Jembrana disease in Bali cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 52(2):97.</P>
    1930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1885
    19311886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, R. S. 1974. Observations on banteng cattle in Sabah. Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(2):89-94.</P>
    1932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1887
    19331888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1975. Gestation period and calving interval in Bali cattle. Majalah Ilmiah Universitas Udayana 9:61 -65.</P>
    1934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1889
    19351890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1976. Masa kebuntingan den interval beranak padas sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institute, Bali, Indonesia. </P>
    1936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1891
    19371892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C., T. Lee Kok Choc, and M. Pathmasingam. 1973. The productivity of Bali cattle in Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 49(2):183-197.</P>
    1938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1893
    19391894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holmes, J. H. C., J. H. Schottler, and T. F. Leche. 1977. Southeast Asian cattle, buffalo, and beef in Papua New Guinea. In Agriculture in the Tropics, B. A. C. Enyi and T. H. Varghese, eds. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.</P>
    1940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1895
    19411896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulan, The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.</P>
    1942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1897
    19431898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1956. The valid name of the banteng Bibos javanicus d'Alton. Zoologische Mededelingenuitgegeven door het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden 34:223-226.</P>
    1944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1899
    19451900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jellinek, P. J., J. Avenell, A. Thahar, and P. Sitorus. 1980. Infertility associated with crossbreeding of Bali cattle. In Proceedings, 2nd Ruminant Seminar, Ciawi, Indonesia. 79 pp.</P>
    1946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1901
    19471902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jenkinson, D. M., and T. Nay. 1975. The sweat glands and hair follicles of different species of Bovidae. Australian Journal of Biological Science 28:55-68.</P>
    1948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1903
    19491904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirby, G. W. M. 1979. Bali cattle in Australia. World Animal Review 31 :24-29.</P>
    1950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1905
    19511906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
    1952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1907
    19531908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meijer, W. C. P. 1962. Das Balirind (Balinese Cattle). Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, No. 303, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. (Translated from the Dutch by E. Mohr.)</P>
    1954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1909
    19551910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973a. Liveweight changes of Brahman cross, Shorthorn, Banteng and buffalo steers grazing improved pastures at Darwin, Northern Territory. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 39:68-9.</P>
    1956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1911
    19571912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973b. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24:775-782.</P>
    1958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1913
    19591914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1978. Digestibility and water metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed roughage diets. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 44: 57-59.</P>
    1960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1915
    19611916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1980. The prediction of chemical content of the whole carcass from the physically-dissected rib in cattle and buffaloes. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 13:503.</P>
    1962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1917
    19631918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1981. Beef and buffalo production by smallholders in Indonesia. World Review of Animal Production 17:55-64.</P>
    1964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1919
    19651920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1982. The performance of Indonesian beef breeds under traditional and improved management systems. Pp. 347-351 in Animal Production and Health in the Tropics, M. R. Jainudeen and A. R. Omar, eds. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.</P>
    1966 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1921
    19671922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B., B. W. Norton, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. The intake, digestibility and utilization of a low quality roughage by Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:333-340.</P>
    1968 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1923
    19691924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Namikawa, T., and W. Widodo. 1978. Electrophoretic variations of hemoglobin and serum albumin in the Indonesian cattle including Bali cattle (Bos banteng). Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 49(11):817-827.</P>
    1970 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1925
    19711926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Rika, M. Supardjata, K. D. Nurbudhi, and L. R. Humphreys. 1976. Productivity of improved pastures grazed by Bali cattle under coconuts: a preliminary report. Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 18 pp.</P>
    1972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1927
    19731928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., and K. Rika. 1978. Bali cattle grazing improved pasture under coconuts. 1. Effects of stocking rate on steer performance and coconut yield. In Seminar on Integration of Animals with Plantation Crops, April 13-15. Preprint No. 10. Penang, Indonesia. 8 pp</P>
    1974 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1929
    19751930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979a. Effects of replacing 30 percent of the green roughage with concentrate on the performance of Bali steer. Progress report to the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. Centre file:3-P77-0087. 25 pp.</P>
    1976 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1931
    19771932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979b. Performance of Bali cattle fed grass supplemented with stylosanthes. Progress report to the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. Project No. RR 76. 15 pp.</P>
    1978 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1933
    19791934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Lana, 1. B. Sudana, N. Sutji, and 1. C. N. Sarka. I980. Persediaan den kebutuhan hijauan ternak di Bali (Roughage supply and requirement of livestock in </P>
    1980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1935
    19811936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bali). Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan den Peternakan, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 218 pp. (Report series mimeograph.)</P>
    1982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1937
    19831938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norton, B. W., J. B. Moran, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. Nitrogen metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed on low quality roughage. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:341.</P>
    1984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1939
    19851940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursamad, M. 1972. Berat lahir den petumbuhan anak sapi Bali selama 4 bulan di kecamatan Watang Pulu, kabupaten Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan, Fakultas Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin yang berafinasi dengan Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
    1986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1941
    19871942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pastika, M., and D. Darmadja. 1976. Performance reproduksi sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, lndonesia.</P>
    1988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1943
    19891944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1973. Bali cattle. World Animal Review 7: 13-21.</P>
    1990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1945
    19911946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulungan, H., and K. Ma'sum. 1977. Performance sapi Bali den hasil persilangannya dengan sapi Hereford den Shorthorn. Laporan Khusus Lembaga Penelitian Peternakan, Cabang Grati 1977 (Abstract).</P>
    1992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1947
    19931948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
    1994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1949
    19951950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siebert, B. D., and W. V. MacFarlane. 1969. Body water content and water turnover of tropical Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bibos banteng, and Bos bubalus bubalis. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20:613-622.</P>
    1996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1951
    19971952<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siregar, M. G., and 1. M. Suparjata. 1975. A half century existence of Bali cattle in South Sulawesi. Majalah llmiah Universitas Udayana 9: 13-21.</P>
    1998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1953
    19991954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subandriyo, P. Sitorus, M. Zulbardi, and A. Roesyat. 1979. Performance of Bali cattle, as work animals and milk and beef producers. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal 1(1/2):9-10, 24.</P>
    2000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1955
    20011956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sutedja, P., M. Kota, 1. B. Mantra, and D. Darmadja. 1976. Progress report beberapa performance pada sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, Indonesia.</P>
    2002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1957
    20031958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and J. T. Wood. In press. Studies on the haemotology of Indonesian large ruminants. Tropical Animal Health and Production.</P>
    2004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1959
    20051960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and R. E. Soerifpo. In press. Observations on the hair and skin of Indonesian large ruminants and their relationships to heat tolerance. SABRAO Journal.</P>
    2006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1961
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    2216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2171
    22172172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulon—the Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, I.eiden. The Netherlands. Pp. 330-349. </P>
    22182173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
    2219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2174
    22202175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
    2221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2176
    22222177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
    2223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2178
    22242179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., W. L. R. Oliver, and A. A. MacDonald. In press. The karyotype, including g- and c- banding patterns, of the pigmy hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius (Suidae, Mammalia).</P>
    2225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2180
    22262181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. T. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
    2227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2182
    22282183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1980. The Pigmy Hog: The Biology and Conservation of the Pigmy Hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius, and the Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. Special Scientific Report No. I. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. 93 pp.</P>
    2229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2184
    22302185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Pigmy hog and hispid hare: further observations of the continuing decline (or, a lament for Barnadi and a good cause for skepticism). The Dodo, Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 18:10-20.</P>
    2231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2186
    22322187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirus a</P>
    2233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2188
    22342189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., 1980. The karyotype of the babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa); karyotype evolution in the Suidae. Fourth European Colloquium Cytogenetics Domestic Animals 1980:238-241.</P>
    2235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2190
    22362191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., and De Haan, N. A. 1981. The karyotype of Babrousa babyrussa (Suidae, Mammalia) Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 76: 17-27.</P>
    2237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2192
    22382193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davis, D. D. 1940. Notes on the anatomy of the babirusa. Field Museum of Natural History-Zoology 22(5):363-411.</P>
    2239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2194
    22402195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradich, H. 1974. A comparison of behaviour in the suidae. Pp. 133-144 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management. V. Ceist and F. Walther, eds. IUCN Publication No. 24.</P>
    2241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2196
    22422197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin, No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
    2243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2198
    22442199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1980. Notes on the systematics of Babyrousa (Artiodactyla, Suidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, Deel 55(3):29-46.</P>
    2245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2200
    22462201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 1 1(1):37-40.</P>
    2247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2202
    22482203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
    2249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2204
    22502205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
    22512206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</P>
    22522207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selmier, V. J. 1978. Only in Indonesia: the babirusa. Unpublished report to Directorate of Nature Conservation (P.P.A.), Bogor, Indonesia. 40 pp. </P>
    2253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2208
    22572209<B><P></P>
    22582210<!--
    … …  
    22632215  </Description>
    22642216-->
    2265 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2217</B>
    22662218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because Asia contains many livestock breeds about which little is known, an expert committee on Animal Genetic Resources has been recently formed by the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania (SABRAO). Its chairman is Professor J. S. F. Barker of the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.</P>
    2267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2219
    22682220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a Wild Cattle Specialist Group that concerns itself with wild banteng, gaur, and kouprey. Its chairman is Mr. Mohd. Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Wildlife and National Parks, West Malaysia, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan, Block K-20, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
    2269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2221
    22702222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following have particular knowledge of the animals described in this book, have contributed to the various chapters, and (in most cases) have agreed to provide advice to bona fide researchers wishing to study further the animals in this report.</P>
    2271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2223
    22722224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Banteng</P>
    2273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2225
    22742226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ida Bagus Arka, Faculty for Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia J. S. F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New</P>
    2275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2227
    22762228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
    2277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2229
    22782230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Bongers, Department of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands David Butcher, Western Plains Zoo, Box 813, Dubbo, New South Wales</P>
    2279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2231
    22802232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2830, Australia (Banteng are available for research projects and zoos.</P>
    22812233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarantine for shipments between Australia and most countries are</P>
    22822234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straightforward)</P>
    2283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2235
    22842236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. K. Camoens, Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila, Philippines 2800</P>
    2285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2237
    22862238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Road, Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
    2287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2239
    22882240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
    2289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2241
    22902242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.-M. Duplan, Institut Technique de l'Elevage Bovin, Section Amelioration Genetique, Maison Nationale des Eleveurs, 149, rue de Bercy F, 75595 Paris Cedex 12, France</P>
    2291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2243
    22922244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2245
    22942246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. I. Furtado, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia.</P>
    2295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2247
    22962248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Hodges, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2249
    22982250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
    2299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2251
    23002252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
    2301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2253
    23022254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moh. Zain Katoe, P.T. United Livestock, Jalan Bau Massepe 472, ParePare, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
    2303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2255
    23042256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. -G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8 , 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2257
    23062258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Kusmat, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Oto Iskandardinata, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2259
    23082260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh, EH1 1NA, Scotland</P>
    2309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2261
    23102262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
    2311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2263
    23122264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Department of Animal Production, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703 AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
    2313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2265
    23142266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
    2315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2267
    23162268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jan Nari, Director of Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2269
    23182270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. Nitis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia</P>
    2319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2271
    23202272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
    2321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2273
    23222274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald L. Plucknett, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1818 H Street, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA</P>
    2323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2275
    23242276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O. Box 123, Bogor, Indonesia (Amber Roesyat, Ian Fletcher, Dennis Hoffmann, P. Sitorus, Subandriyo, M. Zulbardi)</P>
    2325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2277
    23262278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
    2327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2279
    23282280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2281
    23302282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Seifert, CSIRO, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, P.O. Box 5545, Rockhampton Mail Centre, N. Rockhampton, Australia</P>
    2331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2283
    23322284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Senior Extension Specialist, Veld, Pastures and Wildlife, Agritex Box 363, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe</P>
    2333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2285
    23342286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. Smith, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, EH9 1QH Scotland</P>
    2335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2287
    23362288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dukut Sularsasa, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia</P>
    2337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2289
    23382290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Syamsul Arifin, Jalan Amin Jakfar 41, Pamekasan Madura, Jatim, Indonesia</P>
    2339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2291
    23402292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088, Australia (T. Finnie and J. L. Throp)</P>
    2341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2293
    23422294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
    2343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2295
    23442296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
    2345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2297
    23462298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie, Northern Territory 5789, Australia</P>
    2347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2299
    23482300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen Newton Turner, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia</P>
    2349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2301
    23502302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, P.O. Box 34, Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
    2351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2303
    23522304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Warren, Department or Range and Wildlife Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
    2353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2305
    23542306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett J. Warwick, The Rockefeller Foundation, P.O. Box 63, Yogyakarta, D.I.Y., Indonesia</P>
    2355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2307
    23562308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Woodward, 35AI, Sultan Hasanudin, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
    2357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2309
    23582310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Domesticated Banteng</P>
    2359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2311
    23602312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
    2361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2313
    23622314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Askaniya-Nova, USSR (Zoologicheskii Park Askaniya-Nova)</P>
    2363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2315
    23642316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park; banteng-mithan hybrid)</P>
    2365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2317
    23662318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    2367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2319
    23682320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
    2369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2321
    23702322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
    2371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2323
    23722324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia (Western Plains Zoo)</P>
    2373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2325
    23742326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
    2375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2327
    23762328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiev, USSR (Kievskii Zoologicheskii Park)</P>
    2377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2329
    23782330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
    2379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2331
    23802332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pretoria, South Africa (National Zoological Gardens of South Africa) </P>
    2381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2333
    23822334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome, Italy (Giardino Zoologico e Museo de Zoologia del Comune de Rome and Zoorama)</P>
    2383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2335
    23842336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 2 male, 2 female, may be wild form)</P>
    2385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2337
    23862338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
    2387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2339
    23882340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
    2389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2341
    23902342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-Cattle Hybrids</P>
    2391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2343
    23922344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abubakar Aldjufri, Secretary, Asian Livestock Business Club, Kebun Pala I/79B Tanah Abang, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
    2393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2345
    23942346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saleh Aldjufri, Jalan Jakarta 42, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia</P>
    2395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2347
    23962348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Rd., Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
    2397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2349
    23982350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
    2399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2351
    24002352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
    2401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2353
    24022354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
    2403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2355
    24042356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
    2405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2357
    24062358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
    2407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2359
    24082360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2361
    24102362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
    2411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2363
    24122364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
    24132365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    2414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2366
    24162367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2368
    24182369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. von Furer Haimendorf, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London WC1, England</P>
    2419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2370
    24202371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles G. Hickman, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey</P>
    2421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2372
    24222373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frederick J. Simoons, 140 Bartlett Ave., Woodland, California 95695, USA</P>
    2423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2374
    24242375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Mithan (Gayal)</P>
    24252376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aalborg, Denmark (Aalborg Zoologiske Have)</P>
    2426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2377
    24282378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch) </P>
    2429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2379
    24302380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
    24312381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
    24322382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
    24332383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcutta, India</P>
    2434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2384
    24352385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    2436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2386
    24372387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (Tiergarten Heidelberg)</P>
    24382388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolmarden, Sweden (Koemardens Djurpark)</P>
    … …  
    24412391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
    24422392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tallin, USSR (Tallinna Loomaaed)</P>
    2443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2393
    24442394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak</P>
    2445 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2395
    24462396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
    2447 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2397
    24482398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corneille Jest, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1, Place Artistide-Briand, 92190 Meudon, France</P>
    2449 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2399
    24502400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
    2451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2401
    24522402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. K. Panday, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Box 113, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
    2453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2403
    24542404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
    2455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2405
    24562406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
    2457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2407
    24582408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
    2459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2409
    24602410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Singh, Director General, Department of Livestock, HMG, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchowk, Laitpur, Nepal</P>
    2461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2411
    24622412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25, Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France (R. Laurans)</P>
    2463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2413
    24642414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Yak</P>
    24652415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
    … …  
    24712421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detroit, Michigan, USA (Detroit Zoological Park)</P>
    24722422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evansville, Indiana, USA (Meeker Park Zoo)</P>
    2473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2423
    24742424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granby, Quebec, Canada (Societe Zoologique de Granby, Inc.)</P>
    2475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2425
    24762426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA (John Ball Zoological Gardens)</P>
    24772427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens)</P>
    … …  
    24792429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
    24802430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rochester, New York, USA (Seneca Park Zoo)</P>
    2481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2431
    24822432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
    2483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2433
    24842434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park)</P>
    24852435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA (Great Plains Zoo)</P>
    … …  
    24912441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Orange, New Jersey, USA (Turtleback Zoo)</P>
    24922442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (Assiniboine Park Zoo)</P>
    2493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2443
    24942444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows</P>
    2495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2445
    24962446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
    2497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2447
    24982448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Agriculture, Hari Har Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
    2499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2449
    25002450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Kathmandu, Nepal (Tewari and Burathoky)</P>
    2501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2451
    25022452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Livestock Development, Peking, China</P>
    2503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2453
    25042454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Karl Fredge, Department of Genetics, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden</P>
    2505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2455
    25062456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
    2507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2457
    25082458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
    2509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2459
    25102460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Sheep and Yak Development Project, Dechhen Pelrithang, P.O. Bumthang, Bhutan</P>
    2511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2461
    25122462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
    2513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2463
    25142464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
    2515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2465
    25162466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whipsnade Zoo, Whipsnade, England</P>
    2517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2467
    25182468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bruce A. Young, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada </P>
    2519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2469
    25202470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
    2521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2471
    25222472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Amir, c/o Ministry of Development Supervision and the Environment, JalanMirdekaBarat 15, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
    2523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2473
    25242474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. Blower, National Parks Project, c/o UNDP, Box 650, Rangoon, Burma</P>
    2525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2475
    25262476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    2527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2477
    25282478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    2529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2479
    25302480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Coto, Tropical Forest Biology, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2481
    25322482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia (Patrick Andau, Assistant Chief Game Warden)</P>
    2533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2483
    25342484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
    2535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2485
    25362486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2487
    25382488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Halder, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 73, CH4020 Basel, Switzerland</P>
    2539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2489
    25402490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
    2541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2491
    25422492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
    2543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2493
    25442494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2495
    25462496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John A. Lukas, White Oak Plantation, Rt. 3 Box 224, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA</P>
    2547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2497
    25482498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
    2549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2499
    25502500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
    2551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2501
    25522502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somtob Norapuckprutikorn, Captive Propagation Section, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand</P>
    2553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2503
    25542504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
    2555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2505
    25562506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2507
    25582508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Wild Banteng</P>
    2559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2509
    25602510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albuquerque, USA (Rio Grande Zoological Park)</P>
    2561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2511
    25622512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch)</P>
    2563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2513
    25642514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
    2565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2515
    25662516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    2567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2517
    25682518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
    2569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2519
    25702520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    2571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2521
    25722522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
    2573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2523
    25742524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (Vivarium Darmstadt)</P>
    2575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2525
    25762526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dortmund, Federal Republic of Germany (Tierpark Dortmund)</P>
    2577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2527
    25782528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dresden, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Dresden)</P>
    2579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2529
    25802530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2531
    25822532<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
    2583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2533
    25842534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA</P>
    2585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2535
    25862536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park)</P>
    2587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2537
    25882538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
    2589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2539
    25902540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
    2591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2541
    25922542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yulee, Florida, USA (White Oak Plantation)</P>
    2593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2543
    25942544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
    2595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2545
    25962546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Aspinal, Howlett's Wildlife Park, near Canterbury, Kent, England</P>
    2597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2547
    25982548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    2599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2549
    26002550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul Conry, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 23367, GMF Guam 96921, USA</P>
    2601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2551
    26022552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2553
    26042554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
    2605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2555
    26062556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, P.O. Box 611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
    2607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2557
    26082558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
    2609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2559
    26102560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8, 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2561
    26122562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adrian G. Marshall, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
    2613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2563
    26142564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
    2615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2565
    26162566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lee Simmons, Omaha Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska 68108, USA</P>
    2617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2567
    26182568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janet Stover, Bronx Zoo, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
    2619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2569
    26202570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
    2621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2571
    26222572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy </P>
    2623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2573
    26242574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Guar </P>
    26252575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Berlin Zoo was assigned by the IUCN in cooperation with the</P>
    2626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2576
    26282577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lUDZG to keep the guar studbook records. </P>
    2629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2578
    26302579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
    26312580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    … …  
    26412590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
    26422591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Los Angeles, California, USA (The Los Angeles Zoo; I male, 3 female)</P>
    2643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2592
    26442593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Memphis, Tennessee, USA (Memphis Zoo and Aquarium; I male, 2 female)</P>
    2645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2594
    26462595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn Ag)</P>
    2647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2596
    26482597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mysore, Karnataka, India</P>
    2649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2598
    26502599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA (Oklahoma City Zoo; 7 male, 7 female)</P>
    2651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2600
    26522601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omaha, Nebraska, USA (Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens; 7 male, 15 female)</P>
    2653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2602
    26542603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riga, Latvian SSR, USSR (Riga Zoological Garden)</P>
    2655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2604
    26562605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 6 male, 6 female)</P>
    2657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2606
    26582607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo; 1 male)</P>
    26592608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
    26602609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo; 3 male, 1 female)</P>
    26612610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
    2662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2611
    26632612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
    2664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2613
    26652614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    2666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2615
    26672616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harold Coolidge, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA </P>
    2668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2617
    26692618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
    2670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2619
    26712620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese, P.O. Box 332, Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
    2672 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2621
    26732622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
    2674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2623
    26752624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pfeffer, Zoologie, Mammiferes et Oiseaux Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 55, rue de Buffon 75005 Paris, France</P>
    2676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2625
    26772626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Kelly Shelton, 211-A North Cordova, Burbank, California 91505, USA</P>
    2678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2627
    26792628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Stoddard, Branford Veterinary Clinics, Inc., P.O. Box 548, Branford, Florida 32008, USA</P>
    2680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2629
    26812630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles H. Wharton, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (Rt. 2, Clayton, Georgia 30525)</P>
    2682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2631
    26832632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conservation Centre, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland (David Mitchell, Elizabeth Kemf)</P>
    2684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2633
    26852634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2635
    26872636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Kouprey</P>
    2688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2637
    26892638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None</P>
    2690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2639
    26912640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
    2692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2641
    26932642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. Dolan, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California 92112, USA</P>
    2694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2643
    26952644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2645
    26972646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2647
    26992648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Anoas</P>
    2700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2649
    27012650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp; mountain anoa)</P>
    2702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2651
    27032652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten; mountain anoa)</P>
    2704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2653
    27052654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England (lowland anoa)</P>
    2706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2655
    27072656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leipzig, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Leipzig; mountain anoa)</P>
    2708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2657
    27092658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan) </P>
    2710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2659
    27112660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 1 male, 3 female)</P>
    2712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2661
    27132662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Zoological Garden; 1 male)</P>
    2714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2663
    27152664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 1 male)</P>
    2716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2665
    27172666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
    2718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2667
    27192668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (Taronga Park Zoo)</P>
    2720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2669
    27212670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
    2722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2671
    27232672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Natural Resources, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (J. B. Alvarez, Jr., Assistant Director)</P>
    2724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2673
    27252674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    2726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2675
    27272676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
    2728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2677
    27292678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources Conservation Office, Ministry of Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</P>
    2730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2679
    27312680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
    2732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2681
    27332682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian Player, P.O. Box 192, Howick 3290, Natal, South Africa</P>
    2734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2683
    27352684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Sitwell, c/o WWF(UK), 11-13 Ockford Rd., Godalming, Surrey GU7 lQU, England</P>
    2736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2685
    27372686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
    2738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2687
    27392688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
    2740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2689
    27412690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded Pig</P>
    2742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2691
    27432692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Julian Oliver Caldecott, Sub-Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, England</P>
    2744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2693
    27452694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2695
    27472696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
    2748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2697
    27492698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2699
    27512700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department, Jalan Gartak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Kron Aken, David Labang, Mike Kavanagh)</P>
    2752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2701
    27532702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
    2754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2703
    27552704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
    2756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2705
    27572706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2707
    27592708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Bearded Pig</P>
    27602709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore, Singapore</P>
    2761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2710
    27632711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
    2764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2712
    27652713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
    2766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2714
    27672715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
    2768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2716
    27692717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2718
    27712719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
    2772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2720
    27732721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mackinnon, WWF/TUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2722
    27752723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, ChanneL Islands, United Kingdom</P>
    2776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2724
    27772725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2726
    27792727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
    2780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2728
    27812729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None.</P>
    2782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2730
    27832731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
    27842732<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raleigh A. Blouch, 2125 Forest Glen, Lansing, Michigan 48906, USA</P>
    2785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2733
    27872734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
    2788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2735
    27892736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Nature Conservation (PPA), Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2737
    27912738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2739
    27932740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPl), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2741
    27952742<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10EI, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
    2796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2743
    27972744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
    2798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2745
    27992746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
    2800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2747
    28012748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Pauwels, Pfeffingerstrasse 48, CM-053, Basel, Switzerland</P>
    2802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2749
    28032750<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perum Perhutani, Forest State Corporation, Jalan Jendral Gatot Subroto 17-18, Post Box 111, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
    2804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2751
    28052752<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
    2806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2753
    28072754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Javan Warty Pig</P>
    28082755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
    2809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2756
    28102757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
    2811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2758
    28122759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
    2813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2760
    28142761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
    2815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2762
    28162763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. C. Gogoi, Adviser Forests, (Wildlife and Environmental Planning), Meghalaya, P.O. Shillong 793 001, India</P>
    2817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2764
    28182765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
    2819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2766
    28202767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
    2821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2768
    28222769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2770
    28242771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
    2825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2772
    28262773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Deb Roy, Manas National Park, P.O. Barpeta Road, Kamrup 781 315, India</P>
    2827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2774
    28282775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Pigmy Hog</P>
    28292776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gauhati, India (Assam State Zoo)</P>
    2830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2777
    28312778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zurich, Switzerland</P>
    2832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2779
    28332780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa</P>
    2834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2781
    28352782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
    2836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2783
    28372784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia </P>
    2838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2785
    28392786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
    2840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2787
    28412788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
    2842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2789
    28432790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
    2844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2791
    28452792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Selmier, 353 10th Street, San Francisco, California 94103, USA</P>
    2846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2793
    28472794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Babirusa</P>
    2848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2795
    28492796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, W. de Meurichy)</P>
    2850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2797
    28512798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bandung, Indonesia</P>
    28522799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
    … …  
    28562803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuremberg, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    28572804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poznan, Poland</P>
    2858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2805
    28592806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
    2860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2807
    28612808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    28622809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
    2863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2864 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2810
     2811<B>
    28652812<!--
    28662813</Section>
    … …  
    28712818  </Description>
    28722819-->
    2873 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2820</B>
    28742821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
    2875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2822
    28762823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    28772824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
    2878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2825
    28802826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
    2881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2827
    28822828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    2883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2829
    28842830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
    2885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2831
    28862832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
    2887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2833
    28882834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
    2889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2835
    28902836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
    2891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2837
    28922838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
    2893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2897 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2839
     2840<B>
    28982841<!--
    28992842</Section>
    … …  
    29032846  </Description>
    29042847-->
    2905 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2848</B>
    29062849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGElARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
    2907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2850
    29082851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    2909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2852
    29102853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
    2911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2854
    29122855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
    2913 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2856
    29142857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
    2915 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2858
    29162859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST.J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
    2917 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2860
    29182861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    2919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2862
    29202863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    2921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2864
    29222865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
    2923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2866
    29242867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
    2925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2868
    29262869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    2927 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2870
    29282871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    2929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2872
    29302873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
    2931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2874
    29322875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
    2933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2876
    29342877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    2935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2878
    29362879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
    2937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2880
    29382881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    2939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2882
    29402883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
    2941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2884
    29422885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
    2943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2886
    29442887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    2945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2888
    29462889<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    29472890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
    2948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2891
    29492892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
    2950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2893
    29512894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
    2952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2895
    29532896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    2954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2897
    29552898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
    2956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2899
    29582900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
    2959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2901
    29602902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE. Associate Director/Research Grants </P></FONT>
    29612903<!--

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    1414  </Description>
    1515-->
    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
    1818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
    … …  
    2020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
    2121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Papua New Guinea</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     24
    2525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
    2626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
    27 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     27
    2828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development(BOSTID) </P>
    29 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     29
    3030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel on Crocodile Farming</P>
    31 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     31
    3232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA, Chairman </P>
    33 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     33
    3434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOWARD W. CAMPBELL (deceased) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    35 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     35
    3636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, Jr., Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     37
    3838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     39
    4040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA </P>
    41 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     41
    4242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset, England </P>
    43 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     43
    4444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
    45 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     45
    4646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge, England </P>
    47 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     47
    4848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan </P>
    49 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     49
    5050<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors</P>
    51 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     51
    5252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
    53 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     53
    5454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROL GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
    55 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     55
    5656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASSAM GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
    57 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     57
    5858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
    59 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     59
    6060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
    61 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     61
    6262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
    63 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     63
    6464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREG MITCHELL, Crocodile Farm, Lae </P>
    65 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     65
    6666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Wewak </P>
    67 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     67
    6868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries</P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     69
    7070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIGUEE AEVAREZE DEE TORO, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Chiapas, Mexico</P>
    71 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     71
    7272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS D'A.BELLAIRS, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, University of London, England</P>
    73 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     73
    7474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Department of Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA</P>
    75 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     75
    7676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H.CHABRECK, Louisiana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
    77 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     77
    7878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAX C.DOWNES, The Game Conservation Centre, Melbourne, Australia</P>
    79 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     79
    8080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KARLHEINZ FUCHS, hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    81 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     81
    8282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIRE HACEN, Reptile Products Association, New York, USA</P>
    83 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     83
    8484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENEE.HONEGGER, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
    85 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     85
    8686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TED JOANEN, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Chenier, Louisiana, USA</P>
    87 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     87
    8888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LEVER, Koorana Crocodile Farm, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia</P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     89
    9090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM MAGNUSSON, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Amazonia, Brazil</P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     91
    9292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRY MESSEE, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
    93 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     93
    9494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan Queensland, Australia</P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     95
    9696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY POOLEY, St. Lucia Estuary, Zululand, South Africa</P>
    97 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     97
    9898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A.ROSS, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
    99 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     99
    100100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.B.SALE, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, Hyderabad, India</P>
    101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     101
    102102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUISVARONA, La Habana, Cuba</P>
    103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103
    104104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
    105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    106106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UTAl YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
    107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     107
    108108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MYRNA WATANABE, Co-editor of ICUN Newsleter, Brooklyn, New York, USA</P>
    109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     109
    110110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, India</P>
    111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    112112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Crocodile Study Director</P>
    113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     113
    114114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
    115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     115
    116116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
    117117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY lANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
    118118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary</P>
    119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     119
    120120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication is dedicated to the memory of panel member Howard W. "Duke" Campbell who devoted most of his professional life to the conservation of crocodilians. Dr. Campbell was Chairman of the Crocodilian Specialist Group of the Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at the time of his death in 1981.</P>
    121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    129 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    130130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met in Papua New Guinea in May 1981. Its purpose was to consider the principles of the Papua New Guinea crocodile farming program and their implications for economic development and for the management and survival of crocodilians elsewhere.</P>
    131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     131
    132132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are an integral part of the tropical fauna; they are ecologically important, biologically interesting, and, potentially, a renewable natural resource of considerable economic value. The panel hopes that through this report the possibility of saving and managing this animal throughout the tropics can be better assessed.</P>
    133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     133
    134134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the panel consulted officials of the Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation in Port Moresby and visited crocodile farms in Moitaka, Popondetta, and Lae. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging its itinerary and visits in Papua New Guinea. It also wishes to thank Yano Belo, Minister of Environment, for hosting an evening social at the Moitaka crocodile farm; Greg Mitchell and his wife Judy, who entertained the panel at their home in Lae and conducted a tour of their company's crocodile farm; and Wassam and Carol Gabara who acted as guides and hosts in Popondetta.</P>
    135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     135
    136136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, is assessing scientific and technological advances that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. This report is one of a series that explores promising areas of science previously unknown, neglected, or overlooked. Current titles in the ACT! series on Managing Tropical Animal Resources include:</P>
    137137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981) </P>
    … …  
    139139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
    140140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983) </P>
    141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     141
    142142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report. </P>
    143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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     143
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    152 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     152</B>
    153153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials ( Present-day crocodilians are grouped into three families: crocodiles, alligators and caimans, and gavials (gharials). The animals differ from one another only in minor characters such as shape of snout, arrangement of scutes, and dental features. This report focuses mainly on crocodile species, but its conclusions are generally applicable to alligators, caimans, and gavials.) have existed for some 200 million years - much longer than mammals - but they are now disappearing at alarming rates. Of the 21 or so species of crocodilians distributed in the warm waters of the world, at least 18 are threatened with extinction in most of the countries where they are found.</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     154
    155155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although some species, such as the American alligator, appear to be out of danger because of strict conservation measures, many of the others survive mostly in national parks, protected preserves, or a few breeding stations. This is true for the slender-spouted crocodiles of Africa and Asia, the saltwater crocodile of Australia and Southeast Asia, the black caiman and Orinoco crocodile of South America, the Chinese alligator, the Siamese crocodile, and other species.</P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     156
    157157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat destruction is a major contributor to crocodilian decline; each year more breeding areas are disturbed as swamps and marshlands are drained, rivers dammed, estuaries reclaimed, and riverine forests denuded. However, illegal poaching by tribal people with their simple but effective traps, snares, and set hooks, as well as professional hunters operating with power boats, spotlights, and modern firearms are also decimating the animals over most of their ranges.</P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     158
    159159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To a large extent these animals are being destroyed because of their market value. Crocodile is regarded as the costliest and most fashionable leather in western markets. Since World War II, demand for crocodile leather shoes, handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and other expensive luxury articles has far exceeded supply. Even small items such as purses and handbags sell for many hundreds of dollars each. For instance, a ladies' purse or handbag made from crocodile skin can command prices as high as $4,000. A pair of men's shoes may cost from $500 to $900, and a wallet from $150 to $250.</P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    161161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crocodile trade peaked in the mid-1960s, when world markets absorbed more than 2 million crocodile skins each year. Today it is still large. In 1979, for instance, 1,000,000 caiman hides and 300,000 true crocodile hides entered international commerce. In 1981 the United States itself imported 100,000 hides.</P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162
    163163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International markets for reptile hides and leathers are centered in France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Japan. France, the single largest buyer of raw crocodilian hides, uses an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 skins a year. The major buyers of finished crocodile leather products are Hong Kong, Japan, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States.</P>
    164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    165165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unrestricted hunting and poaching for hides are wiping out the large breeding animals. Excessive hunting has a devastating effect on crocodile populations because their age distribution is like a pyramid: a small number of breeding animals dominates a large number of juveniles and hatchlings, most of which never survive to maturity. Such societies, in which the size of future populations depends on only a few animals, are highly vulnerable to extinction; once some of the mature members are killed the population can crash. And it takes a long time for a crocodilian population to rebuild because for most large species the females do not begin breeding until they are at least 8 years old.</P>
    166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    167167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rearing Crocodiles</P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    169169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there may seem to be no future for many crocodile populations, the situation is not hopeless. With intelligent intervention and under good conditions they can recover rapidly. Mature crocodiles have no enemies other than man, and, given some care and protection, a small number of breeders can produce a huge number of progeny each year. Mature females of the various crocodilian species usually lay between 30 and 70 eggs each year, and under normal conditions most of these eggs hatch successfully. The key to conserving the population is to protect the few mature animals and their habitats. Then, because of their fecundity, crocodilians can rapidly build up large numbers of young.</P>
    170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    171171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been exemplified by the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Ten years ago its future seemed doubtful, but the legal protection of the populations has brought a remarkable recovery. Numbers are now so high that two states have lifted the ban on harvesting alligators, and between lo,ooo and 20,000 American alligator hides now enter commerce each year.</P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    173173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The past few decades have seen several other examples of successful crocodile-rearing projects. Later chapters of this book highlight the national program in Papua New Guinea. In addition, three successful government-operated farms exist in India (where all the progeny is returned to the wild because current Indian law prohibits commercial crocodile farms). A remarkable farm with more than 3,000 breeding animals operates on the outskirts of Bangkok, Thailand. Australia has four crocodile farms, and a few African countries now have crocodile farms that are already beginning to supply hides internationally. For example, in 1982 Zambia had two such farms, Zimbabwe, five, South Africa, four (with five more planned or under construction), and Kenya, one. Appendix A lists these and other countries that are initiating farms for various crocodilian species.</P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    175175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early technical success of these projects offers the expectation that with an appropriate framework of safeguards and research, crocodiles might become a thriving resource for tropical nations. If such experiences can be replicated, crocodilians and their habitats may come to be considered as resources to be managed and treasured. This will require considerable investment, strict legislation and law enforcement, and international cooperation and research, as well as careful monitoring of the traffic in farmed hides. But national crocodile industries are a possibility, and they could result in thriving natural populations that are free from the danger of extinction.</P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    177177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such prospects may also provide economic incentives for preserving the often-fragile ecosystem in which wild crocodilians live. Crocodile farming could play a part by slowing the uncontrolled draining of swamps and other wetlands that cover large areas of the lowland humid tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     178
    179179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as a managed resource could economically benefit remote areas of the lowland tropics. Villagers there often have few alternative sources of income and possibilities for economic development are limited. Because the human population is relatively sparse, few opportunities exist for local trading; even where fish are abundant the problems of marketing are formidable. Indeed, in some areas crocodiles may constitute the only readily salvable resource.</P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     180
    181181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as Farm Animals</P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     182
    183183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-fed crocodiles grow quickly. Under ideal conditions they may reach lengths of 1 m or more in a year and 1.5 m in 2 years. They are normally harvested in the third year when they reach about 2 m in length. In this time their value may have risen from about $5 to as much as $200.</P>
    184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     184
    185185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles have acquired a reputation as voracious feeders; investigations reveal this to be false. The animals actually have modest food requirements. Many hatchling animals have a food conversion rate of about 50 percent; that is, the crocodile adds 1 kg of weight for every 2 kg of food it consumes. Cattle, sheep, and pigs would have to eat 3-5 times as much food to achieve the same weight increase. After 2 years the crocodile's growth rate begins to slow down. During the third year the conversion falls to about 25 or 30 percent, which is still a high figure, and makes crocodiles probably the most nutritionally efficient land animal for commercial husbandry. Only the growth of some fish is comparable.</P>
    186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     186
    187187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high food conversion efficiency is due to the fact that crocodiles have low metabolic rates and are normally extremely lethargic. They are active only in short bursts, spend hours immobile, and move only about one-third as much as mammals. Moreover, being reptiles, they spend almost no food energy maintaining body temperature. They bask in the sun to keep warm and seek shade or water to cool off. For these reasons crocodilians can thrive in marginal habitats unsuitable for mammals or birds (Investigations on the Nile crocodile showed that a pelican takes 3 days to consume food equal to its own weight, whereas a crocodile takes 125-160 days - Cott, 1961.) </P>
    188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     188
    189189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming is also space efficient. As long as they are sorted by size, hundreds of juveniles or dozens of larger animals can be penned together in a small area. Indeed crocodiles often choose to pile up on top of one another in stacks.</P>
    190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     190
    191191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about disease in reptiles. However, as farm animals, crocodiles have a major advantage: they produce antibodies readily and have few problems with external infections. In the wild it is common to find crocodiles missing limbs or tips of tails, with eyes gouged out, or enormous scars on the body. But the wounds heal readily, with little sign of infection (The American alligator is being used at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine as a model for studies on antibody formation.). This minimizes the need for veterinary services, a distinct benefit in remote village farms. Nevertheless, internal bacterial diseases, such as salmonella, can get out of hand and destroy a program by reducing growth rates, lowering hide quality, or killing the animals outright.</P>
    192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     192
    193193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile Hides</P>
    194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     194
    195195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the belly skin that is the valuable part of a crocodile, and the worth of a hide is determined by the size of the belly skin, the smallness of its scales, and the hide's general condition. (Holes, cuts, scars, and rot drastically reduce its value.)</P>
    196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     196
    197197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although international markets utilize any crocodile skin from 0.3 m to 6 m long, the most sought-after hides are not the biggest but the moderate-sized ones from animals about 1.5-2 m long. These hides are approximately 25-50 cm in belly width.( A crocodile's total length is approximately 4-4.5 times the width of its belly). Large hides, for example those more than 3 or 4 m in length, are suitable only for luggage and briefcases because their scales are large. Smaller hides, on the other hand, are suitable both for items such as shoes, handbags, and wallets and for larger items.</P>
    198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     198
    199199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internationally, the most desirable hides come from the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). It has proportionally the smallest belly scales of any crocodile, it lacks osteoderms,(Osteoderms are deposits of calcium carbonate under the skin. They are undesirable because they dissolve away during the tanning process, leaving a pitted surface),and on the side of its body the scales are uniformly small. The next most valuable hides probably come from Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the American alligator, the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). </P>
    200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     200
    201201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
    202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     202
    203203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rest of this report highlights the program in Papua New Guinea, where during the last 10 years the government has made crocodile rearing an organized industry, much as poultry farming is elsewhere. This program, which is beginning to establish crocodiles as a significant natural asset, is designed both to protect the wild populations and to integrate traditional uses of these reptiles into a scientifically managed hide industry.</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     204
    205205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Papua New Guinea crocodile farming (In the official terminology of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Papua New Guinea program is "ranching" rather than "farming" because the young livestock are mostly culled from wild populations and are not bred on the farm) has become the cornerstone for the economic improvement of some of the world's poorest people. It offers a means for bringing the rural poor into the process of economic development, and it can be blended into a traditional village structure where land and resources may be communally owned.</P>
    206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     206
    207207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The projects are small and many have had operational difficulties, but they suggest that conservation and economic development can be not only compatible, but also mutually reinforcing. The innovative idea is not that crocodiles can bring in money, but that sound conservation can be blended with marketing crocodile skins, meat, and by-products.</P>
    208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     208
    209209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of this approach to crocodile conservation is that it is based on protecting the existing landscape and resources. It provides a tool for conserving the species in their own wild habitats so that survival will not depend on a few captive specimens living under artificial conditions. It requires none of the bush clearing, fencing, forage planting or pesticide spraying that domestic animals often demand ,important advantages in an economic development project in a fragile tropical swamp or rain forest ecosystem.</P>
    210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     210
    211211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea approach, then, provides an economic incentive for wildlife protection. Everyone ,from the villager to the minister of trade ,has a stake in keeping the wild populations healthy. Out of self-interest, in addition to natural respect, large numbers of people become the guardians of the resource and the habitat needed to keep it surviving and productive.</P>
    212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     212
    213213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's major conservation organizations have given Papua New Guinea's crocodile program their stamp of approval. In 1976 a team of scientists representing the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of the most prestigious conservation organizations in the world, inspected the program. As a result, Papua New Guinea was given special dispensation, and its crocodile skins can be legally traded internationally. For example, because of its endangered status the saltwater crocodile is banned from trade by the Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). An exemption, however, is granted to Papua New Guinea in recognition of the fact that its crocodiles now are sufficiently well managed to sustain a skin industry without seriously damaging the wild stock.</P>
    214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     214
    215215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program serves as a model for nations of the Americas, Asia, and Africa where crocodilian resources are still unmanaged or managed poorly. Crocodiles are being destroyed so fast that within about five years Papua New Guinea and other countries that have organized crocodile farming operations may be the only ones supplying significant numbers of skins to the international market.</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     216
    217217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the principles developed in Papua New Guinea deserve international attention, the recipe will not be a cure-all for problems of rural development or crocodile conservation. Instead, the Papua New Guinea experience suggests that local social, political, economic, and conservation goals can become the impetus for a successful blend of village improvement and wildlife protection.</P>
    218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    228228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as the l950s, crocodiles were abundant in Papua New Guinea. Hunting was a major occupation and was unrestricted. Some Australians and Europeans made fortunes by shooting thousands of crocodiles a year to make shoes and handbags in Europe and North America.</P>
    229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     229
    230230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it was obvious that wild populations could not sustain such wholesale slaughter, the destruction continued. By 1967 both the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) were threatened with extinction. By 1968, despite increased hunting, the yield of skins had dropped in half; along the easily accessible river systems, crocodile populations had been wiped out. By 1969 the saltwater crocodile had disappeared from much of its range throughout the country, and wildlife officers estimated that without protection most specimens of breeding size would be eliminated within five years.</P>
    231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     231
    232232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But how could crocodiles be protected? Papua New Guinea is divided by mountain ranges, ravines, torrential rivers, forests, seas, malarial swamps, and more than 700 languages. It would take hundreds of trained wildlife officers to enforce a ban on crocodile hunting, particularly in the face of opposition from tribesmen who have traditionally harvested crocodiles for food, decorative items, and implements.</P>
    233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     233
    234234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge was given to the officers of the Wildlife Division. Under the leadership of Max C. Downes, these officials concluded that the best way to protect crocodile populations was to halt the slaughter of the large breeding adults and build up a new hide industry based on the increased numbers of young that would result.</P>
    235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     235
    236236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few young crocodiles ever reach breeding age in the wild. The tiny, virtually defenseless hatchlings are easy prey for large fish, birds, or other crocodiles. Almost all of them are killed by predators or by other natural causes, such as floods..</P>
    237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     237
    238238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea.</P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     239
    240240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What was needed, the wildlife officers concluded, were incentives to make these smaller animals economically attractive, incentives to encourage local people to raise small crocodiles to commercial size. If that could be accomplished, hundreds of hatchlings that would normally perish could be utilized without endangering the wild populations' future. Villagers could benefit by selling skins while the vital breeding-sized animals were being left alone to provide more hatchlings. The system could benefit both the villagers and the vulnerable crocodile populations.</P>
    241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     241
    242242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="b20a.png"></center><br>
    243243 Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea</P>
    244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     244
    245245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea was viable partly because many Papua New Guineans - particularly those of the Sepik and Fly Rivers - have ancient spiritual and cultural attachments to crocodiles. To them, the idea of handling and managing the animals is not unusual. Crocodile motifs are common in their art and they live in harmony with the big beasts and do not consider them dangerous pests to be eliminated.</P>
    246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     246
    247247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislation passed by the Papua New Guinea government in 1969 capitalized on this tradition by making the villagers themselves the real force in crocodile protection. The law did not ban crocodile hunting, but instead banned the possession, sale, and export of skins larger than 20 inches (51 cm) wide. In this way, it protected breeding-sized animals while allowing for the harvest of juveniles. It also allowed a person to kill a crocodile if attacked (but barred the selling of the skin, if it were oversized).</P>
    248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     248
    249249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1980, the legislation was supplemented by a law banning the export of small skins. Together, the bans on possessing large skins and exporting small skins have created a stimulus for gathering small crocodiles from the wild and rearing them to moderate size on farms. The legislation has been the impetus for crocodile farming.</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     250
    251251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming officially started in Papua New Guinea in 1972. In the late 1970s, it was extensively supported by a UNDP/FAO assistance program that provided personnel and funds for technical support and program management. Today there are about 300 small village farms (The numbers vary, since some villagers go in and out of production depending on their need for income, seasonal variation in river levels, the cost of fuel, and the availability of government extension agents) supplying a number of larger business groups that rear crocodiles.</P>
    252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     252
    253253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife officers now teach crocodile farming, not crocodile conservation per se. They have introduced crocodile-rearing techniques to villagers all over Papua New Guinea. They help build pens and teach tribesmen how to care for the young reptiles, which are so vulnerable and timid that they can literally die of fright.</P>
    254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     254
    255255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government loans of up to US$10,000, along with matching development bank loans, are available to help a farmer enter the crocodile farming business. The funds pay for pumps for changing the water in the pens and sometimes for an outboard motor used in gathering young crocodiles. Everything else a villager needs can be obtained from the forest, including materials for pen construction; a small farm can therefore be established inexpensively.</P>
    256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     256
    257257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Three Types of Farms</P>
    258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     258
    259259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government's crocodile management program recognizes three levels of operation: village farms (up to 300 crocodiles), small-business farms (up to 1,000 crocodiles), and large-business farms (more than 1,000 crocodiles).</P>
    260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     260
    261261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village crocodile farm consists of a small pen fenced with posts lashed together with vines. This stockade fence is about 1.5 m high and is sunk about 60 cm in the ground so the crocodiles cannot burrow out. Much of the enclosure is planted with grass, cassava, and banana trees to provide secluded areas where the animals, which regulate their body temperature by the warmth of the sun, can find shade. A shallow pool is excavated in the center.</P>
    262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     262
    263263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These village farms are usually run by only one or two people. Many are little more than pens scattered in the remote bush for holding young crocodiles until a buyer from a larger farm comes around. Small crocodiles bring less money than medium-sized animals, but the villager avoids having to feed and care for them for a long period.(Because of operational difficulties, many village farms were abandoned in 1982. Lack of proper husbandy - despite government efforts - were the main reason for these difficulties. Most villagers now collect and hold young only until buyers from commercial farms arrive. However, they are still earning money from crocodiles, and the concept of fully functioning village farms remains valid for the future in Papua New Guinea, as well as for appropriate sites elsewhere). </P>
    264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     264
    265265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small-business farm usually consists of a group of enclosures (each about 6 m x 6 m) constructed of bush materials. It is typically located near an airstrip. It buys crocodiles from the village farmer and, in turn, supplies them to the larger farms, which sometimes dispatch aircraft to pick the animals up (Special cardboard shipping containers have been devised. They can be folded to make cylinders of various diameters to fit crocodiles of different sizes). </P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     266
    267267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large-scale crocodile farms accommodate as many as 20,000 crocodiles and require a large investment. They serve to regulate the export of skins and are the major purchasers of live crocodiles from the smaller farms. During periods of drought, flooding, or diminished food supplies, the large-scale farms also act as emergency buyers. On the outskirts of Lae on Papua New Guinea's northern coast, there is a 100-hectare farm with nearly 8,000 crocodiles. It is associated with a poultry company, and the crocodiles are raised on the offal from the slaughterhouse.</P>
    268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     268
    269269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Research and Extension</P>
    270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     270
    271271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division has constructed four demonstration farms across the country and one large research farm at Moitaka near Port Moresby, the capital city. After training at one of these, a tribesman can start his own farm alone or can call on the government for further assistance.</P>
    272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     272
    273273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moitaka is also the site of short courses in crocodile farming. Prospective farmers are brought in for several weeks' training. They learn how to build pens, to feed and care for crocodiles, to kill and skin them, and to prepare the hides for market. They also learn about the crocodile laws and the reason they were enacted. A farm at Lake Murray, in a remote and swampy area of the Western Province, serves the same purpose. It is built entirely from bush materials (see picture, pp. 6-7).</P>
    274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     274
    275275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division provides instruction books, profusely illustrated for the illiterate. The books include vivid descriptions of all phases of farming the animals.</P>
    276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     276
    277277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Gains</P>
    278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     278
    279279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 10 years, crocodile rearing has expanded remarkably in Papua New Guinea. It has already become the main source of income for the people of some swamp and river areas. The Ambunti area, for example, produces coffee and rice, but crocodile skins now bring in much of the area's income. By 1981 the farms nationwide contained a total of 30,000 crocodiles, ensuring a sustained production of at least 10,000 skins a year worth approximately US$ 1-2 million on the international market.</P>
    280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     280
    281281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because crocodiles are a familiar resource, villagers take to the program quickly. By contrast, introducing cattle or western-style crop raising requires massive education and training, in addition to some social and environmental disruption.</P>
    282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     282
    283283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On government farms in Papua New Guinea, fish-fed crocodiles have increased their belly width by 25 cm per year and are ready for slaughter in 2-3 years when the width approaches 50 cm. The selling price of the skin is then between $100 and $200, depending on species, flaws, and size.</P>
    284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284
    285285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But skins are not the only product. A crocodile with a skin big enough to market can provide 20 kg of meat. The meat is white and is low in fat. Papua New Guinea is a net importer of meat, and crocodile farming is now augmenting local supplies. The large farm at Lae already sells frozen crocodile meat (including front and hind legs, tail steaks, ribs, and chops) both locally and on foreign markets. Some orders have come in from dealers in Paris who supply expensive French restaurants.</P>
    286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    287 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     286
     287<B>
    288288<!--
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    293293  </Description>
    294294-->
    295 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     295</B>
    296296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benefits of Crocodile Farming</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     297
    298298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming seems to be singularly appropriate for rural, isolated, lowland communities in the tropics. The land there is often unsuitable for conventional agriculture, and the people lead a tenuous existence or drift to the cities looking for work. In such areas, there are few opportunities for people to earn cash without drastic and expensive modifications to the environment.</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     299
    300300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming has many advantages over hunting the animal in the wild. For instance, crocodiles farms can:</P>
    301301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permit government monitoring of the crocodile industry. (Hunters are more difficult to regulate since they work in remote areas, often undetected and crossing borders at will.)</P>
    … …  
    305305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Educate the public about crocodile ecology and the animal's importance to the habitat and the local economy.</P>
    306306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide sites for scientific studies on crocodilians. Studies conducted on alligators at the Rockefeller Refuge in Louisiana, USA, for example, have provided reproductive, nutritional, and growth data directed specifically towards developing efficient farming techniques.</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     307
    308308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For some farms the earnings from hides, meat, and by-products may be supplemented by tourism (through gate admissions and the sale of curios), as well as by selling eggs and young to other farms for breeding stock.</P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     309
    310310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term program of wise utilization of crocodiles can benefit governments by providing revenue from hides, curios, craftwork, and manufactured articles, as well as from export duties. Furthermore, in their natural state in parks and preserves, crocodiles are an important tourist attraction.</P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     311
    312312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to preserve crocodile habitats, the Papua New Guinea program has encouraged the collection of eggs or young from the wild and has discouraged the breeding of crocodiles in captivity. This is because a reliance on the wild creates economic incentives to conserve crocodile habitats; if the habitats are drained for human settlement or conventional agriculture the farmers lose the source of their stock.</P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     313
    314314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular impression, preliminary observations indicate that crocodiles benefit commercial fisheries. The animals are important links in the ecosystems of rivers and lakes and are often the largest inhabitants of the freshwater wetlands. Their movements inhibit the growth of aquatic plants in the waterways, and, in areas with prolonged dry seasons, some species maintain residual waterholes that benefit small aquatic organisms that would otherwise perish. In estuaries and lakes, crocodiles enrich the nutrient content of the water by converting terrestrial prey into feces that in turn feed invertebrates and fish.</P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    316316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where crocodiles have been eliminated, reductions in the tonnage of fish caught for human consumption can usually be demonstrated. For example, in Brazil, Kenya, and India, a decline in the fishermen's catch has paralleled the decline in crocodiles.</P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    318318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations of Crocodile Farming</P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    320320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments and individuals seeking rapid returns on investments should realize that a crocodile farming industry is not a get-rich-quick scheme. To build a stable national industry may require 10 years and an investment of at least $500,000 before it is biologically and economically successful.</P>
    321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    322322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, an organized industry is vital. A village crocodile-rearing pond is only profitable if there is someone to buy, grade, package, and ship the product with all its documentation. Services will be needed at all levels to advise on disease control, nutrition, skinning, and preserving the hides. In many parts of the world crocodile farms have been financial and conservation failures not just because of poor husbandry management, but also because of fiscal shortsightedness.</P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    324324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of a suitable farm site is basic to the economics of the entire operation. Farms demand a steady supply of meat or fish to feed the crocodiles, and are most successful when located near a reliable source of inexpensive food. Some farms take advantage of offal from nearby chicken or cattle abattoirs; others use the fish by-catch from shrimping operations. In the absence of an inexpensive animal protein feed, the farm will have to raise its own food (tilapia is frequently used) or harvest it from the wild, both of which can be expensive.</P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     325
    326326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farms also require a steady year-round supply of clean water for the holding ponds and tanks. If this cannot be supplied by gravity flow from nearby sources, it must be pumped from wells or from nearby lakes or ponds. This, too, is likely to be expensive.</P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     327
    328328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the general hardiness of crocodiles, the farms must have access to veterinary care. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. But with large numbers of animals crowded together, disease problems, if not quickly diagnosed and treated, can wipe out the young captive animals in epidemic proportions.</P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     329
    330330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing and transporting large crocodilians is dangerous and difficult. Dealing with a large captive population of crocodiles of different age groups and sizes requires a great deal of experience.</P>
    331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     331
    332332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although crocodilians are common in zoos, successful breeding of these reptiles in captivity is so far a rare and remarkable event. However, researchers are now coming to understand the behavioral requirements for success. For instance, gravid females must have access to appropriate nesting sites, males must have ample space when they are penned in with other males, and juveniles and hatchlings must be separated from their parents and housed by size and feeding preferences. That prolific breeding can be achieved, however, is illustrated by the Samutprakan crocodile farm near Bangkok, Thailand, which reportedly has reared tens of thousands of its own animals and now aims for a population of 100,000 crocodiles by 1987.</P>
    333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     333
    334334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     335
    336336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide shortage of crocodile leather is becoming more acute each year, and it will be many years before any output from farms can significantly reduce pressure on wild populations. Thus, farming should be only one aspect of an overall conservation program that includes total protection of some populations in national parks and sanctuaries. In addition, the conservation of natural wetlands is an important part of overall economic planning. If wetlands are lost, many wild species in addition to crocodiles will be affected.</P>
    337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     337
    338338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, many crocodilian populations are poorly protected because governments lack the manpower or the will to enforce conservation laws rigorously, especially in the remote areas where the last remaining crocodiles reside. Because most wildlife departments in the tropics are short staffed and have vast areas to police, their efforts at wildlife protection are frequently ineffective. Moreover, some countries have been slow to introduce protective legislation for an animal that does not engender public sympathy.</P>
    339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     339
    340340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea's program offers one of the best hopes for saving all endangered crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials. The methods developed there serve as a model for other nations. By providing an alternative, Papua New Guinea gives villagers the incentive to protect wild crocodiles that are breeding nearby so as to assure themselves of future supplies. The people themselves become the conservators of the local animals and habitats. In turn, watersheds, soils, and conventional agricultural development (including natural and forest products) can all benefit. The habitat is also preserved for many other wildlife species that share it, and genetic diversity can be maintained. Conversely, without a special incentive to conserve them, all these resources are normally degraded as a region develops.</P>
    341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    342 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     341
     342<B>
    343343<!--
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    348348  </Description>
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    350 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     350</B>
    351351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea experience provides a model for other nations, but to implement such a program requires a foundation of legislation, government support, and legal safeguards. Prerequisites of any crocodile farming program are an overhaul of legislation, strict law enforcement, and reciprocal laws with neighboring countries.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     352
    353353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enforcement of wildlife regulations is so inadequate in most countries that crocodile farming is open to abuse. Farms can front for illegal poaching operations, and hides taken from the wild can be intermingled with hides produced on the ranch or farm unless government enforcement is stringent and inspection frequent.</P>
    354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     354
    355355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the stimulation of world trade in crocodile hides through the sale of farmed hides might lead to increased poaching of wild crocodiles or eggs. Poachers have fewer operating expenses than farmers, and unscrupulous hunters and dealers can harvest hides, steal crocodile eggs or young, and subsequently sell them through countries that lack enforcement capabilities. This practice could be disastrous for countries where crocodile populations have almost disappeared.</P>
    356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     356
    357357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Regulations</P>
    358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     358
    359359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before any farming scheme is attempted, protective legislation should be in operation throughout the country. This should make it unlawful to kill, capture by any means whatsoever, disturb willfully, or pursue any crocodiles, or to collect or gather any crocodile eggs without a permit.</P>
    360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     360
    361361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No crocodile eggs should be allowed to be imported or exported with out a permit. No persons should possess, sell, buy, donate, receive consequent upon a donation, convey, keep in captivity, or display any live crocodiles without being the holder of a permit. And no person should be allowed to import or export any crocodile, dead or alive, or any portion of a crocodile, processed or not, from any country without a permit.</P>
    362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     362
    363363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before granting a license for a commercial farm, the government should investigate the applicant's land tenure and financial resources, particularly since the farm will have to operate for three to four years before producing crocodiles suitable for culling. The applicant's ability and experience in rearing crocodiles should be determined. A plan of the proposed farm, including details of water and food supply and the proposed methods of harvesting food, should be examined.</P>
    364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     364
    365365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that:</P>
    366366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· No permit for egg harvesting should be issued until adequate rearing facilities have been prepared. The permit should state the name of the holder or his authorized representative, the annual total number of eggs allocated for harvesting, and the area where collection is permitted.(In some cases it is also important to specify a harvest time. Often it is best to take eggs laid early in the season because the female will then lay another clutch.) </P>
    … …  
    368368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The applicant should understand that the farm and all production records should be available for inspection by an official of the conservation department.</P>
    369369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The farmer should be required to submit periodic reports detailing the total number of nests raided and eggs harvested, the egg mortality, and the number of eggs hatched. Thereafter, the number of animals held in captivity, the rate of mortality and its causes, if known, and the number of animals sold or culled should be included in each report.</P>
    370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     370
    371371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, it is recommended that the permit holder release 5 percent of his annual crop of hatchlings in order to restock the natural habitat. In addition, a further 5 percent of the hatchling crop should be reared to a length of 1 m before being released, bringing the total release of young crocodilians to 10 percent of the annual crop of hatchlings.</P>
    372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     372
    373373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distribution of hatchlings and young reared animals should be supervised by the conservation department.</P>
    374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     374
    375375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless government agencies monitor the wild populations of crocodilians being harvested for hides, eggs, or young, the farms themselves could become a major drain on those populations, leading to their extinction. Therefore, before any farming program is started, a survey of the breeding grounds should be undertaken to determine the number of nests available and those from which eggs can be taken with least danger to the wild population (for example, from nests on grounds likely to be flooded).</P>
    376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     376
    377377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These breeding grounds should be fully protected; tourists on foot, in vehicles, or in launches should not be allowed to visit or disturb crocodiles during the breeding season.</P>
    378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378
    379379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Safeguards and Cooperation</P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    381381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international traffic in millions of unmarked crocodilian hides and products poses one of the greatest obstacles to enforcement of national and international endangered species regulations. Hides and skins frequently cannot be traced to their source or country of origin. Legally harvested or farmed animals cannot readily be distinguished from those exported in secret from illegal sources.</P>
    382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     382
    383383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for internationally acceptable methods of marking individual hides and products is critical. Traffic in illegal crocodilian hides and products will continue as long as law enforcement agencies lack the means to detect them easily.</P>
    384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     384
    385385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States a system has been developed in some states that enables conservation, police, and customs officials to monitor traffic in alligator hides. A conservation authority issues an official tag for each animal allowed by the license. All hides exported are tagged with a serially numbered plastic tag that cannot be removed without breaking it. The serial number is recorded on the export permit and with details of the buyer's and seller's name and address. This tag remains on the hide, right through the tanning process, until the hide reaches the manufacturer. Each tannery maintains a register of purchases that is available for inspection. This system also is being implemented in Zimbabwe and is worthy of trial in other countries.</P>
    386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     386
    387387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tagging of all hides and products for individual identification is an important safeguard. Other safeguards include:</P>
    388388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The use of engraved stamps or seals to authenticate legal licenses and export permits and make it more difficult for documents to be forged.</P>
    … …  
    391391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Laws limiting the sale of hides only to nations that cooperate in an internationally sanctioned program of safeguards; and</P>
    392392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Research funding to monitor populations and develop new marking and identification techniques. (For instance, the use of dyes, roll marking, and infusion of detectable chemical tracers has yet to be fully explored.)</P>
    393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    394394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Needs</P>
    395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     395
    396396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is urgent need for tannery owners, manufacturers, and conservation authorities to jointly work out the rational exploitation of crocodile populations. Commercial interests have reaped a rich reward over many years, and if the crocodile industry is to continue, its entrepreneurs must invest in management and conservation.</P>
    397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    398398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, research to improve farming techniques will be a wise investment for both commercial operators and the countries concerned. Surveys to determine population numbers and size as well as the structure of breeding stocks and recruitment rates are essential. Such surveys may indicate the need to establish sanctuaries to protect breeding stock and nesting grounds, or perhaps to ban hunting to allow populations to recover. A rearing program and restocking of suitable habitats might be necessary.</P>
    399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    400 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     399
     400<B>
    401401<!--
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    407407-->
    408 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     408</B>
    409409<B><P></P>
    410410<!--
    … …  
    414414  </Description>
    415415-->
    416 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     416</B>
    417417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with crocodile farming in Papua New Guinea, the main subject of this report, are described in chapter 2. Here we summarize the status of similar efforts in other countries.</P>
    418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     418
    419419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
    420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     420
    421421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four crocodile farms have been established in Australia, one in the Northern Territory and three in Queensland. To date, only the Edward River farm, operated by the government as an aboriginal development project, has developed a successful breeding program. There, seven-yearold saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatched on the farm from wild eggs are now breeding and laying fertile eggs. </P>
    422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     422
    423423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia</P>
    424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     424
    425425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     426
    427427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) has been established at Xuancheng, Anhui Province. Its purpose is to breed alligators for conservation, although the hide of this species is not in great demand because it has many osteoderms in the belly scales. Recently the government has expressed interest in establishing a farm for saltwater crocodiles in southern China. </P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     428
    429429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
    430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     430
    431431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan has one crocodile farm or rearing station, but it is too far north to breed its own stock, except in heated indoor enclosures.</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     432
    433433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     434
    435435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several buyers in the Philippines who maintain pens of crocodiles for short periods. None of these is a farm. A new experimental farm for the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) was established by Silliman University in an attempt to preserve that endangered species and to promote an economic interest in crocodile conservation.</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436
    437437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
    438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    439439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for saltwater crocodiles has been established on Palau, where a small population of these crocodiles occurs in a brackish interior swamp. In the past, the government hired a hunter to reduce the population whenever the local people felt it had become sufficiently large to present a danger, about once a decade. Presumably the nuisance crocodiles will now end up in the farm. The farm, which has been in existence only for a year or two, earns money from tourist admissions as well as hide production.</P>
    440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     440
    441441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     442
    443443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few crocodile-rearing stations have operated for several decades in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. These have been stocked with eggs and young animals collected from the wild in Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 1970s, three such operations in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, closed down for lack of wild stock. At least one operation in Jakarta, Java, continues to survive, but with virtually no output of stock.</P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     444
    445445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea) in 1980 indicated a number of ranches in that region as well, but revealed that some were having difficulty obtaining stock because of overharvest.</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     446
    447447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore</P>
    448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     448
    449449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore has a famous crocodile farm that figures prominently in tourism. It breeds some of its stock, but also obtains wild stock from all over Southeast Asia. Singapore has a thriving crocodile hide trade. Many buyers and several tanneries are located there.</P>
    450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     450
    451451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore is not a member of CITES and openly trades in any and all species of crocodilians.</P>
    452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     452
    453453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
    454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     454
    455455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several crocodile farms in West Malaysia (at Penang, for example) and at least one in East Malaysia (near Sandakan, Sabah). These started out as rearing stations relying on wild young, but have moved slowly toward breeding their own stock. The Penang farm depends on tourism to pay many of its expenses. The Sandakan farm is operated in conjunction with a duck and pig farm that supplies it with offal. Its stock consists of saltwater crocodiles. Until at least 1980, it had very little production from captive animals, but the owner is hoping to broaden his stock from them.</P>
    456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     456
    457457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sarawak (East Malaysia) also used to have several rearing farms. The present status of these operations is unknown.</P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     458
    459459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
    460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     460
    461461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm was started in 1950 with 20 wild crocodiles and an investment of US$500. Today it is reported to be the world's largest crocodile farm, with about 30,000 individuals. About 3,700 of these animals, placed in eight separate breeding ponds, are used for breeding stock, and there are plans for a population of 100,000 by 1987. The Samutprakan farm opened to the public 12 years ago and now receives about one million visitors annually.</P>
    462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     462
    463463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the farm's crocodiles are from the two species native to Thailand, the saltwater crocodile and the Siamese freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis). It also has hybrids of the two, as well as the indigenous false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii) and five exotic species: South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus), New Guinea freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), broad-spouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), and dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus). The farm has succeeded in breeding South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus); the other species are approaching maturity and it is hoped they will breed in the near future.</P>
    464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     464
    465465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farm sells crocodile meat locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for US$5 per kg).</P>
    466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    467467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial and biological success of the farm is largely due to favorable conditions at Samutprakan. The temperature and humidity are high year-round, and low costs of labor and building materials permit the physical plant to be profitably established and maintained. The main cost is for food; approximately 4,000-5,000 kg of by-catch fish are needed daily at a cost of US 20 cents per kg. If the supply of fish is inadequate, the diet is supplemented with chicken wings, legs, and necks from a slaughterhouse.</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    469469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    471471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Rangoon there are some crocodile-holding pens operated by hide buyers. It is not clear whether breeding or farming of crocodiles occurs in them or whether the operation simply acts as a clearing center for wild hides. The government has expressed interest in establishing farms in the mangrove areas near the mouth of the Irrawaddy River. </P>
    472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     472
    473473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474
    475475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1974 an FAO report on India's crocodiles noted that the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile was extremely rare, and the Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris was a depleted, although not threatened, species).</P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    477477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government, with United Nations assistance, then initiated a project for the conservation and management of all three species. This program aimed to protect and restock habitats. Animals for restocking were obtained by collecting eggs laid in the wild, incubating them under controlled conditions, raising the resulting hatchlings, and returning juveniles to specially selected sanctuaries when they reached about 1.2 m in length,at which time they are free from predation other than by man.</P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    479479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has resulted in the comeback of the gavial. By March 1979, 200 gavials had been restored to the wild. The wild population now exceeds 1,000 animals of more than 2 m length, and the number is expected to increase rapidly through natural reproduction.</P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    481481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has also carried out extensive research on crocodiles, and since its founding in 1978 the Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, located in Hyderabad, has trained many wildlife officers in crocodile protection. Crocodile-rearing facilities are also located near Madras, Lucknow, and Cuttack. All have had success in raising the animals and restocking their habitats.</P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    483483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian crocodile project has been a notable success and it coincided with (and perhaps helped create) a wave of local interest in India's wildlife and its conservation.</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    485485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Israel</P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     486
    487487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm stocked with American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was established at a popular hotwater spring resort area, using animals supplied by a Florida farm. The Israeli program will earn money from tourist admissions and from future production of hides. The first successful hatching of captive-bred alligators was reported in 1982.</P>
    488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     488
    489489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
    490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     490
    491491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
    492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     492
    493493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near Mombasa a farm for the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) has been set up to produce hides from captive-bred stock. The farm is a demonstration project of a large cement factory that is attempting to return its limestone-mined areas to productive agriculture. Some sophisticated experiments are under way on crocodile nutrition, with food for the animals produced in an intensive aquaculture project using tilapia. </P>
    494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     494
    495495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</P>
    496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     496
    497497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia is planning a series of farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe (described below).</P>
    498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     498
    499499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
    500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     500
    501501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has made great strides in captive breeding. In 1979, 87 captive females at two farms produced 1,906 eggs, and a third farm has set aside 30 captive females for breeding.</P>
    502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     502
    503503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four of the country's five crocodile farms are on the shores of Lake Kariba and the other is at Victoria Falls. The government allows each farm an annual allotment of wild eggs (averaging 2,000 to 2,500 eggs) for stocking its rearing programs. Each farm is also striving to become self sufficient in egg production by developing successful breeding programs. The government is considering reducing each farm's allotment by the number of eggs produced annually in the farm so that each will eventually become independent of the wild populations.</P>
    504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     504
    505505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe farmers operate on a system that obliges them to return a small percentage of live animals to the wild if the government requires it. At present, this requirement is being waived because the wild population is increasing on its own.</P>
    506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     506
    507507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has built its crocodile conservation program on a broad base. Crocodiles are protected throughout the country, as game animals in the country at large and as totally protected species in parks and sanctuaries. Populations have increased dramatically, from endangered status in the l950s to over 50,000 individuals today. In the 1950s a survey of the Zambesi River and Lake Kariba revealed no crocodiles; today thousands are seen.</P>
    508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     508
    509509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife is striving to ensure that its legitimate international trade in farm-raised hides does not provide illegal operators in other countries with the opportunity to sell poached hides (for example, forging papers that claim their hides originated on legitimate Zimbabwe farms). To make poaching difficult, Zimbabwe, taking a clue from the state of Louisiana, plans to use serially numbered nonremovable plastic tags to mark legitimate hides. Numbers of the tags will be noted on export permits. In addition, every export permit will be validated by the government with an engraved security stamp that is difficult to forge and that shows ink damage if any erasures or modifications are attempted. The use of such stamps is recommended by CITES, and Zimbabwe is the first nation to put them into use.</P>
    510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    511511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
    512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    513513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa has four crocodile farms, and another five are planned or under construction. Apart from the Natal Parks Board Crocodile Research Station at St. Lucia Estuary, which breeds Nile crocodiles for restocking and conservation purposes, all farms are for tourism and hide production. So far only one farm, outside Pretoria, is reported to produce many offspring. Only the provinces of Transvaal and Natal have wild crocodiles, and neither allows eggs, young, or adults to be collected for stocking farms. Both provinces, however, permit the killing of nuisance crocodiles on private land. Transvaal will allow one or two nuisance crocodiles to be taken captive by farmers, but it refuses permission for removing larger numbers of nuisance animals,presumably for fear that this would generate a flood of spurious nuisance complaints. Natal will not permit the removal of any wild crocodiles to farms, nor will it supply offspring from the St. Lucia station to farmers. This makes the Pretoria farm the only source of crocodiles in South Africa.</P>
    514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    515515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the example of Zimbabwe, the South African farmers (present and potential) formed a crocodile farming association in 1982.</P>
    516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    517517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</P>
    518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    519519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe are planned for the Okavango area. Petitions for approval are currently before the Botswana government.</P>
    520 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     520
    521521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</P>
    522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     522
    523523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s French businessmen established a farm for Nile crocodiles near Lake Chad. It collapsed after only a few years.</P>
    524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     524
    525525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
    526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    527527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Ivory Coast has obtained assistance from Zimbabwe to establish a conservation program for its three native crocodiles: the Nile crocodile, African slender-spouted crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), and Congo dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). Recommendations were made for conserving the wild populations as well as for establishing farms. Field studies are under way.</P>
    528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    529529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe</P>
    530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    531531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
    532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    533533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial farm for the South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus) was established in southern Italy in the late 1970s. Stock was obtained from Colombia. The animals, numbering in the thousands, arrived in Rome in winter and were transported south to the farm in an open truck. Most died from cold. Later shipments fared no better, and the few animals that survived died from poor husbandry. </P>
    534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    535535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Americas</P>
    536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    537537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
    538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538
    539539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are between 15 and 20 successful alligator farms in the United States. Most are located in Florida and Louisiana, and there is at least one in California. All earn a portion of their money from tourist admissions.</P>
    540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    541541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
    542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     542
    543543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1960s the Cuban government established at least two farms for crocodiles. One is located in the Zapata Peninsula National Park; the other is near Cienfuegos. The purpose of these farms is to breed crocodiles whose wetland habitat has been converted to sugar cane fields. Eventually, the farms will also produce a cash crop of hides.</P>
    544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    545545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, what started out as an admirable effort created several conservation problems because the farm managers did not realize there were two crocodiles in Cuba ,the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in brackish waters, and the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in freshwater areas. The two were mixed in the farms and hybridization resulted.</P>
    546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     546
    547547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
    548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     548
    549549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Mexican government has established several farms for Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) in Chiapas and Veracruz. The purpose is to breed the species in captivity to relieve hunting pressure on the wild population and prevent its extinction. Original funding was provided by the World Wildlife Fund. At least one of these farms still exists. Breeding has been achieved, but there have been problems of survival in hatchlings. The cause of the deaths has not been discovered.</P>
    550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     550
    551551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years several businessmen in Mexico have expressed interest in starting one or more crocodile farms, but none has yet materialized.</P>
    552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     552
    553553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
    554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     554
    555555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s, the Louisiana Game and Fisheries Commission supplied specimens of the American alligator to a cattle rancher in El Salvador for the purpose of establishing an experimental farm.</P>
    556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     556
    557557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louisiana was interested in studying growth rates of American alligators in a tropical nation where the animals did not have to undergo winter hibernation. The husbandry on the farm followed methods worked out in Louisiana. The animals grew fast and presumably have started breeding. </P>
    558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     558
    559559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
    560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     560
    561561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A captive breeding program for the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) was established in Venezuela in the late 1970s on the ranch of Tomas Blohm. The operation is not commercial; its purpose is to prevent extinction of the species. The offspring may be used for restocking wild habitats in the future.</P>
    562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     562
    563563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Venezuelan law there can be no commercial export of any crocodilians. In addition, the Orinoco crocodile and the various caimans are protected. However, the reptiles are everywhere killed as vermin.</P>
    564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     564
    565565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
    566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     566
    567567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru has proposed harvesting certain wild populations of caimans (Caiman crocodilus) to supply animals to a ranching operation.</P>
    568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     568
    569569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BraziI</P>
    570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     570
    571571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Brazil is interested in establishing farms for several species of caiman, including the yacare (Caiman crocodilusyacare). </P>
    572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     572
    573573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Latin American Nations</P>
    574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    575575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the past two years, other Central and South American nations that have indicated their intention to set up farms for crocodiles or caimans are Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Uruguay. </P>
    576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    577577<B><P></P>
    578578<!--
    … …  
    583583  </Description>
    584584-->
    585 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     585</B>
    586586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This appendix is adapted from a paper by A. Pooley that detailed the lessons learned from farming crocodiles to restock depleted habitats in Natal, South Africa. The information is presented here not as a blueprint for setting up a farm, but to show prospective farmers some of the points that they must first consider before attempting to rear crocodiles.</P>
    587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     587
    588588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Location</P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    590590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reliable supplies of good water and suitable food are the most important considerations for establishment of a crocodile farm; the area selected must have both. Village farms also need to be close enough to wild crocodile populations for the animals to be obtained easily. Larger farms can be located farther from the source.</P>
    591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     591
    592592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small farms, a natural supply of food should also be readily available in the wild. Areas that have a fishing industry are ideal locations. For large farms, sites near slaughterhouses or fish-processing facilities are ideal.</P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     593
    594594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other considerations also include the volume of water available throughout the year, the distance over which water must be piped to the ponds, and pumping costs. The quality of the water should be established, with samples tested for salinity and acidity and, where the supply comes from mineral springs, analyzed for harmful chemicals. Chlorinated water must be tested regularly to ensure that the chlorine content is not too high, and the nature of any factory effluents present should be determined. It is important to establish whether fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, or aquatic insects survive in the water intended for use.</P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     595
    596596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacterial analysis is advisable where the water is drawn from a river that drains an area densely populated by humans and livestock. If the water is found to be contaminated, the stagnant pond rearing pen system should not be used, particularly when Salmonella spp. are present in high concentrations.</P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     597
    598598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filter system has advantages if water is pumped straight from a river carrying a heavy silt load. Apart from enabling farmers to see the animals in the pools, filtered water makes the pools and pipes easier to clean. Filtration can be achieved by drawing water from a deep pit close to the river so that the water collected seeps through sand or mud.</P>
    599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     599
    600600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A reservoir or a series of supply tanks is useful as an additional method of filtering water. In the event that pumping equipment fails, such a reserve supply may prove vital to the health and survival of the crocodiles.</P>
    601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     601
    602602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ponds should receive as much sun as possible, particularly during the winter months. A series of winter air temperature recordings would be useful in choosing the site of rearing pens, since valley temperatures are often several degrees lower than the temperatures some 50 to 100 m uphill. Preference should be given to the warmer locations, taking into account the direction of local winds and heavy rains.</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     603
    604604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil types are the next consideration. If soils are sandy and porous, earth ponds are impractical and a concrete lining is required to retain water.</P>
    605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     605
    606606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drainage of the ponds must be carefully considered. Drainage is far easier if the ponds are built on a slight rise. Water from the ponds must not be allowed to stagnate nearby; the drainage system must be efficient. It is recommended that pens be spaced at least 8 m apart and that their drainpipes lead underground at least 10 m before emptying.</P>
    607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     607
    608608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pen Construction</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     609
    610610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens with rounded corners are the most successful. Crocodiles frequently choose to lie together in a pile. Square corners allow them to pile up against the angle, smothering those on the bottom and sometimes allowing animals to climb over the fence. With rounded corners, the pile cannot grow very high before the crocodiles slide sideways and the heap collapses.</P>
    611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     611
    612612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in South Africa indicate that natural pools containing rooted vegetation are less prone to become sources of disease than are concrete pools. The surface of the concrete seems to become impregnated with liquid and debris from food and to become a breeding ground for bacteria. For hatchlings and very small juvenile crocodiles, concrete has an added disadvantage; its rough surface can abrade the belly skin when the animals slide in and out of the water, which can foster infection. In 5 or 10 years, even smooth concrete will erode sufficiently to become a problem.</P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     613
    614614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Researchers elsewhere, however, report better results with concrete lined ponds, which they find easier to clean. Concrete pools are useful for summer because they can be scrubbed clean and because the volume of water used is small. Normally they need only be emptied, cleaned, and refilled every third day, and there is no wastage through seepage.</P>
    615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     615
    616616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pools are best built as channels. This provides more bank for basking and enables the pools to accommodate more crocodiles. Because the larger males become belligerent only when they can see each other, floating logs, patches of grass, or channel corners are visual barriers that reduce interactions. The channel system also gives more water edge, and this appears to satisfy the territorial instinct.</P>
    617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     617
    618618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are famous for basking in the sun, but they die surprisingly easily of heat prostration. At least one-third of the land area of a farm pen should be shaded with vegetation. The amount of space around each pool is calculated to allow ample basking room for each animal, and an area of shade must likewise be provided.</P>
    619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     619
    620620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On land, crocodiles often seek contact with each other (thigmotaxis) and frequently lie piled on top of each other, but this should be a matter of choice rather than of overcrowding. There should be few enough animals in the enclosure to allow every crocodile to get out of the water if it chooses.</P>
    621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     621
    622622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideally, only half the available number of pools should be occupied at a time, so that they can be used in rotation. In this system, the animals can be moved to fresh pools every two months (or as necessary), leaving the "used" pools to be drained and dried out to bake in the sun. After two months, the pools will then be clean and ready for use again.</P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     623
    624624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important requirement is that the pools be at least 60 cm in depth; otherwise, the water becomes too hot in summer. The pool floor should be sloped towards the drain outlet to facilitate cleaning and flushing away uneaten food. Also, the outlet pipe should be 10 cm in diameter, with a stopcock outside the enclosure, so that the pool can be cleaned and emptied efficiently. It is essential to place a screen in the drainpipe to prevent small crocodiles from escaping or being sucked out of the pool during cleaning. After some time, stagnant ponds may become difficult to clean because of the heavy growth of algae on their sides. Hard-bristle scrubbing brushes are needed to dislodge this growth. Small amounts of copper sulfate in the water will help control algae if used regularly.</P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     625
    626626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire pond and surrounding apron must be smoothly plastered to facilitate cleaning. It helps to have a water source close to each pool from which a hose pipe can be led to pressure spray and clean the pool and its apron.</P>
    627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     627
    628628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of the design is a partly submerged, gently sloping ledge, some 45 cm in width, around the perimeter of the pool. This provides a shallow resting zone for the crocodiles and gives them easy access to the water. The crocodiles rest there when feeding, and the ledge prevents them from scraping their bellies and damaging their claws when they enter or leave the pool.</P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    630630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small crocodiles it is advisable to roof over the entire pen with wire netting or cries-crossed strands of wire. This protects against predators. Further, young crocodiles can climb vertical wire netting with ease and will escape unless the enclosure is either roofed or has side walls that slope inwards. A skirting board (planking, sheet iron, tin, or plastic sheeting) placed against the wire netting can also prevent this. If wire netting is used for the sides of the pens it should have mesh no larger than 1 cm so that hatchlings will not injure themselves by trying to climb through. While these pools are being cleaned, care must be exercised to prevent crocodiles from falling into the empty pool.</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    632632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water can be passed continuously through the pools. The advantage of this is that during hot summer weather, when crocodiles are feeding at their maximum rate, small uneaten food particles, feces, and urine are carried away. Constant dilution of the pond's water also ensures a low bacteria level. However, the pool must be drained and scrubbed clean at least weekly.</P>
    633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    634634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen pools are easy and cheap to build and are a "natural" habitat where vegetation can be planted and small live fish introduced; insects, frogs, and other creatures attracted to the dams will be an important addition to the diet and health of the crocodiles. Earthen pools are ideal in climates where low winter temperatures are likely to cause respiratory illness in the young animals. During cold weather the crocodiles burrow into the mudbanks and survive nights of heavy frost.</P>
    635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     635
    636636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the animal's burrowing capabilities, it is important to provide a strip of land 4 m wide between the pool's edge and the boundary fence. Otherwise, crocodiles may tunnel beyond the fence line. Fences must be buried at least 1 m deep to intercept the burrows and to prevent predators from burrowing in. Burrowing, however, can be hazardous, because the burrows can collapse and suffocate the animals.</P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     637
    638638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where the soil is porous or sandy, the floor of an earth dam can be sealed with concrete or plastic irrigation sheets. A layer of earth can be used to conceal this artificial floor. The disadvantages of earth pools are that, because of seepage, they require more water than concrete ones and that they require more maintenance because they cannot be efficiently cleaned. Even if the pools are provided with constantly circulating water, they eventually become fouled, particularly during hot weather.</P>
    639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    640640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing crocodiles from an earth pond can prove difficult, since most will take refuge in their burrows.</P>
    641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    642642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing Crocodiles</P>
    643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     643
    644644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are located at night, usually from a boat, by shining a light along the edges of rivers and lagoons. Because of a reflective tapetum, the eyes of crocodiles glow reddish or orange and are visible for a hundred meters or more. If the population has not become exposed to hunting and become wary of people, the animals will not submerge when the light strikes them. Dazzled by the beam, they tolerate a stealthy approach, and small animals can simply be grabbed by hand or scooped up in a net. They can then be transported in sacks to the rearing pens. Larger animals may be noosed or baited into cylindrical screen traps at places they frequent along the water's edge.</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    646646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing a Crocodile Farm</P>
    647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    648648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a problem to sort the young crocodiles. From one clutch of eggs, some individuals will be aggressive and others may be shy or extremely timid; growth may vary from rapid to very slow, with a few individuals classed as runts.</P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     649
    650650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larger animals can be so dominant that smaller individuals will not even attempt to feed. If sorting is not done, the smaller, less-aggressive individuals do not get a fair share of the food; they grow slowly and get bitten and harassed by the larger animals. At feeding time, some will flee to the opposite side of the pen and stop feeding altogether. Keeping the young animals sorted into classes of the same size avoids many of these problems.</P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     651
    652652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Feeding</P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     653
    654654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the crocodilian's reputation as a man-eater, small wild crocodiles live mainly on invertebrates and larger ones live mainly on fish. Papua New Guinea's farmers feed a varied diet of locally caught fish, crab, shrimp, frogs, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, and slaughterhouse waste. Whole animals minced up should be used, if necessary, because crocodiles require a diet of bone, intestine, scales, and other tissues to provide calcium and minerals. Bones in chopped fish must be minced thoroughly for hatchlings or very young crocodiles, or they should be fed very small fish supplemented by tadpoles or insects. One village in Papua New Guinea has shown remarkable success in rearing hatchlings on a diet of chopped fish and live freshwater shrimp.</P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     655
    656656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish is an excellent food for the bulk feeding of a large captive population. Whole fish chopped into pieces, including the livers and hearts, forms a balanced diet that may be supplemented by meat, if available, to make up bulk. Small whole fish are particularly suitable; the crocodiles derive calcium from the bones and scales, plus roughage to facilitate digestion, while the flesh, liver, and heart are rich in nutrients and protein The main difficulty usually lies in harvesting enough fish to meet the crocodiles' demands.</P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     657
    658658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any method of supplementing the diet with live creatures is recommended. For instance, a light can be left burning in each pen about 15 cm above the water for attracting insects. Various types of insect traps may also be used.</P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     659
    660660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles also can be fed on a variety of wastes such as offal or noncommercial fish. Ideally, a large-scale farm should be located near a poultry slaughterhouse. (Cattle offal is also satisfactory, but it is not nutritionally adequate as a sole ration for crocodiles.) Even crocodile offal itself can be fed back to crocodiles. However, the use of offal will necessitate dietary supplements to assure sufficient phosphorus and calcium. These minerals are generally provided by feeding bones to the crocodiles.</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     661
    662662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles usually consume their food in the water, but they can also be fed on land. They will eat daily, but are able to remain active for weeks without food. If they are fed in the water of a farm pen, the water will become polluted unless there is considerable flow to carry away the debris. In extreme cases, the pools become septic. To ensure the health of the growing animals, constantly flowing water is far superior to standing water. (The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm in Thailand feeds some of its animals in water, but the small feeding pools are separate from the large regular breeding pools and at a lower level to prevent their overflowing into the breeding pools.)</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     663
    664664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to feed pieces of food small enough to be swallowed without difficulty. Large fish should be cut into elongated rather than square pieces, since the bones can cause damage during swallowing. Similarly, whole live fish should not be so large that the dorsal fin may cause damage to the reptile's throat and gullet.</P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     665
    666666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to know the amount of food that each group of animals will consume at each meal. By feeding at the same time each day, it is easy to calculate how much is required. Moreover, the crocodiles become accustomed to a routine and the food is consumed while it is still fresh. In the hot summer months the animals will devour a full meal every 24 hours, but the feeding rate slackens with the onset of colder weather. It is then wise to start reducing frequency and quantities until food is required only every second or third day, depending on the climate. Generally, young crocodiles will refuse food when the air or water temperature falls below 60°F (15.6°C). Even in midsummer sudden cold spells may occur; at such times, it is usually futile to feed the animals or try to coax them to eat until the weather warms up again. </P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     667
    668668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During hot weather conditions it is preferable to feed late in the afternoon or evenings, mainly to avoid placing the food on a hot cement surface. The food should be spread out around the edge of the pool under the shaded area so that the animals do not have to climb over one another to reach it.</P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     669
    670670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cemented pens the area where the food is laid out should be cleaned and scrubbed two hours after feeding time and any uneaten food removed from the water with a hand net. In earthen pools, the food should be placed at a different spot along the bank at each feeding. A useful aid to hygiene is keeping a few predacious fish, such as barbel (Clarias spp.), in each pool to clean up scraps of uneaten food.</P>
    671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     671
    672672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Density</P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     673
    674674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five crocodiles are considered the maximum manageable number per unit; staying within this limit reduces competition for food, bullying and fighting, and the number of injuries. A low stocking rate also results in a more even average growth rate. Most important is the fact that the overall health of the crocodiles is better than in a more crowded pen; disease problems are fewer and the symptoms easier to detect in a small group. If the units are spaced 8 m apart, there is also less danger of infectious disease spreading to other pens. The cleaning of pens is facilitated, and the disturbance caused by capturing crocodiles to be moved to other units is minimized. Housing 500 crocodiles in groups of 25 will require 20 separate pens, and an additional two pens should be provided to allow for intensive care of sick, injured, and weaker animals.</P>
    675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     675
    676676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year, when animals are graded frequently, they will often be moved from one pen to another. Recording the number of animals housed in each pen will make it possible to keep track of numbers and movements.</P>
    677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     677
    678678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding</P>
    679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     679
    680680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is impossible when crocodiles are kept in large groups composed of different species and sizes and in more or less unnatural enclosures.</P>
    681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     681
    682682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy, sexually mature pairs of crocodiles are usually not enough to start a breeding program. Genetic diversity to maintain a long-term breeding group must be considered, and certain environmental factors are vital for success. The distinct size and age classes of a free-living population must also be taken into consideration. Optimal sex ratios for breeding in enclosed compounds must be determined and adhered to. If a breeding unit is not based on regard for the animals' basic needs for space, nesting sites, and retreats, the larger specimens will disturb, injure, and often kill smaller specimens.</P>
    683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683
    684684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases and Parasites</P>
    685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    686686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease symptoms may be easily overlooked if the observer is not familiar with the behavior of crocodiles under a variety of conditions. It is essential to know how they normally walk, swim, sleep, feed, and bask in relation to the time of day, the air and water temperatures, and the amount of sunlight or rain, by day, by night, and at different seasons of the year. Caretakers should notice the appearance of feces from healthy animals to be able to detect evidence of diarrhea, and to identify misaligned teeth and weakened limbs to detect nutritional deficiencies. Eggs are critically dependent on specific temperature and moisture requirements if the embryos are to develop normally.</P>
    687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    688688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often difficult to determine the cause of illness or death, and even if the ailment has been correctly diagnosed, it is not easy to capture and administer drugs to large numbers of sick animals. Some animals may be injured during the handling process. Emphasis on preventing disease, rather than curing it, is the best way of ensuring a healthy crop.</P>
    689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     689
    690690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost inevitably, the water in the pools will harbor concentrations of bacteria such as salmonella. If strict hygiene is observed, however, the bacterial level will not be harmful.</P>
    691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     691
    692692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is recommended that whenever possible animals found newly dead should be dissected and vital organs such as the brain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach removed for veterinary research. Blood slides should also be taken and feces samples collected. The various specimens must be carefully labeled, frozen as quickly as possible, and packed on ice in a vacuum flask for immediate dispatch to the nearest veterinary research institute or pathologist. Alternatively, dying animals may be sent live for research purposes.</P>
    693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    694694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful for the handler to become thoroughly acquainted with the animal's internal anatomy, in order to distinguish between healthy and diseased organs. This knowledge, coupled with the symptoms noted before the animal dies, and the veterinary report, will be useful in future diagnosis and treatment.</P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    696696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One problem for the crocodile farmer is a roundworm (nematode) parasite that burrows into the belly skin. When the burrow collapses it produces an undulating track across the belly and throat scales that ruins the hide. These parasites have been found in crocodiles from Latin America, Africa, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Asia. They seem more prevalent in some areas and some farms than in others. The organism has been identified, but no treatment or control has been discovered. It is, however, believed that damp, muddy conditions foster the nematode, and that to reduce it pens should have areas of dry land where the animals can bask.</P>
    697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     697
    698698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Killing, Skinning, and Tanning</P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     699
    700700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some farmers kill the crocodiles themselves, but many rear the animals and then sell them to a larger concern that is better equipped to deal with the skins. Killing is done most quickly and humanely by catching the crocodile with a noose and severing the spinal cord just behind the skull.</P>
    701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     701
    702702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many hides are ruined or severely damaged during skinning. Even a single hole resulting from a slip of the skinning knife may reduce a hide's value by 25 percent.</P>
    703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     703
    704704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After skinning, the hides are normally coated with about 0.5 cm of coarse salt and rolled up. Within 48 hours they are unrolled and resalted. If the hide is not sufficiently salted, it may become infected with bacteria or fungi that cause the epidermis of the scales to decay or slip. Although this layer is removed during tannage, scale slip is a symptom of rot and usually causes damage to the finished hide product. If the decay is intense, the salted hides may become reddish or brown in color. This is called "red heat."</P>
    705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     705
    706706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although salt remains the universally used preservative for raw hides, the reptile leather industry has developed chemical fixatives that are used in addition to salt for preserving hides for tanning. Most of these pretannage fixatives are liquid and require soaking the hide in a vat, which may not be feasible in remote areas.</P>
    707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     707
    708708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pretanned hide is called a crust. It is green-gray (chrome tanned) or tan (vegetable tanned) and is stiff. The hide is dyed and glazed to its final finish. To increase the workability and to remove as many of the osteoderms as possible (if they are present), the underside of the hide is shaved to an even thickness. The shaving is done by craftsmen. If they shaved too much, the hide will be thin and weak, especially over the suture between the scales.</P>
    709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     709
    710710<B><P></P>
    711711<!--
    … …  
    716716  </Description>
    717717-->
    718 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718</B>
    719719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information on the management and status of crocodiles can be found in the following:</P>
    720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    721721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN/Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. Available from the editors, Peter Brazaitis and Myrna Watanabe, c/o New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York 10460, USA.</P>
    722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    723723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Field Guide of Captive Rearing and Management of Crocodiles in India is available from Mr. R. K. Rao, Director, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute (Government of India), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.</P>
    724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    725725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K. 1974. The rearing of crocodiles for commercial and conservation purposes in Rhodesia. The Rhodesia Science News 8(10):315-324.</P>
    726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    727727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K., and J. P. Loveridge. 1975. The role of commercial crocodile farming in crocodile conservation. Biological Conservation 8(4): 261-272.</P>
    728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    729729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M. 1981. Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New Guinea. Field Document 4. FO: DP/ PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 103 pp.</P>
    730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    731731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M., and M. Laufa. 1982. The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 22:169-179.</P>
    732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    733733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. (In press) Problems in the Identification of Commercial Crocodilian Hides and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group meeting in Zimbabwe September-October, 1982. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.</P>
    734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    735735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. 1973. The identification of living crocodiles. Zoologica 58(3-4):59-101.</P>
    736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    737737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1954. Ecology and economic status of the crocodile in Uganda. Record of the Symposium on African Hydrobiology and Inland Fisheries, Committee on Technical Cooperation for Africa South of the Sahara 6:119-122.</P>
    738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    739739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29(4):211-337.</P>
    740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    741741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Downes, M. C. 1978. An explanation of the National Policy for the Crocodile Programme. Wildlife Division, Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea.</P>
    742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     742
    743743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuchs, K., nd. Die Krokodilhaut Eduard Roether Verlag Darmstadt, Frankfurt, West Germany.</P>
    744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     744
    745745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, A., 1981. Mapping the pattern of crocodile nesting activity in Papua New Guinea. Field Document No. 3, FO: DP/PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 50 pp.</P>
    746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     746
    747747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1975. Notes on the Reproductive Biology and Captive Propagation of the American Alligator. Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners 29:407-415. </P>
    748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     748
    749749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1979. Culture of the American alligator. International Zoo Yearbook 19:61-66.</P>
    750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     750
    751751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, F. W., and P. Brazaitis. 1971. Species identification of commercial crocodile skins. Zoologica 56(2): 15-72.</P>
    752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752
    753753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loveridge, J. P. ed. 1982. The Zimbabwe Science News 16(9):196-219. Causeway, Zimbabwe. (Contains five articles on crocodilian research and conservation; from Zimbabwe, Australia the United States, and lndia.)</P>
    754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    755755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millichamp, N. J. ;980. Medical aspects of disease in reptile collections. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles, The British Herpetological Society, London, England.</P>
    756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    757757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parker, F. 1981. New Crocodile Laws for Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. 50 pp.</P>
    758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     758
    759759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1969. Some observations on the rearing of crocodiles. Lammergeyer 10:45-59.</P>
    760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     760
    761761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1971. Crocodile rearing and restocking. Pp. 104-130 in Crocodiles, IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 32. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1110 Gland, Switzerland.</P>
    762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     762
    763763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1973. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles in Africa. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 3(2):101-103.</P>
    764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    765765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1977. A report on Crocodile Farming. Papua New Guinea. Wildlife leaflet No. 77/27. pp. 1-14.</P>
    766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     766
    767767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1981. Disappearing African Crocodiles. Oryx 16(1):38-40.</P>
    768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768
    769769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. (In press). The status of crocodiles in Africa. Paper Presented at 5th Meeting IUCN Survival Service Commission's Crocodile Specialist Group. Gainesville Florida, USA. September 1980.</P>
    770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    771771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C., and C. Gans. 1976. The Nile crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.</P>
    772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    773773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallis, B. E. 1980. Market prospects for reptile leathers. Report number ITC/DIP/12, International Trade Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. 50 pp.</P>
    774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    775775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wermuth, Von H., and K. Fuchs. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen und ihrer Haute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, New York.</P>
    776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    777777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R. 1982. Export prospects from commercial crocodile farms in Bangladesh. ITC/UNCTAD, Geneva, Switzerland. 47 pp.</P>
    778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     778
    779779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R., and M. Kemp. 1981. The crocodile industry in Papua New Guinea: Commercial Aspects. Field Document No. 2. FO:DP/PNC/74/029. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 35 pp. </P>
    780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     780
    781781<B><P></P>
    782782<!--
    … …  
    787787  </Description>
    788788-->
    789 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     789</B>
    790790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals are involved in crocodilian research. Most are biologists concerned with the conservation or natural history of the animals.</P>
    791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     791
    792792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
    793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     793
    794794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied Ecology Crocodile Farm, Edward River, Queensland 4870</P>
    795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     795
    796796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelley Burgin, Total Environment Center, 18 Argyle Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000</P>
    797 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     797
    798798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Melvin Bolton, Woodbury Farm, Woodbury Road, M.S. 142, Via Yeppoon, Queensland 4703</P>
    799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     799
    800800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Max C. Downes, The Game Conservation Center, 24 Queens Parade, North Fitzroy, Victoria 3068</P>
    801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     801
    802802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alistair Graham, P.O. Box41266, Darwin, Northern Territory 5792</P>
    803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     803
    804804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gordon Grigg, Zoology A08, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
    805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     805
    806806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Lever, Koorana Crocodile Farm, M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702</P>
    807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     807
    808808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harry Messel, Head, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
    809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     809
    810810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814</P>
    811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     811
    812812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grahame Webb, School of Zoology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     813
    814814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh</P>
    815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     815
    816816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd. Reza Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca 2</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     817
    818818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     819
    820820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William Magnusson, Depto de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Caixa Postal 478, 69000, Manaus, Amazonia</P>
    821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     821
    822822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
    823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     823
    824824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ko Ko Gyi, Professor of Zoology, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     825
    826826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nyan Taw, Research Officer, People's Pearl and Fishery Corporation, Myakhwanyo Street, Thaketa, Rangoon </P>
    827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     827
    828828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
    829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     829
    830830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huang Chu-Chien, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing</P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     831
    832832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swatow Prefecture Crocodile Farm, Shantou, Guang Dong Province</P>
    833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     833
    834834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
    835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     835
    836836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Medem, Instituto Roberto Franco, Apartado Aereo 2261, Villavicencio (Meta)</P>
    837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     837
    838838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
    839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     839
    840840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gerado Budowski, Head, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba</P>
    841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     841
    842842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
    843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     843
    844844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Luis Varona, Norte 29, Nuevo Vedado, La Habana 6</P>
    845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     845
    846846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
    847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     847
    848848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Alberto Ottenwalder, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Plaza de la Cultura, Santo Domingo</P>
    849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     849
    850850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     851
    852852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karlheinz Fuchs, Schillerstrasse 2, 6257 Hunfelder 2</P>
    853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     853
    854854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
    855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     855
    856856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaime Tres 1., Centro de Estudias Conservacionistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-63, Zona IO, Guatemala</P>
    857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     857
    858858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
    859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     859
    860860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. C. Choudhury and Lala A. K. Singh, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
    861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     861
    862862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Board for Wildlife, c/o Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011</P>
    863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     863
    864864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Sale, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
    865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     865
    866866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Shanmugunathan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Vivekananda Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu</P>
    867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     867
    868868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudhakar Kar, Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conservation Unit, Danginal 754 220 Via Rejkanika, District Cuttack, Orissa</P>
    869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     869
    870870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, Tamil Nadu, 600 002</P>
    871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     871
    872872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
    873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     873
    874874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. Child, Wildlife and Parks Management Of ficer FAO, Rome</P>
    875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     875
    876876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
    877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     877
    878878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wataru Kimura, Proprietor, Atagawa Tropical and Alligator Garden, Atagawa Higashi Zlu Town, Shizuoka Prefecture</P>
    879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     879
    880880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
    881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     881
    883882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Haller , Bamburi Portland Cement Co. ,Ltd., P.O. Box 90202 ,Mombasa</P>
    884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     883
    885884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
    886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     885
    887886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul R. Wycherley, President, Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 150, Kuala Lumpur</P>
    888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     887
    889888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
    890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     889
    891890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miguel Alvarez del Toro, Director, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtle Gutierrez, Chiapas, 29000</P>
    892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     891
    893892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marco Antonio Lascano B., INIREB, Apdo. No 281, Merida</P>
    894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     893
    895894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
    896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     895
    897896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tirtha Maskey, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Thapathali, P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu</P>
    898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     897
    899898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand</P>
    900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     899
    901900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, Box 34, Whitford, Auckland</P>
    902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     901
    903902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
    904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     903
    905904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milton G. Camacho B., Instituto Nicaraguense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA), Depto. de Fauna Silvestre, Kim 12 1/2 Carreterra Norte, Managua.</P>
    906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     905
    907906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
    908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     907
    909908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashiq Ahmad, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar</P>
    910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     909
    911910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Latif Rao, Conservator of Wildlife, National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, U.G. St. 51, Sector F 6/4, Islamabad</P>
    912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     911
    913912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
    914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     913
    915914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miro Laufa, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, P.O. Box 2585, Konedobu</P>
    916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915
    917916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani</P>
    918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    919918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu</P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     919
    921920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham Goudie, Crocodile Farm, Lae</P>
    922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     921
    923922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin Hollands, Monitoring Ecologist, National Crocodile Project, P.O. Box 2585 Konedobu</P>
    924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     923
    925924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
    926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     925
    927926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pedro Vasques Ruesta, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apdo. 456, La Molina</P>
    928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     927
    929928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
    930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     929
    931930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angel C. Alcala, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros</P>
    932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     931
    933932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Agriculture, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros.</P>
    934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     933
    935934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
    936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     935
    937936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. B. Anthony, The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal</P>
    938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     937
    939938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antony Pooley, P.O. Box 42, St. Lucia Estuary, 3936 Zululand</P>
    940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     939
    941940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
    942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     941
    943942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene E. Honegger, Curator, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, 8044 Zurich</P>
    944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     943
    945944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
    946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     945
    947946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Srisomboon, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Development, Bangkok Utai Youngprapakorn and Charoon Youngprapakorn, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co., Ltd., Talban Road, Samutprakan</P>
    948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     947
    949948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
    950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     949
    951950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus d'A. Bellairs, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School University of London, Paddington, London W2</P>
    952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     951
    953952<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Robert Bustard, Isle of Man</P>
    954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     953
    955954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
    956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     955
    957956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Behler, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx, New York 10460</P>
    958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     957
    959958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Brazaitis, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx New York 10460</P>
    960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     959
    961960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gary Callis, Rt. I, Box 360, Clayton, New Mexico</P>
    962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     961
    963962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert H. Chabreck, Louisiana State University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803</P>
    964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     963
    965964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Davenport, Department of Herpetology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008</P>
    966 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     965
    967966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Hagen, Representative, Reptile Products Association, 120 Cabrini Blvd., New York, New York 10033</P>
    968 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     967
    969968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Hauptfuhrer, Director of Planning and Development, World Wildlife Fund, Inc., 910 17th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006</P>
    970 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     969
    971970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Hunt, Atlanta Zoological Park, 518 Atlanta Ave. S.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30315</P>
    972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     971
    973972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ted Joanen, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Route 1, Box 20-B, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643</P>
    974 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     973
    975974<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611</P>
    976 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     975
    977976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey W. Lang, Biology Department, University of North Dakota, University Station, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202</P>
    978 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     977
    979978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles J. Lankester, UNDP, I United Nations Plaza, New York, New York 10017</P>
    980 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     979
    981980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James H. Powell, 1110 Kokomo Street, Plainview, Texas 79072</P>
    982 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     981
    983982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Ross, Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560</P>
    984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     983
    985984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Myrna Watanabe, 141 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York 11201</P>
    986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     985
    987986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
    988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     987
    989988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Achaval, Departamento de Zoologia (Vertebrados), Universidad de la Republic Cerrito73, Montevideo</P>
    990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     989
    991990<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
    992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     991
    993992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomas Blohm, Apartado 69, Caracas 1010-A</P>
    994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     993
    995994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andres Seijas Y., Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, MARNR, Apartado 184, Maracay</P>
    996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     995
    997996<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
    998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     997
    999998<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. K. Blake, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare</P>
    1000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     999
    10011000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Loveridge, Zoology Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare</P>
    1002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1001
    10031002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin van Jaarsveldt, Crocodile Farmers Association of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box 2569, Harare </P>
    1004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1003
    10051004<B><P></P>
    10061005<!--
    … …  
    10111010  </Description>
    10121011-->
    1013 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1012</B>
    10141013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Secretary General Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Underexploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
    1015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1014
    10161015<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
    1017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1016
    10181017<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
    1019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1018
    10201019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
    1021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1020
    10221021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
    1023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1022
    10241023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
    1025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1024
    10261025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
    1027 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1026
    10281027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
    1029 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1028
    10301029<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
    1031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1032 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1030
     1031<B>
    10331032<!--
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    … …  
    10391038  </Description>
    10401039-->
    1041 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1040</B>
    10421041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
    1043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1042
    10441043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    1045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1044
    10461045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
    1047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1046
    10481047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1048
    10501049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    1051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1050
    10521051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
    1053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1052
    10541053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
    1055 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1054
    10561055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
    1057 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    10581057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1059 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1058
    10601059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1062 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1060
     1061<B>
    10631062<!--
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    10681067  </Description>
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    1070 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1069</B>
    10711070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1071
    10731072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1073
    10751074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1075
    10771076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1077
    10791078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
    1080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1079
    10811080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST I. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
    1082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1081
    10831082<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    1084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1083
    10851084<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    1086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1085
    10871086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
    1088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1087
    10891088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
    1090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1089
    10911090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    1092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1091
    10931092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1093
    10951094<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1095
    10971096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1097
    10991098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    1100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1099
    11011100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
    1102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1101
    11031102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    1104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1103
    11051104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
    1106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1105
    11071106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
    1108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1107
    11091108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1109
    11111110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1111
    11131112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
    1114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1113
    11151114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
    1116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1115
    11171116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
    1118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1117
    11191118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    1120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1119
    11211120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
    1122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1121
    11231122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
    1124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1123
    11251124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
    1126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
     1125
     1126</FONT>
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    17 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    1817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Original editon 1981</P>
    1918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second printing 1984</P>
    20 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     19
    2120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
    2221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
    … …  
    2423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on International Relations</P>
    2524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
    26 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    27 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    35 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    3634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of  Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     35
    3836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE P. BENNETT, Bennett's Animal Clinic, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     37
    4038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Dean, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
    41 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     39
    4240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD D. CHARLES, Senior Lecturer, Meat Production, Department of Animal  Husbandry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia</P>
    43 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     41
    4442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, Livestock Expert, Food and Agriculture Organization (retired),  Rome, Italy</P>
    45 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     43
    4644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
    47 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     45
    4846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University,  Pomona, California, USA</P>
    49 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     47
    5048<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. JOHN DE BOER, Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center,  Morrilton, Arkansas, USA</P>
    51 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    5250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAARTEN DROST, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
    53 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    5452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOHAMED ALI EL-ASHRY, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of  Agriculture, Shoubra el Khiema, Cairo, Egypt </P>
    55 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     53
    5654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRERD ., Former Director, Breeding Administration Centers,  Animal Sciences Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Caracas, Venezuela</P>
    57 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     55
    5856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEAN K. GARDNER, Former Chief, Logistics Division USAID/Philippines, Jackson,  Mississippi, USA</P>
    59 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    6058<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES F. HENTGES, Department of Animal Science,University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
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    6260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,  California, USA</P>
    63 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    6462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Livestock Expert, Agency for International Development  (retired), Washington, D.C., USA</P>
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    6664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P LEONARDS, Water buffalo breeder, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA</P>
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    6866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    7068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH MADAMBA, Director, Asian Institute of Aquaculture, Iloilo, Philippines</P>
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    7270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISTO NASCIMENTO,Director, Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation  (EMBRAPA), Agriculture Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem,  Para, Brazil</P>
    73 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    7472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural  Research, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
    75 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    7674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
    77 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    7876<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. THOMAS REID, (deceased), Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
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    8078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN H. SCHOTTLER, Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
    81 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    8280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DALBIR SINGH DEV, Dean, Animal Science Department, College of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India </P>
    83 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    8482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT W. TOUCHBERRY, Dean, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</P>
    85 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    8684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Winnellie, Australia </P>
    87 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    8886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Study Director </P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    9088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Associate </P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    92 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    10399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is an animal resource whose potential seems to have been barely recognized or examined outside of Asia. Throughout the world there are proponents and enthusiasts for the various breeds of cattle; the water buffalo, however, is not a cow and it has been neglected. Nevertheless, this symbol of Asian life and endurance has performed notably well in recent trials in such diverse places as the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Brazil. In Italy and Egypt as well as Bulgaria and other Balkan states the water buffalo has been an important part of animal husbandry for centuries. In each of these places certain herds of water buffalo appear to have equaled or surpassed the local cattle in growth, environmental tolerance, health, and the production of meat and calves.</P>
    104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    105101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although these are empirical observations lacking painstaking, detailed experimentation, they do seem to indicate that the water buffalo could become an important resource in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones in developing and developed countries.</P>
    106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    107103<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the case, then it is clear that many countries should begin water buffalo research. Serious attention by scientists could help dispel the misperceptions and uncertainties surrounding the animal and encourage its true qualities to emerge.</P>
    108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     104
    109105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report describes the water buffalo's attributes as perceived by several animal scientists. It is designed to present the apparent strengths of buffaloes compared with those of cattle, to introduce researchers and administrators to the animal's potential, and to identify priorities for buffalo research and testing.</P>
    110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     106
    111107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met at Gainesville, Florida, in July 1979. It was composed of leading water buffalo experts (particularly those from outside Asia who have directed the beginnings of water buffalo industries in their countries) and leading American animal scientists, many of whom are also familiar with the animal.</P>
    112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    113109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report complements The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. Ross Cockrill and published in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Cockrill's 933-page book is a "bible" of water buffalo knowledge and provides details of breeds, world distribution, physiology, and an extensive bibliography.</P>
    114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     110
    115111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The present report is an introduction to the water buffalo and its potential. It is written particularly for decision makers, as well as scholars or students, in the hope that it will stimulate their interest in the animal and thereby increase the appreciation of, and funding for, buffalo research. The report includes much empirical observation, largely from the panel members. Some of these observations may, in the long run, prove not to be universally applicable. Much benchmark information needs to be obtained.</P>
    116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    117113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since its creation in 1971, the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) has investigated innovative ways to use current technology and resources to help developing countries. Often this has meant taking a fresh look at some neglected and unappreciated plant or animal species. The committee assembles ad hoc panels of experts (usually incorporating both skeptics and proponents) to scrutinize the topics selected. The panel reports serve to draw attention to neglected, but promising, technologies and resources. (For a list of ACTI reports, see page 115.) ACTI reports are provided free to developing countries under funding by the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
    118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     114
    119115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program costs for this study were provided by AID'S Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, and staff support was provided by the Office of Science and Technology, Development Support Bureau.</P>
    120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     116
    121117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final draft of this report was edited and prepared for publication by F. R. Ruskin. Bibliographic editing was by Wendy D. White. Cover art was by Deborah Hanson.</P>
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    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    134128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated water buffalo Bubalus bubalis numbers at least 130 million-one-ninth the number of cattle in the world. It is estimated that between 1961 and 1981 the world's buffalo population increased by 11 percent, keeping pace with the percentage increase in the cattle population.</P>
    135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     129
    136130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are some pedigreed water buffaloes, most are nondescript animals that have not been selected or bred for productivity. There are two general types-the Swamp buffalo and the River buffalo.</P>
    137 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     131
    138132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp buffaloes are slate gray, droopy necked, and ox-like, with massive backswept horns that make them favorite subjects for postcards and wooden statuettes in the Far East. They are found from the Philippines to as far west as India. They wallow in any water or mud puddle they can find or make. Primarily employed as a work animal, the Swamp buffalo is also used for meat but almost never for milk production.</P>
    139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     133
    140134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River buffaloes are found farther west, from India to Egypt and Europe. Usually black or dark gray, with tightly coiled or drooping straight horns, they prefer to wallow in clean water. River buffaloes produce much more milk than Swamp buffaloes. They are the dairy type of water buffalo. In India, River buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy as suppliers of milk and draft power. River buffaloes make up about 35 percent of India's milk animals (other than goats) but produce almost 70 percent of its milk. Buffalo butterfat is the major source of cooking oil (ghee) in some Asian countries, including India and Pakistan.</P>
    141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    142136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are bovine creatures that somewhat resemble cattle, they are genetically further removed from cattle than are the North American bison (improperly called buffalo) whose massive forequarters, shaggy mane, and small hindquarters are unlike those of cattle. While bison can be bred with cattle to produce hybrids,( This is not, however, very successful, the male progeny (at least of the F 1 generation) are sterile).there is no well-documented case of a mating between water buffalo and cattle that has produced progeny.</P>
    143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     137
    144138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of Asia and even Europe have depended on water buffaloes for centuries. Their crescent horns, coarse skin, wide muzzles, and low-carried heads are represented on seals struck 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley, suggesting that the animal had already been domesticated in the area that is now India and Pakistan. Although buffaloes were in use in China 4,000 years ago, they are not mentioned in the literature or seen in the art of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, or Greeks, to whom they were apparently unknown. It was not until about 600 A.D. that Arabs brought the animal from Mesopotamia and began moving it westward into the Near East (modern Syria, Israel, and Turkey). Water buffaloes were later introduced to Europe by pilgrims and crusaders returning from the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. In Italy buffaloes adapted to the area of the Pontine Marshes southeast of Rome and the area south of Naples. They also became established in Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria and have remained there ever since.</P>
    145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    146140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers in medieval Egypt adopted the water buffalo, which has since become the most important domestic animal in modern Egypt. Indeed, during the last 50 years, their buffalo population has doubled to over 2 million head. The animals now supply Egypt with more meat-much of it in the form of tender "veal"-than any other domestic animal. They also provide milk, cooking oil, and cheese.</P>
    147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    148142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other areas have capitalized on the water buffalo's promise only in very recent times. For instance, small lots of the animals brought to Brazil (from Italy, India, and elsewhere) during the last 84 years have reproduced so well that they now total about 400,000 head and are still increasing, especially in the lower Amazon region. Buffalo meat and milk are now sold widely in Amazon towns and villages; the meat sells for the same price as beef. Nearby countries have also become familiar with the water buffalo. Trinidad imported several breeds from India between 1905 and 1908, while Venezuela, Colombia, and Guyana have been importing them in recent decades. During the 1970s Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Suriname, and Guyana introduced small herds. By 1979 the buffalo in Venezuela numbered more than 7,000 head.</P>
    149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    150144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the Pacific, the new nation of Papua New Guinea has found the water buffalo well suited to its difficult environment. For 9 years the government has attempted to run cattle on the Sepik and Ramu Plains on Papua New Guinea's north coast, where the temperatures are high and the forage of poor quality. But the cattle remain thin and underweight. In the 1960s animal scientists began evaluating water buffaloes already living in Papua New Guinea and, encouraged by the results, introduced additional buffaloes from Australia. These have performed remarkably well, producing greater numbers of calves and much more meat than the cattle in the region. The buffaloes appear to maintain appetite despite the heat and humidity, whereas cattle do not. The government of Papua New Guinea has since imported more water buffaloes and today has thriving herds totaling almost 3,500 head. </P>
    151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    152146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States has been slow to recognize the water buffalo's potential, but the first herd (50 head) ever imported for commercial farming arrived in February 1978.(Air-freighted from the wilds of Guam, the U.S. island possession on the western Pacific, by panel member Tony Leonards. Prior to that time (in 1974), four head of water buffalo were imported to the Department of Animal science' university of Florida, for study. The only other water buffaloes in North America were a few animals in zoos.) The humble water buffalo, normally considered fit only for the steamy rice fields of Asia, is now proving itself on farm fields in Florida and Louisiana. As a result, interest in the animal is on the rise in U.S. university and farm circles.  </P>
    153 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    154148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From experience accumulated in Asia, Egypt, South America, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, animal scientists now perceive that many general impressions about the water buffalo are incorrect.  </P>
    155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    156150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, it is widely believed that the water buffalo is mean and vicious. Encyclopedias reinforce this perception, and in the Western world it is the prevalent impression of the animal. The truth is, however, that unless wounded or severely stressed, the domesticated water buffalo is one of the gentlest of all farm animals. Despite an intimidating appearance, it is more like a household pet-sociable, gentle, and serene. In rural Asia the care of water buffaloes is often fumed over to small boys and girls aged about four to nine. The children spend their days with their family's gentle buffalo, riding it to water, washing it down, waiting while it rolls and wallows, and then riding it to some source of forage, perhaps a grassy field or thicket. It is not uncommon to see a buffalo patiently feeding, with a young friend stretched prone on its broad gray back, asleep.  </P>
    157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    158152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the notion about the viciousness of water buffaloes stems from confusing them with the mean-tempered African buffalo Syncerus caffer, actually a distant relative with which they will not interbreed and which is classified in a different genus.  </P>
    159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    160154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ferocity is the most blatant misconception concerning the water buffalo, although other fallacies are widely reported as well.  </P>
    161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    162156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One generally held belief is that water buffaloes can be raised only near water. Actually, buffaloes love to wallow, but they grow and reproduce normally without it, although in hot climates they must have shade available.  </P>
    163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    164158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another belief is that the water buffalo is exclusively a tropical animal. River-type buffaloes, however, have been used to pull snow plows during Bulgarian winters. They are found in Italy (over 100,000 head), Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, the Georgia and Azerbaijan areas of the Soviet Union (almost 500,000 head) and other temperate-zone regions as well. They are also found in cold, mountainous areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal.  </P>
    165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    166160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04to05.png"></center><br>
    167161 World Distribution of Water Buffaloes</P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    169163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet another misconception is that the water buffalo is just a poor man's beast of burden. In addition to providing fine lean meat, buffaloes in fact provide rich milk. Mozzarella cheese, one of the most popular in Europe, comes from the buffaloes in Italy. Buffalo milk has a higher content of both butterfat and nonfat solids than cow's milk does. It therefore often brings higher prices than cow's milk. Throughout much of India it is in such demand that cow's milk is sometimes hard to sell.  </P>
    170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    171165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the misconceptions generally held about buffaloes are based on little data and much prejudice. For instance, it is widely believed that water buffalo meat is tough and less desirable than beef. However, when the animals are raised for meat, buffalo steaks are lean, as tender as beef, and in appearance it is difficult to distinguish the two. In taste-preference tests at the University of Queensland, buffalo steaks were preferred over those from Angus and Hereford cattle. Tests conducted in Trinidad, Venezuela, the United States, and Malaysia produced similar results.  </P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    173167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia has shipped water buffalo meat to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia. Buffalo meat is now available in stores in Australia's Northern Territory, where demand exceeds supply. It sells at competitive prices and is particularly sought for barbecues and the famous Australian meat pie. In the Philippines, two-thirds of the meat consumed in homes and restaurants is actually water buffalo, a fact that many Filipinos do not realize.  </P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    175169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle,waterbuffaloes apparently have an efficient digestive system, one which extracts nourishment from forage so coarse and poor that cattle do not thrive on it. Thin cattle are commonly seen in Asia and northern Australia, for example, but it's rare to see a protruding rib on a buffalo, even though it uses the same source of feed.  </P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    177171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, water buffaloes live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally left to the peasants. They help make human survival possible. An old Chinese woman in Taiwan once told panelist W. Ross Cockrill: "To my family the buffalo is more important than I am. When I die, they'll weep for me; but if our buffalo dies, they may starve."  </P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    179173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A better understanding of the water buffalo could be invaluable to many developing nations. In particular, improved production of water buffalo meat offers hope for helping feed India, the second most populous nation on earth. Although India for religious reasons forbids the slaughter of cows, it has no prohibitions regarding slaughter of water buffaloes or the consumption of buffalo meat.  </P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    181175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries are in the tropics, and the water buffalo is inherently a tropical animal. It is comfortable in hot, humid environments. In the Amazon, for example, buffaloes are now common on the landscape and may even replace cattle completely.  </P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    183177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries have more serious disease problems than temperate countries do. Although susceptible to most cattle diseases, the water buffalo seems to resist ticks and often appears to be more resistant to some of the most devastating plagues that make cattle raising risky, difficult, and sometimes impossible in the tropics. Several researchers report that when water buffaloes are allowed to wallow, their mud-coated skin seems to deter insect and tick ectoparasites and they consequently require greatly reduced treatment with insecticides. Although the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) affects the animals, other pests such as the warble fly and the screwworm, for example, seldom affect healthy buffaloes. AIso, despite their inclination for living in swamps, Avers, and ponds, diseases of the feet such as foot rot and foot abscesses are rare.  </P>
    184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    185179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another benefit to developing countries is the water buffalo's legendary strength. A large part of the total farm power available in South China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Indochina states, India, and Pakistan comes from this "living tractor." Dependable and docile, the animals pull plows, harrows, and carts with loads that weigh several tons. In the Amazon buffalo teams pull boats laden with cargo and tourists through shallows and swamps.  </P>
    186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    187181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The petroleum crisis has forced many farmers to reconsider animal power even in some of the technically advanced countries. Buffaloes are not only extraordinarily strong, they can also work in deep mud that may bog down a tractor. Even up to their bellies they forge on, dragging both plow and driver through the mud. Although its average walking speed is only about 3 kilometers per hour, the buffalo, unlike its mechanical competition, doesn't need gasoline or spare parts and its working life is often 20 years or more.  </P>
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    189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    190183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    191184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</P>
    192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     185
    193186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the major genetic divisions of the water buffalo are the Swamp buffalo of the eastern half of Asia, which has swept-back horns, and the River buffalo of the western half of Asia, which usually has curled horns. There is also the Mediterranean buffalo, which is of the River type but has been isolated for so long that it has developed some unique characteristics. (Records of the buffalo in Italy date back 1,000 years, during which there have been no reported imports.) Mediterranean buffaloes are stocky, high yielding animals that combine both beef and dairy characteristics.  </P>
    194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    195188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is only one breed of Swamp buffalo, certain subgroups seem to have specific inherited characteristics. For example, the buffaloes of Thailand are noted for their large size, averaging 450-550 kg, and weights of up to 1,000 kg have been observed. Elsewhere, Swamp buffaloes range from 250 kg for some small animals in China to 300 kg in Burma and 500-600 kg in Laos.  </P>
    196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    197190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only in India and Pakistan are there well-defined breeds with standard qualities. There are eighteen River buffalo breeds in South Asia, which are further classified into five major groups designated as the Murrah, Gujarat, Uttar  Pradesh, Central Indian, and South Indian breeds. These are the five groups and  main breeds:  </P>
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    233226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best-known breeds are Murrah, Nili/Ravl, Jafarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, and  Nagpuri. Most of the buffaloes of the Indian subcontinent belong to a nondescript  group known as the Desi buffalo. There is no controlled breeding among these  animals and most are quite small, yield little milk, and are variable in color.  </P>
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    235228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    236229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetics</P>
    237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     230
    238231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, the River buffalo, 50. The chromosomal  material is, however, similar in the two types and they crossbreed to produce fertile  hybrid progeny. Cattle, however, have 60 chromosomes and although mating  between cattle and buffaloes is common, hybrids from the union are unlikely to  occur.( In 1965 a reputed hybrid was born at Askaniya Nova Zoopark in the Soviet Union  (see Gray, A., 1971. Mammalian Hybrids, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,  Slough, England, p. 126). Hybrids have also been reported from China (Van  Fu-Czao 1959, Gibridy buivolc i krupnogo  i rogatogo skota(buffalo and  cattlehybrids)Zhivotnovodstro, Mosk., 21:92). Both of these reports seem doubtful  because despite many attempts, no other hybrids have ever been claimed to have  been produced). </P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     232
    240233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual buffaloes show large variation in milk yield, conformation, horn shape,  color, meat production, temperament, growth rate, and other characteristics.  Selection for survival under adverse conditions has occurred naturally (those that  could not stand adversity died early) and farmers have probably tended to select  animals of gentle temperament. But systematic genetic improvement has almost  never been attempted. It seems likely that further selection could quickly improve  their productivity.  </P>
    241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     234
    242235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, the large bulls that would be best for breeding purposes are often  being selected as draft animals and castrated, or sent to slaughter, or (as with  some feral animals in northern Australia and on the Amazon island of Marajo) shot  by hunters. The result is that the buffalo's overall size in countries such as Thailand  and Indonesia has been decreasing as the genes for large size and fast growth are  lost.  </P>
    243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    244237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    245238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations  </P>
    246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     239
    247240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo is still largely an animal of the village, and many of its reported  limitations are caused more by its environment than by the animal itself. Moreover,  much of the animal's genetic potential is obscured by environmental influences. For  example, for many breeds and types the genetic variations in milk yield and growth  cannot be accurately determined because they are overwhelmed by the effects of  inadequate nutrition and management.  </P>
    248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     241
    249242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, some inherent limitations of buffaloes can be identified. For instance,  buffaloes suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours, in direct sunlight. They  have only one-tenth the density of sweat glands of cattle and their coating of hair is  correspondingly sparse, providing little protection from the sun. Accordingly,  buffaloes must not be driven over long distances in the heat of the day. They must  be allowed time for watering and, if possible, for wallowing. Driving under a hot sun  for long hours will cause heat exhaustion and possibly death; losses can be very  high and can occur suddenly. Young calves are particularly affected by heat.  </P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     243
    251244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also sensitive to extreme cold and seem less able than cattle to  adapt to truly cold climates(A rule of thumb is that buffaloes don't do well where the sun is inadequate to ripen,  say, cotton, grapes, or Ace. Kaleff, B., 1942. Der Hausbuffel und seine  Zuchtungsbiologie im Vergleich zum Rind. Zeitschsift Tierzucht Biologze,  51:131-178). Sudden drops in temperature and chill winds may lead  to pneumonia and death.  </P>
    252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     245
    253246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is usually found m areas where there is ready access to a wallow  or shower. This is not a necessity, but when temperatures are high the availability of  water is important for maintaining buffalo health and productivity. It seems clear,  then, that the buffalo is not suitable for arid lands.  </P>
    254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     247
    255248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing buffalo productivity through breed improvement is just now beginning.  Throughout Asia buffalo mating is almost completely haphazard, and so the animal  lacks the quality improvement through breeding that most cattle have had.  Therefore, most buffaloes are of nondescript heritage and genetic potential.  </P>
    256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     249
    257250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On poor quality feed water buffalo grow at least as well as cattle, but under intensive  conditions they probably won't grow as fast as the best breeds of cattle. In feedlots,  therefore, the buffalo is likely to be less productive than improved cattle. Weight  gains of about 1 kg per day have been recorded, some exceptional cattle may gain  at almost twice that rate.  </P>
    258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     251
    259252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has long been considered a poor breeder-slow to mature sexually,  and slow to rebreed after calving. Accumulated experience now shows, however,  that this is mainly a result of poor management and nutrition. Buffaloes are not  sluggish breeders. Nevertheless, their gestation period is about a month longer  than that of cows, buffalo estrus is difficult to detect, and many matings occur~at  night so that~ farmers are likely to encounter more problems breeding buffaloes  than cattle.  </P>
    260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     253
    261254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are gentle creatures, but if roughly or inexpertly handled they can, through fear or pain, become completely unmanageable. Buffalo behavior sometimes differs from that of cattle. For example, most buffaloes are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them; they then instinctively follow. Also, because of their innate attachment to an individual site or herd it is more difficult to move buffaloes to new locations or herds. In addition, buffaloes respect fences less than cattle do and when they have the desire to move they are harder to contain. (Electric fences, however, will stop them.)  </P>
    262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     255
    263256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general good health, buffaloes are probably as susceptible as cattle to most infections. However, the buffalo seems to be peculiarly sensitive to a few cattle diseases and resistant to a few others (see chapter 7). Reactions to some diseases seem to vary with region, environment, and breed, and the differences are not well understood.  </P>
    264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     257
    265258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of the environment is sometimes attributed to buffalo wallowing. This danger seems to have been overstated, except in cases where stocking rates were unreasonably high.(An ongoing study in Northern Australia of environmental degradation widely attributed to buffalo has now shown that the effects are caused by man and climatic changes and only very slightly by buffaloes. (information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.) ) However, buffaloes rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes de-bark the trees, causing them to die.  </P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     259
    267260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, some of the best genetic stocks of water buffaloes exist in areas where certain infections and viral and other diseases sometimes occur. Thus, many countries are reluctant to permit importation of water buffaloes, despite the fact that modern quarantine procedures under conditions of maximum security can essentially eliminate the risk.  </P>
    268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    269262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it must be emphasized that because buffalo research has been largely neglected, most results reported in this and other buffalo writings cover small numbers of animals and short periods of time. Many are merely empirical observations that have not been subjected to independent confirmation.  </P>
    270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    271264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    272265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     266
    274267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1972.Buffalo at the crossroads. World Farming 14(n:l0-l3.</P>
    275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     268
    276269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian and Pacific Council. 1979. Priorities in buffalo research identified.ASPAC News letter No. 43.</P>
    277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     270
    278271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bowman, J. c. 1977. Animals for Man. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.</P>
    279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     272
    280273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Bulletin. Newsletter published by the Buffalo Research Committee of Kasetsart University, Bangkok' Thailand. (In English and Thai.)  </P>
    281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     274
    282275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo World. Newsletter published by the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India.  </P>
    283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     276
    284277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C. 1975. The buffaloes of Thailand-their potential, utilization and conservation. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     278
    286279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C., and Na Phuket, S. R. 1979. The role of swamp buffalo in small farm development and the need for breeding improvement in Southeast Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 125. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     280
    288281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1967. The water buffalo. Scientific American 217:118.  </P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     282
    290283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1974. The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284
    292285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill W. R. 1975. The domestic buffalo. Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession No. 25. Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286
    294287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     288
    296289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1977. The Water Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     290
    298291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1977. The water buffalo: domestic animal of the future. Bovine Practitioner 12:92-98.  </P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     292
    300293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1978. Domestic water buffaloes. In: The Care and Management of Farm Animals, edited by W. N. Scott. Bailliere TindaU, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     294
    302295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1980. The ascendant water buffalo-key domestic animal. World Animal Review 33:2-13.  </P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     296
    304297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1972. Technical and economic constraints on bovine production in three villages in Thailand. Dissertation Abstracts International 33(5):1935.  </P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     298
    306299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1975. Livestock and Poultry Industry in Selected Asian Countries. Report of Survey on Diversification of Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry Production. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     300
    308301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1979. An overview of recent developments in buffalo research and management in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 124. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     302
    310303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo. 1978. Abstract Bibliography on Water Buffalo, 1971-1975. Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines.  </P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     304
    312305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fahimuddin, M. 1975. Domestic Water Buffalo. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India  </P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     306
    314307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources: their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6  1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308
    316309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ford, B. D., and Tulloch, D. G. 1977. The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers. Technical Bulletin No.18. Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.  </P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     310
    318311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gupta, H. C. 1977. Possibilities and realities of developing buffalo's performance, breeding and feeding. Indian Dairyman 29(6):337-346.  </P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     312
    320313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kartha, K. P. R.1965. Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics edited by G. Williamson and W. J. A. Payne. Longman, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
    321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     314
    322315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McKnight, T. L. 1971. Australia's buffalo dilemma. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(4):759-773.  </P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     316
    324317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madamba, J. C., and Eusebio, A. N. 1979. Developments in the strengthening of buffalo research in Asia. Buffalo Bulletin 2(3):7-16.  </P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     318
    326319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mahadevan, P. 1978. Water buffalo research-possible future trends. World Animal Review 25: 2-7.  </P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     320
    328321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oloufa, M. M. 1979. Buffaloes as producers of meat and milk. Egyptian Journal of AnimalProduction 19:1-10. </P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     322
    330323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pant, H. C., and Roy, A. 1972. The water buffalo and its future. In: Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates, edited by R. E McDowell. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
    331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     324
    332325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines.  </P>
    333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     326
    334327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranjhan, S. K., and Pathak, N. N. 1981. Management and Feeding of Buffaloes. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, India  </P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     328
    336329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977a. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
    337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     330
    338331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977b. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Porking Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
    339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     332
    340333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sundaresan, D. 1979. The role of improved buffaloes in rural development. Indian Dairyman 31(2):73-78.  </P>
    341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     334
    342335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: grouping and home range.Australian Wildlife Research 5:327-34.  </P>
    343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336
    344337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wahid, A. 1973. Pakistani buffaloes. World Animal Review 7:22~28. </P>
    345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    348 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     338
     339<B>
    349340<!--
    350341</Section>
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    354345  </Description>
    355346-->
    356 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     347</B>
    357348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo offers promise as a major source of meat, and the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding.  </P>
    358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     349
    359350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes have been used as draft animals for centuries, they have evolved with exceptional muscular development, some weigh 1,000 kg or more. Until recently, however, little thought was given to using them exclusively for meat production. Most buffalo meat was, and still is, derived from old animals slaughtered at the end of their productive life as work or milk animals. As a result, much of the buffalo meat sold is of poor quality. But when buffaloes are properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and palatable.  </P>
    360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     351
    361352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the human population has more than doubled.  </P>
    362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     353
    363354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    364355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carcass Characteristics</P>
    365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     356
    366357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buffalo breeds-even the milking ones-produce heavy animals whose carcass characteristics are similar to those of cattle.  </P>
    367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     358
    368359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavier hide and head, the amount of useful meat (dressing percentage) from buffaloes is almost the same as in cattle. Mediterranean type buffalo and Zebu cattle steers in Brazil yielded dressing percentages of 55.5 and 56.6 percent respectively. Swamp buffalo dressing percentages have been measured in Australia at 53 percent. </P>
    369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     360
    370361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are lean animals. Although a layer of subcutaneous fat covers the carcass, it is usually thinner than that on comparably fed cattle. Even animals that appear to be fat prove to be largely muscle. Australian research on Swamp buffaloes reveals that buffaloes with more than 25 percent fat are difficult to produce, whereas average choice-grade beef carcasses may contain  </P>
    371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     362
    372363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat than beef has.  </P>
    373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     364
    374365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo hide is so thick that it can be sliced into two or three layers before tanning into leather.  </P>
    375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     366
    376367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    377368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat Quality</P>
    378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369
    379370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo meat and beef are basically similar. The muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on chilling (2 percent), moisture (76.6 percent), protein (19 percent), and ash (1 percent) are all about the same in buffalo meat and beef. Buffalo fat, however, is always white and buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because of more pigmentation or less intramuscular fat (2-3 percent "marbling," compared with the 3-4 percent in beef).  </P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    381372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    382373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating Quality</P>
    383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     374
    384375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste-panel tests and tenderness measurements conducted by research teams in a number of countries have shown that the meat of the water buffalo is as acceptable as that of cattle. Buffalo steaks have rated higher than beefsteaks in some taste tests in Australia, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Trinidad.  </P>
    385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     376
    386377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In taste-panel studies in Trinidad, cooked joints from three carcasses Trinidad buffalo, a crossbred steer (Jamaica-Red/Sahiwal), and an imported carcass of a top-grade European beef steer-were served. The 28 diners all had experience in beef production, butchery, or catering and were not told the sources of the various joints. All the carcasses were held in cold storage for one week before cooking. The buffalo meat was rated highest by 14 judges; 7 chose the European beef; 5 thought the crossbred beef the best; and 2 said that the buffalo and crossbred were equal to or better than the European beef. The buffalo meat received most points for color (both meat and fat), taste, and general acceptability. There was little difference noted in texture.( Information supplied by P. N. Wilson.)</P>
    387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378
    388379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo veal is considered a delicacy. Calves are usually slaughtered for veal between 3 and 4 weeks of age; dressed weight is 59-66 percent of live weight.  </P>
    389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    390381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is some evidence that buffaloes may retain meat tenderness to a more advanced age than cattle because the connective tissue hardens at a later age or because the diameter of muscle fibers in the buffalo increases more slowly than in cattle(Joksimonc, 1979) In one test the tenderness (measured by shearing force) of muscle samples from carcasses of buffalo steers 16-30 months old was the same as that from feedlot Angus, Hereford, and Friesian steers 12-18 months old. This gives farmers more flexibility in meeting fluctuating markets while still providing tender meat.  </P>
    391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     382
    392383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    393384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings  </P>
    394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     385
    395386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1976. Livestock Production in Asian Context of Agricultural Diversification. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
    396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     387
    397388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Sanchez, P. C., Ibarra, P. I., Gerpacio, A. L., Castillo, L. S., and Arganosa, V. G. 1973. Evaluation of carabeef as a potential substitute for beef. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2).  </P>
    398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     389
    399390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Arganosa, V. G., and Ibarra, P. I. 1975. Carcass evaluation and utilization of carabeef. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     391
    401392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, S. P. 1973. The "buffalypso"-an evaluation of a beef type of water buffalo in Trinidad, West Indies. Paper presented at the Third World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia.  </P>
    402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    403394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Borghese, A., Gigli, S., Romita, A., Di Giacomo, A., and Mormile, M. 1978. Fatty acid composition of fat in water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28, and 36 weeks of age. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Ghent, October 11-13,1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
    404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     395
    405396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1972. Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 23:905-911.  </P>
    406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    407398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:407-413.  </P>
    408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     399
    409400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1975. Alternative livestock: with particular reference to the wafer buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). In: Meat. Proceedings of the 21st Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, edited by D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie. Butterworth, London, England.  </P>
    410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     401
    411402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12:99-107.  </P>
    412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     403
    413404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Some chemical and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.  </P>
    414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     405
    415406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, E. R., and Charles, D. D. 1975. Comparison of live weight gain and changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bos taurus steers. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:415- 422.  </P>
    416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     407
    417408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J. 1979. Physical, chemical and structural characteristics of buffalo meat. Arhiv za Polloprivredne Nauke 22:110.  </P>
    418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     409
    419410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J., and Ognjanovic, A. 1977. A comparison of carcass yield, carcass composition, and quality characteristics of buffalo meat and beef Meat Science 1:105 -110.  </P>
    420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411
    421412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mai, S. C., and Wu, T. H. 1974. TSC's intensive feed-lot system for cow-calf and beef production program. Taiwan Sugar 21(6):198-211.  </P>
    422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     413
    423414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matassino, D., Romita, A., Cosentino, E., Girolami, A., and Cloatruglio, P. 1978. Myorheological, ohemical, and colour characteristics of meat in water buffalo and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
    424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     415
    425416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mogawer, H. H., El-Ashry, M. A., and Mahmoud, S. A. 1976. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. II. Effect of different roughage concentrate ratios in ration on carcass traits. Journal of Agriculture Research {Tanta University) 2:6-12.  </P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     417
    427418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ognjanovic, A. 1974. Meat and meat production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. </P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     419
    429420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978. Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal Production 14(2) :49 -56.  </P>
    430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     421
    431422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romita, A., Borghese, A., Gigli, S., and Di Giacomo, A. 1978. Growth rate and carcass composition of water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, Held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     423
    433424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, P. N. 1961. Palatability of water buffalo meat. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad 61:457, 459-460. </P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    437 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     425
     426<B>
    438427<!--
    439428</Section>
    … …  
    443432  </Description>
    444433-->
    445 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     434</B>
    446435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 5 percent of the world's milk comes from water buffaloes. Buffalo milk is  used in much the same way as cow's milk. It is high in fat and total solids, which  gives it a rich flavor. Many people prefer it to cow's milk and are willing to pay more  for it. In Egypt, for example, the severe mortality rate among buffalo calves is due in  part to the sale of buffalo milk, which is in high demand, thus depriving calves of  proper nourishment. This also occurs in India, where in the Bombay area alone an  estimated 10,000 newborn calves starve to death each year through lack of milk.  The demand for buffalo milk in India (about 60 percent of the milk consumed; over  80 percent in some states) is reflected in the prices paid for a liter of milk: about  130 paisa for cow's milk compared with about 200 paisa for buffalo milk.  </P>
    447 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436
    448437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twelve of the 18 major breeds of water buffalo are kept primarily for milk production  (although males may be used for traction and all animals are eventually used for  meat). The main milk breeds of India and Pakistan are the Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Surti,  Mehsana, Nagpuri, and Jafarabadi. The buffaloes of Egypt, Eastern Europe  (Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR), and Italy are used for milk  production and there are also herds used principally for this purpose in Iran, Iraq,  and Turkey.  </P>
    449 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    450439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    451440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</P>
    452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     441
    453442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk contains less water, more total solids, more fat, slightly more lactose,  and more protein than cow's milk. It seems thicker than cow's milk because it  generally contains more than 16 percent total solids compared with 12-14 percent  for cow's milk. In addition, its fat content is usually 50-60 percent higher (or more)  than that of cow's milk. Although the butterfat content is usually 6-8 percent,( An analysis of 7,770 records of Nili/Ravi buffaloes in herds at the Pakistan  Research Institute showed that average butterfat content was 6.40 (a mean based  on 10 tests over 10 months). of all the samples tested, 77 percent ranged between  5 and 8 percent butterfat and 12 percent were below 5 percent butterfat.  -information supplied by R. E. McDowell.)  it can  go much higher in the milk of some well fed dairy buffaloes and in the milk of  Swamp buffaloes (which are not normally used for milking). Cow's milk butterfat content is usually between 3 and 5 percent.  </P>
    454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    455444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its high butterfat content, buffalo milk has considerably higher energy value than cow's milk. Phospholipids are lower but cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are higher in buffalo milk. Studies have shown that digestibility is not adversely affected by this. Because of the high fat content, the buffalo's total fat yield per lactation compares favorably with that of improved breeds of dairy cattle; it is much higher than that of indigenous cows.  </P>
    456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    457446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally the protein in buffalo milk contains more casein and slightly more albumin and globulin than cow's milk. Several researchers have claimed that the biological value of buffalo milk protein is higher than that of cow's milk, but this has not yet been proved conclusively.  </P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     447
    459448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p27.png"></center><br>
    460449 Tables 1 and 2</P>
    461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     450
    462451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mineral content of buffalo milk is nearly the same as that of cow's milk except for phosphorus, which occurs in roughly twice the amount in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk tends to be lower in salt.  </P>
    463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     452
    464453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk lacks the yellow pigment carotene, precursor for vitamin A, and its whiteness is frequently used to differentiate it from cow's milk in the market. Despite the absence of carotene, the vitamin A content in buffalo milk is almost as high as that of cow's milk. (Apparently the buffalo converts the carotene in its diet to vitamin A. The two milks are similar in B complex vitamins and vitamin C, but buffalo milk tends to be lower in riboflavin.)  </P>
    465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     454
    466455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    467456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk Products</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     457
    469458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, like cow's milk, can provide a wide variety of products: butter, butter oil (clarified butter or ghee), soft and hard cheeses, condensed or evaporated milks, ice cream,yogurt, and buttermilk. It is of great economic importance in India in preparing "toned" milk-a mixture of buffalo milk and milk made by reconstituting skim milk powder.  </P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     459
    471460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The richness of buffalo milk makes it highly suitable for processing. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow's milk but only 5 kg of buffalo milk. To produce 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow's milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. Because of these high yields, processors appreciate the value of buffalo milk.  </P>
    472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     461
    473462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo cheese is pure white. It many countries it is among the most desirable cheeses (mozzarella and ricotta in Italy, gemir in Iraq, the salty cheeses of Egypt, and pecorino in Bulgaria, for example). In Venezuela all the cheese produced from the small La Guanota milking herd in the Apure River basin (about 100 kg a day) is bought by the Hilton Hotel and sells for 15 bolivars per kg compared with 8 bolivars per kg for cheese made from cow's milk.  </P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     463
    475464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much in demand for making soft cheese, buffalo milk is less desirable for making hard cheeses such as cheddar or gouda. During cheesemaking it produces acid more slowly than cow's milk, retains more water in the curd, and loses more fat in the whey.  </P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     465
    477466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeses are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. Demand is rising at a rate that is among the highest for any food product. Cheese offers particular benefit to areas where refrigeration is not widely available, where transporting high-protein foods to remote areas is difficult, and where seasonal fluctuations affect milk supplies. Buffalo milk may make cheesemaking profitable on an even smaller scale than conventional dairying; it is more concentrated than cow's milk and requires relatively less energy to transport and process (an increasingly important factor where fuels are limited).  </P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     467
    479468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p31.png"></center><br>
    480469 Table 3 Highest Milk Yield (kg per Day) Recorded in the All India Milk Yield</P>
    481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    482471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    483472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yield</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     473
    485474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries like India and Egypt, the milk yield of buffaloes is generally higher  (680-800 kg) than for local cattle (360-500 kg). However, since selection for  exceptional milk production is not conducted systematically, large variations in yield  occur between individual animals, and milk production of dairy buffaloes falls short  of its potential.  </P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     475
    487476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, some outstanding yields have been recorded. On Indian government  farms, average yields for milking buffaloes range from 4 to 7 kg per day in  lactations averaging 285 days. Daily yields of 12 kg have been reported for some  Bulgarian buffalo cows and a daily production of over 20 kg has been reported for  some remarkable animals in India. A peak milk yield of 31.5 kg in a day has been  recorded from a champion Murrah buffalo in the All India Milk Yield Competition  conducted by the Government of India (see Table 3).  </P>
    488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     477
    489478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Caserta, Italy, a herd of 1,600 machine-milked, pedigreed dairy buffaloes has  produced average yields of 1,500 kg during lactations of 270 days. In Pakistan an  analysis of over 6,000 lactations of Nili/Ravi buffalo cows showed an average yield  of 1,925 kg during lactations averaging 282 days(Average adjusted for year and  season and calving. Cady et al., in press.) . In India the average milks yield of  Murrah buffaloes in established herds is also reported to be about  1,800kg(*"Williamson and Payne, 1965.)Table 4 lists some outstanding lactation  yields reported from different parts of the world. </P>
    490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     479
    491480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with cattle, the percentages of fat, protein, and total solids decrease as the milks yield increases.  </P>
    492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     481
    493482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffaloes of Southeast Asia are usually considered poor milk producers. They are used mainly as draft animals, but it may be that their milk potential has been underestimated. In the Philippines Swamp buffalo cows with nursing calves have produced 300-800 kg of milk during lactation periods of 180-300 days(*Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Philippines)In Thailand Swamp buffaloes selected and reared for milk production have yielded 3-5 kg per day during 305-day lactations.(Information supplied by Charan Chantalakhana.)</P>
    494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     483
    495484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
    496485 Table 4 Milk Production of Some Outstading Buffalo Cows and Dairy Herds</P>
    497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     486
    498487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nanning Livestock Research Institute and Farm in Kwangsi Province,which is representative of many others in South China, is upgrading the native  Swamp buffaloes (or Shui Niu) by selective breeding for size and weight and by  crossbreeding with dairy breeds such as the Murrah and Nili/Ravi. The crossbreeds  that are milked yield 4-5 kg daily.(*CockriH, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China.  FAO, Rome.) </P>
    499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     488
    500489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
    501490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Management</P>
    502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     491
    503492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The characteristics of the dairy buffalo so closely approximate those of the dairy cow that successful methods of breeding, husbandry, and feeding for  milks production for the cow can be applied equally to the dairy buffalo. Buffaloes,  however, have not been bred for uniform udders and it is more difficult to milk them  by machine.(Some thousands of buffaloes are machine milked in Bulgaria and Italy, however. At  Ain Shams University in Egypt, buffaloes have adapted to machine milking. The  calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth and no problems of  milk letdown have been observed. -information supplied by M. El Ashry.)Also, some buffaloes have more of a problem with milks letdown than  dairy cows (although not as much of a problem as some native cattle breeds in the  tropics). Frequently, a calf is kept with the cow and is tied to her foreleg at milking  time. In India, Burma, and other countries a dummy calf may be provided; playing  music seems to work, too.  </P>
    504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     493
    505494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    506495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     496
    508497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addeo, F., Mercier, J. C., and Ribadeau-Dumas, B. 1977. The caseins of buffalo  milk. Journal of Dairy Research 44(3):455-468.  </P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     498
    510499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwala, O. P. 1962. Certain factors of reproduction and production in a water  buffalo herd. Indian Joumal of Dairy Science 15(2):45-51.  </P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     500
    512501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albourco, F., Mincione, B., Addeo, F., and Ameno, M. 1969. Buffaloes' milk. II.  Variations in composition during lactation of milk produced without change in  feeding. Industrie Agraria 7(5):210-219.  </P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     502
    514503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Italiana Tecnici del Latter. 1970. Buffaloes' milk and cheese. Scienza  e Tecnica 21(3):175-196.  </P>
    515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     504
    516505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatnagar, V. K., Lohia, K. L., and Monga, O. P. 1961. Effect of the month of  calving on milk yield, lactation length and calving interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian  Journal of Dairy Science 14(3): 102-108.  </P>
    517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     506
    518507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhasin N. R., and Desai, R. N. 1967. Effect of age at first calving and first lactation  yield on life time production in Hariana cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 44:684694.  </P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     508
    520509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cady, R. A., Shah, S. K., Schermerhorn, E. C., and McDowell, R. E. In Press.  Factors affecting performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes in Pakistan. Journal of Dairy  Science.  </P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    522511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Castillo, L. S. 1975. Production, characteristics and processing of buffalo milk. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at  Khon Kahn, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology  Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    524513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dassat, P. M., de Paolis, P., and Sartore, G. 1966. Environmental effects on milks  yield in Italian buffalo.Acta Medica Veterinaria 12(6):587-593.  </P>
    525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    526515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dave, B. K., and Taylor, C. M. 1975. A study on relationship of persistency with other first production traits in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Health 14(1) :77-80.  </P>
    527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    528517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deshmukh, S. N., and Choudhury, P. N. R. 1971. Repeatability estimates of some economic characteristics in Italian buffaloes. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaer-medizen 18:104-107.  </P>
    529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    530519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ganguli, N. C. 1979. Buffalo milk technology. World Animal Review 30:2-10.  </P>
    531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     520
    532521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gomez, I. V. 1977. The manufacture of semihard cheese (Danish type) from carabao milk. Philippine Agriculturalist 61(3/4) :78-86.  </P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     522
    534523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gurnani, M., and Nagarcenkar, R. 1971. Evaluation of breeding performance of buffaloes and estimation of genetic and phenotypic parameters. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     524
    536525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katpatal, B. G. 1977. Dairy cattle crossbreeding in India. I. Growth and development of crossbreeding. World Animal Review 22: 15-21.  </P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    538527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, H. D. 1974. Milk and milk production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    540529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kohli, M. L., and Malik, D. D. 1960. Effect of service period on total milk production and lactation length in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 13(3): 105-111.  </P>
    541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    542531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Irnportancia do Bufalo para a Pecuarfa Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
    543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    544533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raafat, M. A., El-Sayed, Abou-Hussein, Abou-Raya, A. K., and El-Shirbiny A. 1974. Some nutritional studies of colostrum and milk of cows and buffaloes E:gyptian Journal of Animal Production 14(1) :137-148.  </P>
    545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    546535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ragab, M. T., Asker, A. A., and Kamal, T. H. 1958. The effect of age and seasonal calving on the composition of Egyptian buffalo milk. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 11(1):18-28.  </P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    548537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saudi Arabia Standards Institution. 1978. Raw milk. Saudi Arabia Standard 98.  </P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538
    550539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, J., Panthulu, P. C, and Bhimasena, M. 1971. Composition of Surti buffalo milk. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    552541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sekhon, G. S., and Gehlon, M. S. 1966. Repeatability estimates of some economic traits in the Murrah buffalo. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 14:18-22.  </P>
    553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     542
    554543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. B., and Singh, B. P. 1971. Comparative study of lifetime economics of Hariana versus Murrah buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:485-489.  </P>
    555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    556545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, R. P. 1966. A study of production up to ten years of age in buffaloes maintained at military farms. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:986-992.  </P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     546
    558547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. B., and Desai, R. N. 1962. Production character of Bhadawari buffalo cow. Indian Veterinary journal 39:332-343.  </P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     548
    560549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venkayya, D., and Anantakrishnan, C. P. 1957. Influence of age at first calving on the performance of Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 10(1):20-24.  </P>
    561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     550
    562551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London, United Kingdom. </P>
    563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    566 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     552
     553<B>
    567554<!--
    568555</Section>
    … …  
    572559  </Description>
    573560-->
    574 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     561</B>
    575562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is the classic work animal of Asia, an integral part of that  continent's traditional village farming structure. Probably the most adaptable and  versatile of all work animals, it is widely used to plow; level land; plant crops; puddle  rice fields; cultivate field crops; pump water; haul carts, sleds, and shallow-draft  boats; carry people; thresh grain; press sugar cane; haul logs; and much more.  Even today, water buffaloes provide 20-30 percent of the farm power in South  China, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indochina(Figures provided by A. J. de veer. In India water buffaloes contribute much less to  farm power (6-12 percent); bullocks are more commonly used. In Pakistan  buffaloes are little used for farm power (1-2 percent) but provide much of the road  haulage. Papua New Guinea has no tradition of using any work animal, but villagers  are increasingly using buffaloes for farm work and the government is employing  Fillipinos to train them) . Millions of  peasants in the Far East, Middle East, and Near East have a draft buffalo. For them  it is often the only method of farming food crops.  </P>
    576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     563
    577564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As fuel becomes scarce and expensive in these countries, the buffalo is being used  more frequently as a draft animal. ln 1979 water buffalo prices soared in rural  Thailand because of the increased demand.  </P>
    578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     565
    579566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Asian farms have increasingly mechanized in the last 20 years, it has  often proved difficult to persuade the farmer to replace his buffalo with a tractor  since the buffalo produces free fertilizer and does not require diesel fuel. Now there  is renewed official interest in draft power. Sri Lanka has recently opened up large  new tracts of farmland in the Mahawali Valley, creating such a demand for work  animals that buffalo shortages have become a national development problem.  Indonesia's transmigration schemes are also handicapped by shortages of animal  power.  </P>
    580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     567
    581568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many small farmers the buffalo represents capital. It is often the major  investment they have. Buffalo energy increases their productivity and allows them to  diversify. Even small farms have work animals that, like the farmer himself, subsist  off the farm. Tractors usually require at least four hectares for economical operation,  which precludes their use on most peasant farms. Further, the infrastructure to  maintain machinery is often not readily available.  </P>
    582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     569
    583570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also used for hauling. Buffalo-drawn carts carry goods between  villages where road surfaces are unfit for trucks. The animals easily traverse  ravines, streams, paddies, and narrow and rocky trails. In the cities carts can  compete economically with trucks where the road surface is unprepared, where  loading or unloading takes longer than the journey itself, or where the loads are too  small and distances too short to make trucking economical. For road haulage  buffaloes are generally shod: the shoes are flat plates fitted to each hoof.  </P>
    584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     571
    585572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    586573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity for Work</P>
    587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    588575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is a sturdy draft animal Its body structure, especially the  distribution of body weight over the feet and legs, is an important advantage. Its  large boxy hooves allow it to move in the soft mud of rice fields. Moreover, the  buffalo has very flexible pastern and fetlock joints in the lower leg so that it can bend  back its hooves and step over obstacles more easily than cattle. This water-loving  animal is particularly well adapted to paddy farming because its legs withstand  continual wet conditions better than mules or oxen(Australian animal scientists working in Bogor, Indonesia, found that the puddling  effect of buffalo hooves on the soil was critical for rice cultivation in the local soils.  Tractors produced fields so porous that they drained dry. (Information supplied by  A. F. GurnettSmith.) On one research station near Darwin, Australia, buffaloes were  used to prevent water draining from a dam. (Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.). </P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    590577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although buffaloes are preferred by farmers in the wet, often muddy lowlands of  Asia, mules, horses, and cattle move more rapidly and are preferred in the dryer  areas.  </P>
    591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    592579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes do not work quickly. They plod along at about 3 km per hour. In  most parts of Southeast Asia they are worked about 5 hours a day and they may  take 6-10 days to plow, harrow, and grade one hectare of rice field. Their stamina  and drawing power increase with body weight.  </P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     580
    594581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they have difficulty keeping cool in hot, humid weather (see next chapter),  it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off, preferably in a wallow, every 2 hours  or so. Without this their body temperatures may rise to dangerous levels.  </P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     582
    596583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of 3-year-old buffaloes costs about the same as a small tractor in Thailand.  But many farmers raise their own calves and there is no investment beyond labor.  The "fuel" for the animals comes mainly from village pastures and farm wastes such  as crop stubble and sugarcane tops. Buffaloes have an average working life of  about 11 years, but some work to age 20.  </P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     584
    598585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
    599586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harness</P>
    600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     587
    601588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yoke used on working buffalo in Asia has changed very little in the last 1,500 years. It is doubtful that a working buffalo can exert its full power with it. The hard wooden yoke presses on a very small area on top of the animal's neck, producing severe calluses, galls, and obvious discomfort. The harness tends to choke the animal as the straps under the neck tighten into the windpipe. Since the traditional hitch is usually higher than the buffalo's low center of gravity, the animal cannot pull efficiently. Considerably more pulling power and endurance can be obtained by improving the harness. The situation is not unlike that in Western agriculture in the twelfth century when the horse collar-one of the most important inventions of the Middle Ages first appeared. Before that, horses were yoked like buffalo and the harness passed across their windpipes and choked them as they pulled. Use of the horse collar improved pulling efficiency and speeded the development of transportation and trade.  </P>
    602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    603590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The curved yoke now universally used on water buffalo contacts an area of the neck that is only about 200 cm2 (little more than half the size of this page). The entire load is pulled on this small area and causes the wood to dig into the flesh.  </P>
    604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     591
    605592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A horse collar is a padded leather device that encircles the animal's neck. One modified in Thailand for use on water buffalo (see page 43) had a contact area of 650 cm2, more than three times that of the yoke it replaced. The collar's padding pressed against the animal's shoulders, not its neck, and  therefore did not choke it. Attached to the collar were wooden hames with the traces for hitching the animal to a wagon or plow. In trials a buffalo pulled loads 24 percent heavier with the collar than with the yoke, and the horsepower it developed increased by 48 percent(These trials were conducted by J. K. Garner in Thailand in 1958. In the maximum-load test the yoked buffalo failed to move a load of 570 kg, but it moved a load of 640 kg when fitted with the horse collar. In an endurance test the yoked animal took 35 minutes to pull a load 550 m, but harnessed with the collar it took only 21 minutes). </P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     593
    607594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another potentially valuable harness is the breast strap, a set of broad leather straps that pass over the animal's neck and back. One breast strap modified for water buffalo use had a contact area of 620 cm2, almost as much as that of the horse collar, and in trials the buffalo pulled a load 12 percent heavier than with a yoke and the horsepower it developed increased by almost 70 percent( The same animal used in the horse collar trials pulled 700 kg with the breast strap, in the endurance test it took 18.5 minutes to travel the 550-m distance). </P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     595
    609596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These seem very good innovations. In the humid tropics, however, leather collars and breast straps may decay rapidly. To make them widely practical may require experimentation with, or development of, special leather treatments or more durable materials.  </P>
    610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     597
    611598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    612599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600
    614601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. The working buffalo. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domes tic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    616603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    618605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. The water buffalo-Asia's beast of burden and key to progress. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     606
    620607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garner, J. K. 1958 (Reprint 1980) Increasing the Work Efficiency of the Water Buffalo Through Use of Improved Harness. (Copies available from Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523)  </P>
    621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     608
    622609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kamal, T. H., Shehata, O., and Elbanna, I. M. 1972. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.  </P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     610
    624611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Working Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2, Center for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.  </P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     612
    626613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaugh, M. 1945. Report on a detailed study of methods of yoking bullocks for agricultural work. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 15:186-198.  </P>
    627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     614
    628615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ward, G. M., Sutherland, T. M., and Sutherland, J. M. 1980. Animals as an energy source in Third World agriculture. Science 208:570. </P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    632 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     616
     617<B>
    633618<!--
    634619</Section>
    … …  
    638623  </Description>
    639624-->
    640 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     625</B>
    641626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Tolerance</P>
    642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     627
    643628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the buffalo is remarkably versatile, it has less physiological adaptation to extremes of heat and cold than the various breeds of cattle. Body temperatures of buffaloes are actually lower than those of cattle, but buffalo skin is usually black and heat absorbent and only sparsely protected by hair. Also, buffalo skin has one-sixth the density of sweat glands that cattle skin has, so buffaloes dissipate heat poorly by sweating. If worked or  driven excessively in the hot sun, a buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and general discomfort increase more quickly than those of cattle(Failure to appreciate this has caused many buffalo deaths in northern Australia when the animals were herded long distances through the heat of the day as if they were cattle).. This is particularly true of young calves and pregnant females. During one trial in Egypt 2 hours' exposure to sun caused temperatures of buffalo to rise 1.3°C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose only 0.2-0.3°C.  </P>
    644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    645630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes prefer to cool off in a wallow rather than seek shade. They may wallow for up to 5 hours a day when temperatures and humidity are high. Immersed in water or mud, chewing with half-closed eyes, buffaloes are a picture of bliss.  </P>
    646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    647632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shade or in a wallow buffaloes cool off quickly, perhaps because a black skin rich in blood vessels conducts and radiates heat efficiently (Tests at the University of Florida have shown that buffaloes in the shade cool off more quickly than cattle. -Robey, 1976).  Nonetheless, wallowing is not essential. Experience in Australia, Trinidad, Florida, Malaysia, and elsewhere has shown that buffaloes grow normally without wallowing as long as adequate shade is available.  </P>
    648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    649634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    650635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Tolerance</P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     636
    652637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally associated with the humid tropics, buffaloes, as already noted, have been reared for centuries in temperate countries such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and in the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics of the USSR. In 1807 Napoleon brought Italian buffaloes to the Landes region of southwest France and released them near Mont-deMarsan. They became feral and multiplied prodigiously in the woods and dunes of the littoral, but unfortunately the local peasants found them easy targets, and with the fall of Napoleon the whole herd was killed for meat(In the twelfth century Benedictine monks introduced buffaloes from their possessions in the Orient to work the lands of their abbey at Auge in northeastern France. In the thirteenth century a herd was introduced to England by the Earl of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III. Nothing is known about how well either herd survived). Buffaloes are also maintained on the high, snowy plateaus of Turkey as well as in Afghanistan and the northern mountains of Pakistan.  </P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     638
    654639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has greater tolerance of cold weather than is commonly supposed. The current range of the buffalo extends as far north as 45° latitude in Romania and the sizable herds in Italy and the Soviet Union range over 40° N latitude(Philadelphia and Peking are at comparable latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere the 40° line of latitude easily encompasses Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, and most of New Zealand's North Island).  Cold winds and rapid drops in temperatures, however, appear to have caused illness, pneumonia, and sometimes death. Most of the animals in Europe are of the Mediterranean breed, but other River-type buffaloes (mainly Murrahs from India) have been introduced to Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, which indicates that River breeds, at least, have some cold tolerance.  </P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     640
    656641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    657642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Altitude</P>
    658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     643
    659644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are generally reared at low elevations, a herd of Swamp buffaloes is thriving at Kandep in Papua New Guinea, 2,500 m above sea level. And in Nepal, River buffaloes are routinely found at or above 2,800 m altitude.  </P>
    660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    661646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    662647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetlands</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     648
    664649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are well adapted to swamps and to areas subject to flooding. They are at home in the marshes of southern Iraq and of the Amazon, the tidal plains near Darwin, Australia, the Pontine Marshes in south-central Italy, the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela, and other areas.  </P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     650
    666651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Amazon, buffaloes (Mediterranean and Swamp breeds) are demonstrating their exceptional adaptability to flood areas. Buffalo productivity outstrips that of cattle, with males reaching 400 kg in 30 months on a diet of native grasses( Information supplied by C. Nascimento). </P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     652
    668653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of water buffaloes over Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Criollo cattle was demonstrated in a test at Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, when the cattle developed serious foot rot In the wet conditions of the Orinoco Delta and had to be withdrawn from the test. The area of Venezuela is flooded 6 months of the year and creates constant problems for cattle, yet the buffalo seems to adapt well(*Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     654
    670655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High humidities seem to affect buffaloes less than cattle. In fact, if shade or wallows are available, buffaloes may be superior to cattle in humid areas.</P>
    671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     656
    672657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Brazil, trials comparing buffalo and cattle on subtropical riverine plains have favored the buffalo also. This work is being carried out on native pastures, mostly in  the State of Sao Paulo.  </P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     658
    674659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    675660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     661
    677662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, E. S. E., Badreldin, A. L., and Shafei,M. M. 1955. Skin structure of Egyptian buffaloes and cattle with particular reference to sweat glands. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 46:19-30.  </P>
    678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     663
    679664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katyega, P. M. J., Masoud, A. J., and Kobo, E. 1980. Information on body and carcass characteristics of Egyptian water buffalo and Mpwapwa x Friesian steers raised in central Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Bulletin 2:86-90.  </P>
    680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     665
    681666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I. L. 1974. Environmental physiology. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     667
    683668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24(5) :775 -782.  </P>
    684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     669
    685670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nair, P. G., and Benjamin, B. R. 1963. Studies on sweat glands in the Indian water buffalo. 1. Standardization of techniques and preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 33:102.  </P>
    686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     671
    687672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969a. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. I. Seasonal changes in the water and electrolyte status of buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:367.  </P>
    688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     673
    689674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969b. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. II. Seasonal changes in the body temperature, cardio-respiratory and hematological attributes in buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:378.  </P>
    690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     675
    691676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prusty, J. N. 1973. Role of the sweat glands in heat regulation in the Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Health 12(1):33-37.  </P>
    692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     677
    693678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robey, C. A., Jr. 1976. Physiological Responses of Water Buffalo to the Florida Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
    694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    697 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     679
     680<B>
    698681<!--
    699682</Section>
    … …  
    703686  </Description>
    704687-->
    705 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     688</B>
    706689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most buffaloes are located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures  are limited. Livestock must feed on poor-quality forages, sometimes supplemented with  a little green fodder or byproducts from food, grain, and oil seed processing. Usually  feedstuffs are in such short supply that few animals have a balanced diet, but the buffalo  seems to perform fairly well under such adverse conditions.  </P>
    707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     690
    708691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    709692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth Rate</P>
    710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    711694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insufficient measurements have been taken to allow unequivocal state. meets about the  relative growth rates of cattle and buffaloes. However, many observations made in  various parts of the world indicate that the buffalo's growth is seldom inferior to that of  cattle breeds found in the same environments. Some observations are given below.  </P>
    712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    713696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Trials in Trinidad in the early 1960s involved buffaloes grazing pangola grass (Digitaria  decumbens) together with Brahman and Jamaican Red cattle. Over a period of 20  months the buffaloes gained an average of 0.72 kg per day, whereas the cattle on a  comparable nearby pasture gained 0.63 per day(Experiments performed by P. N. Wilson. -Information supplied by S. P. Bennett.).  </P>
    714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     697
    715698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela unselected Criollo/Zebu crossbred cattle gained  0-0.2 kg per day on Paspalum fasciculatum, whereas the water buffaloes with them  gained 0.25-0.4 kg per day(Cunha  et al., 1975).  </P>
    716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     699
    717700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Apure Valley of Venezuela, 100 buffalo steers studied in 1979 reached an  average weight of 508 kg in 30 months, whereas the 30-month old Zebu steers tested  with them weighed 320 kg. The feed consumed was a blend of native grasses (25  percent of the diet) and improved grasses (such as pangola, pare, and guinea grass)( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). In  the same valley 200 buffalo heifers (air freighted from Australia) produced weight gains  averaging 0.5 kg per day over a 2-year period (and 72 percent of them calved). Government statistics for the area record average weight gains in crossbreeds between Zebu and Criollo cattle as 0.28 kg per day (with 40 percent calving).  </P>
    718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     701
    719702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Philippines, buffaloes showed weight gains of 0.75-1.25 kg per day, the same as those of cattle. </P>
    720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     703
    721704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Daily weight gains of over 1 kg have been recorded for buffaloes in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  </P>
    722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     705
    723706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.80 kg per day have been recorded for buffaloes in Papua New Guinea. In a very humid, swampy area of the Sepik River coastal plains liveweight gains by males averaged 0.47 kg per day and females 0.43 kg per day for more than a year. The average weight of 30 4-year-old female buffaloes was 375 kg, while the average weight of 4-year-old female Brahman/ Shorthorn crossbred cattle was 320 kg.  </P>
    724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     707
    725708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At the research station near Belem in the Brazilian Amazon weaned Murrah buffaloes, pastured continuously on Echinochloa pyramidalis (a nutritious grass), gained 0.8 kg daily and reached 450 kg in about 18 months. </P>
    726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     709
    727710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.74-l.i kg per day have been obtained in Australia. Buffalo steers grew as fast or faster than crossbred Brahman cattle on several improved pastures near Darwin, but on one very poor pasture, 40-year-old buffaloes each weighed only 400 kg, whereas the Brahman crossbred steers reared with them weighed 500 kg. The reason for this is not clear.  </P>
    728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     711
    729712<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    730713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency of Digestion</P>
    731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     714
    732715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian animal nutritionists have investigated water buffaloes intensively over the past two decades. Many have reported that buffaloes digest feeds more efficiently than do cattle, particularly when feeds are of poor quality and are high in cellulose.One trial revealed that the digestibility of wheat straw cellulose was 24.3 percent for cattle and 30.7 percent for buffalo. The figures for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) cellulose were 34.6 percent for cattle and 52.2 percent for buffalo. In another trial the digestion of straw fiber was 64.7 percent in cattle, 79.8 percent in buffalo.</P>
    733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     716
    734717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other nutrients reported to be more highly digested in buffaloes than in cattle (Zebu) are crude fat, calcium and phosphorus, and nonprotein nitrogen.  </P>
    735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    736719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent experiments in India suggest that buffaloes also are able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently than cattle. Buffaloes digested less crude protein than cattle in one trial but increased their body nitrogen more (and they were being fed only 40 percent of the recommended daily intake of crude protein).  </P>
    737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    738721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of buffaloes to digest fiber efficiently may be partly due to the microorganisms in their rumen. Several Indian research teams have published data indicating that the microbes in the buffalo rumen convert feed into energy more efficiently than do those in cattle (as measured by the rate of production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen).  </P>
    739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    740723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, in laboratory studies samples of buffalo rumen contents produced volatile fatty acids more quickly from a variety of animal feedstuffs than did samples from the rumen of cattle  </P>
    741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    742725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No single reason alone explains the buffalo's success in using poor quality forages. Rather, it is a combination of reasons that differ with the breed and conditions used. Studies by other researchers suggest that additional causes might include:  </P>
    743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    744727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Higher dry matter intake; </P>
    745728<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Longer retention of feed in digestive tract;  </P>
    … …  
    748731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Superior ability to handle stressful environment; and  </P>
    749732<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A wider range of grazing preferences.  </P>
    750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     733
    751734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    752735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calf Growth Rates</P>
    753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    754737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the buffalo's gestation period is more than a month longer than that of cattle, the calves are born weighing 35-40 kg, or about the same as that of a newborn Holstein calf. But because buffalo milk has about twice the butterfat of cow's milk, the calves grow very quickly. They also suffer more shock at weaning and have to be slowly changed to their new feeding program. Buffaloes can be marketed as full-grown animals for beef at the age of 2-3 years, sometimes even earlier.  </P>
    755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    756739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p59.png"></center><br>
    757740 Table 5 Some Coarse Grasses and Forages Palatable to Buffaloes but Less Readily</P>
    758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     741
    759742<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Indonesia it has been found that buffalo steers can be marketed 6 months before Zebu steers because they may be 100 kg heavier. In Egypt some buffalo calves given feed supplemented with concentrates weighed 360 kg at 1 year of age. At Ain Shams University near Cairo, buffalo calves weaned at 7-14 days of age gained 0.7 kg per day from weaning to slaughter at 18 months of age and weighed 400 kg. Rice straw comprised 50 percent of the finishing diet.  </P>
    760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     743
    761744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes on Italian farms have reached 350 kg in 15-18 months and some year-old calves weighed 320 kg. </P>
    762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     745
    763746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grazing trials on native pasture (with mineral supplementation) in the Brazilian Amazon indicate that buffalo calves grew faster than cattle. At 2 years of age Mediterranean-type buffaloes averaged 369 kg, Swamp type, 322 kg, and Jafarabadi type, 308 kg. The Zebu cattle tested with them averaged 265 kg and the crossbred Zebu/Charolais, 282 kg. </P>
    764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     747
    765748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    766749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed Preferences</P>
    767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     750
    768751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes graze a wider range of plants than cattle. During floods near Manaus in the  Brazilian Amazon when cattle become marooned on small patches of high ground,  many suffer from foot rot and many starve to death. Their buffalo companions on the  other hand-bodies sleek and full-swim out to islands of floating aquatic plants and eat  them, treading water. Also, they dive almost 2 m to graze beneath the floodwaters. </P>
    769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752
    770753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Florida buffaloes in a lakefront voluntarily consumed vines, sedges, rushes, floating aquatic weeds, and the leaves and shoots of willows and other  trees along the water's edge. Few of these plants are voluntarily grazed by cattle. In  northern Australia water buffaloes graze the very pickily leaves of pandanus; they also  graze sedges, reeds, floating grass, and aquatic weeds. Hungry buffaloes will eat bark,  twigs, and other unpalatable vegetation.  </P>
    771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    772755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the variety of their tastes they have been used in northern Queensland,  Australia, to clear pastures of woody weeds left untouched by cattle. In some countries  cattle are used to graze the palatable tops of pasture plants and are followed by  buffaloes to graze the less desirable lower parts.  </P>
    773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    774757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    775758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings </P>
    776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     759
    777760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afifi, Y. A., El-Koussy, H. A., El-Khishen, S. S., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Production of  meat from Egyptian buffaloes. I. The effect of using different sources of roughages on  rate of gain, gross and net efficiency during the growth and finishing periods. Egyptian  Journal of Animal Production 17(2).  </P>
    778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     761
    779762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. c., Dryden, G., and Kondos, A. C. 1976. A comparison of the digestive  efficiency of the water buffalo and the Brahman and Banteng cattle. Proceedings of the  Australian Society of Animal Production 11.  </P>
    780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     763
    781764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatia, L S. 1967. The Study of Factors Affecting the Utilization of Low Grade  Roughages and Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in the Rumen of Indian Cattle. Punjab  Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.  </P>
    782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     765
    783766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chalmers, M. 1.1974. Nutrition. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo  edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome,  Italy.  </P>
    784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     767
    785768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of  buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of  Agricultural Research 26:407-413.  </P>
    786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     769
    787770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaturvedi, M. L, Singh, u. B., and Ranjhan, 5. K 1973. Comparative studies on the  efficiency of feed unitization in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science  43(12):1034.  </P>
    788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     771
    789772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chutikul, K. 1975. Ruminant (Buffalo) nutrition. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kacn, Thailand, March 31April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     773
    791774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, E., Alvarez, F., Larez, O., and Bryan, W. B. 1975. Pasture and Livestock Investigations in the Humid Tropics: Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. 4. Beef Cattle and Water Buffalo Grazing Trials with Native and Introduced Grasses. IRI Research Institute, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
    792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     775
    793776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davendra, C. 1979. The potential value of grasses and crop by-products for feeding buffaloes in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 126. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     777
    795778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. A summary of research into buffalo feeding in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     779
    797780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunkel, R. 1981. Animal production using nutrient-deficient fodders in the tropics and subtropics. Animal Research and Development 13:32-39.  </P>
    798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     781
    799782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. I. Effect of roughage: concentrate ratio in ration for rate of gain and feed efficiency of native cattle, Friesian and buffalo calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12(2) :99 -107.  </P>
    800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     783
    801784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grant, R. J., Van Soest, P. J., McDowell, R. E., and Perez, C. B. 1974. Intake, digestibility and metabolic loss of Napier grass by cattle and buffaloes when fed wilted, chopped and whole. Journal of Animal Science 39(2):423.  </P>
    802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     785
    803786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibrovic, M., Cvetkovic, A., Smrcek, A., and Janevski, K. 1972. A contribution to the knowledge of metabolism of carotene and seasonal dynamics of vitamin A in the buffalo. Veterinaria 21(4) :511.  </P>
    804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     787
    805788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., Sidhu, G. S., and Moxin, A. L. 1962. Cellulose digestion in water buffaloes and Zebu cattle. Journal of Animal Science 21:1001.  </P>
    806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     789
    807790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1966. Effect of urea on the voluntary intake of wheat skew in Zebu cattle and the buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:880-886.  </P>
    808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     791
    809792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1969. Biochemical processes in the rumen. 111. Effect of different carbobydrates on in vitro digestion of cellulose and utilization of urea nikogen by rumen micro-organisms from zebu and buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39 :27-32.  </P>
    810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     793
    811794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971a. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. Vl. In vivo digestion of cellulose in buffalo and cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:267-271.  </P>
    812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     795
    813796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971b. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. VII. In vitro digestion of cellulose in cattle and buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:583-586.  </P>
    814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     797
    815798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1972. Studies on the biochemical processes in the rumen. VIIL The significance of molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids in the rumen on the growth rate of buffalo and Zebu. Indian Veterinary Journal 49:995-1000.  </P>
    816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     799
    817800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Gill, R. S., Makkar, G. S., and Ranjan, S. K. 1977. Work done on buffalo nutrition in India-a review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(3): 173-191.  </P>
    818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     801
    819802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Langar, P. N., Sidhu, G. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1969. Utilization of nitrogen and production of volatile fatty acids in the rumina of buffalo (Bos bubalis) and zebu (Bos indicus) at different time intervals, under a feeding regimen deficient in carbohydrates. Indian Veterinary Journal 46:593-598.  </P>
    820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     803
    821804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1975. Effect of level and source of dietary nitrogen on water metabolism in cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 28:107109.  </P>
    822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     805
    823806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1980. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization by Zebu cows and buffaloes. I. Nutrient utilization and nitrogen balances on preformed protein diets. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 57:83-90. </P>
    824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     807
    825808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1964. The fractionation of carbohydrates in Indian feedstuffs and the digestion of different fractions in the rumina of cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 1:56-66.  </P>
    826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     809
    827810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Misra, R. K., and Ranhoka, G. S. 1969. Influence of energy levels on the utilization of peanut protein-urea nikogen by cattle and buffalo. Journal of Animal Science 28: 107-109.  </P>
    828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     811
    829812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mullick, D. N. 1964. Review of the investigations on the physiology of Indian buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Saience 17:45-50.  </P>
    830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     813
    831814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Naga, M. A., El-Shazly, K., Deif, H. I., Abaza, M. A., and El-Faham, R. H. 1975. Relationship between nitrogen balance, digested nitrogen and dry matter digestibility in ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 40(2):366-373.  </P>
    832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     815
    833816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nangia, O. P., Aggarwal, V. K., and Singh, A. 1972. Studies on the utilization of dietary protein in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Joumal of Dairy &amp;ience 25: 1-5.  </P>
    834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     817
    835818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Importdneia do Bufaio para a Pecubria Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
    836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     819
    837820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., and Velga, J. B. 1973. Weight gains in stabled buffaloes of the Mediterranean breed. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto de Pesqutsas e Experimentacao Agropecuarias do Norte 58:24-72.  </P>
    838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     821
    839822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponnappa, G. G., Nooruddin, M. D., and Raghavan, G. V. 1971. Rate of the passage of food and its relation to digestibility of nutrients in Murrah buffaloes and Hariana cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science 41:1026-1030.  </P>
    840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     823
    841824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punj, M. L., Kochar, A. S., Bhatia, I. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1968. In vitro studies on the cellulolytic activity and production of volatile fatty acids by the inocula obtained from the rumen of Zebu cattle and Murrah buffalo on different feeding regimens. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 38 :325-332.  </P>
    842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     825
    843826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raghavan, G. V., Kakkar, B., Rao, M. V. N., and Mullick, D. N. 1963. Effects of air temperature and humidity on the metabolism of food nutrients in cattle and buffalo bulls. Annals of Biochemistry and Experimental Medicine 23 :23-28.  </P>
    844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     827
    845828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ray, S. N., and Mudgal, V. D. 1962. Rumen metabolism studies in cattle and buffalo. Proceedings of the 16th International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. A:105-l11.  </P>
    846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     829
    847830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, L., Johri, P. N., and Kehar, N. D. 1955. Effect of feeding alkali and water-treated cereal straws on milk yield. Indfan Journal of Veterinary Science 25:201-212.  </P>
    848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     831
    849832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saini, B. S., and Ray, S. N. 1964. Comparative utilization of coarse fodders in cattle and buffalo. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
    850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     833
    851834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schottler, J. H., Boromana, A., and Williams, W. T. 1977. Comparative performance of cattle and buffalo on the Sepik Plains, Papua New Guinea.AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 17(87) :550 -554. </P>
    852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     835
    853836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, L., Mudgal, V. D., and Nair, P. G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Joumal of Animal Science 30:253256.  </P>
    854 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     837
    855838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, C. B., and Mugdal, V. D. 1966. Studies on the lignin and cellulose contents of fedder crops and effect of lignification of cellulose digestion. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 19:100.  </P>
    856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     839
    857840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sidbu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Makkar, G. S. 1967. Effect of supplementing Bajra stalks with lucerne and concentrates and their part replacement by urea on the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 4:104-110.  </P>
    858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     841
    859842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. K., and Mudgal, V. D. 1967. The comparative utilization of feed nutrients from lucerne hay in buffalo and crossbred zebu heifers. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 20: 142-145.  </P>
    860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     843
    861844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tandon, R. N.' Sharma, D. D., and Mugdal, V. D. 1972. Effect of feeding urea with different levels of energy on the biochemical changes in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 42: 174-179  </P>
    862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     845
    863846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upadhyaya, R. S., Singh, U. B., and Ranjhan, S. K. 19i3. Digestibilit of nutrients and VFA concentation in zebu cattle and buffalo calves fed on green cowpea and maize. Indian Journal of Animal Science 43 :5 83-s 88.  </P>
    864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     847
    865848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Sidhu, G. S., and Kochar, A. S. 1968. Effect of frequency on the production of VFA in the rumen by zebu cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 5(3) :1 -6.  </P>
    866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     849
    867850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Singh, N., Sidhu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1970. The in vitro cellulose digestion and VFA production from some of the common Indian feeds using rumen inocula from Zebu cattle and buffalo. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 23:155 -160. </P>
    868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    871 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     851
     852<B>
    872853<!--
    873854</Section>
    … …  
    877858  </Description>
    878859-->
    879 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     860</B>
    880861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other domestic livestock, the water buffalo generally is a healthy animal. This is particularly impressive because most of them live in hot, humid regions that are conducive to disease, and the buffalo is a bovine susceptible to most diseases and parasites that afflict cattle. Although the reasons are not specifically known, the effect of disease on the buffalo and its productivity is often less deleterious than on cattle.  </P>
    881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     862
    882863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antibiotics and vaccines developed for cattle work equally well on buffaloes. As a result, treatments are available for most of the serious diseases of buffaloes, although some are not very effective for either animal.  </P>
    883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     864
    884865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest buffalo losses are often among calves. Newborn buffalo calves, like bovine calves, can succumb in large numbers to viruses, bacteria, and poor nutrition. This is largely due to poor management during the calf's frst 2 months of life. For example, as noted previously, villagers in some countries often sell the valuable buffalo milk, thus depriving the calves.  </P>
    885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     866
    886867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo calf losses are often similar to those of the cattle around them, but the animal's proclivity for wallowing exposes calves to waterborne diseases. Further, a young one occasionally drowns when an adult rolls on top of it.  </P>
    887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     868
    888869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reactions to some specific diseases and parasites are discussed below.  </P>
    889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     870
    890871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pasteurellosis- Probably the water buffalo's most serious disease, pasteurellosis, or hemorrhagic septicemia, is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (P. septica). Buffaloes are more susceptible to it than cattle and die in large numbers where pasteurellosis occurs. A vaccine against pasteurellosis is effective in protecting both buffaloes and cattle; it is cheap and easily made.  </P>
    891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     872
    892873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis- Despite some claims to the contrary, the water buffalo is susceptible to the bovine strain of tuberculosis (Alycobacterium bovis). Scattered reports from different parts of India indicate no difference in the incidence of infection between cattle and buffaloes(Information supplied by S. K. Misra, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India).  Other strains of mycobacteria have been isolated from feral buffaloes and cattle in northern Australia but seem to have little effect on the animals. Tuberculosis occurs among the buffalo herds of the world only because most are kept under unsanitary conditions(In 1905 buffaloes were introduced to Trinidad because the cattle herds (Zebu and srahman breeds) were infected with tuberculosis and, in those days, it was thought that buffaloes were resistant to the disease. Most were housed in muddy, ill-kept pens and forced to eat sugarcane tops off the ground; consequently, in 1949 over 30 percent of the buffaloes reacted to the tuberculin test. (The cattle herds had 80 percent reactors.) Tuberculosis was eliminated in Trinidad's buffaloes by improving the sanitary conditions: installing concrete floors and mangers and cleaning the pens regularly. This, together with regular tuberculin testing and removal of reactors, led to such a dramatic improvement that buffalo tuberculosis is now virtually unknown. -Information supplied by S. K. Bennett.) </P>
    893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     874
    894875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brucellosis-Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible to brucellosis. Although seldom reported as a problem elsewhere, brucellosis in Venezuela is increasing more rapidly among buffaloes than among cattle. In India the disease is no more prevalent among buffaloes than among cattle.  As many as 57 percent of some Venezuelan herds are infected with the disease. It is a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. Serologic procedures and measures developed for the control of the disease in cattle are also effective means of curbing this infection in buffaloes. (Consumption of raw milk or contact with aborted fetuses may cause undulant fever in humans.)  </P>
    895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     876
    896877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mastitis- Among milking buffaloes mastitis is a problem as it is in dairy cows, but to a lesser extent. It is likely to increase, however, as the milk production per individual buffalo is increased. The bacteria that cause mastitis in the buffalo are similar to those in cattle. Treatment and control programs used for cattle are equally effective for buffaloes.  </P>
    897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     878
    898879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Diseases -Among the epizootic diseases, rinderpest and piroplasmosis seem to affect buffaloes as much as cattle. Foot-and-mouth disease also affects buffaloes, but to a lesser degree than cattle, producing smaller lesions and having a lower incidence. In northern Australia buffaloes deliberately infected with bovine pleuropneumonia bacteria exhibited slight fever, but the disease never appeared. No naturally occurring eases have been reported in buffaloes. </P>
    899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     880
    900881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ticks -Buffaloes are notably resistant, although not immune, to ticks. In a tick-infested area of northern Australia only 2 engorged female ticks were found on 13 adult buffaloes during a 2-year test. Accordingly, healthy buffaloes are not commonly affected by diseases borne by ticks nor are the hides damaged by their bites. Since ticks are rarely found on buffaloes, anaplasmosis, theileriasis, and babesiosis, which are tick-borne, have little effect on buffaloes in the field. (Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible, however, if inoculated with East Coast fever, a form of theileriasis.) This is important because tick infestations in cattle are particularly troublesome in the tropics and the pesticides used to control them are becoming ineffective as the ticks develop resistance. The pesticides are also becoming expensive.  </P>
    901 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     882
    902883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis of the buffalo's tick resistance is not known, but wallowing and rubbing may play a role in it; animals kept in experimental concrete pens in Australia have developed heavy tick infestation. (rials carried out on Magnetic Island by R. H. V/harton, Commonwealth Scientiflc and Industrial Research Organisation, Townsville, Queensland, Australia). </P>
    903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     884
    904885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68to69.png"></center><br>
    905886 Table 6 Some Infections and Parasites of Buffalo</P>
    906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     887
    907888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screwworm- Larvae of the screwworm fly (Callitroge species), a major pest of livestock in Central and South America and some other tropical areas, do not affect adult water buffalo. In Venezuelan areas where cattle (Zebu type) are severely infested, adult water buffaloes are virtually free of screwworm larvae and the umbilicus of newborn calves seldom if ever becomes infected. ( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
    908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     889
    909890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same is true in Papua New Guinea. It is thought that the mud plaster produced by wallowing suffocates the larvae, but in India screwworms do not affect water buffaloes either, and there they wallow in fairly clear water and the farmer usually washes them off. </P>
    910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     891
    911892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundworm- The heavy losses of young buffalo calves throughout the world are caused, in large measure, by the roundworm Toxocara vitulorum. The calves seem more susceptible than mature animals and they become infected before birth or within 24 hours after birth through the mother's colostrum. The roundworm is the most serious buffalo parasite and in untreated calves the small intestine can get packed with worms to the point of complete occlusion. Although huge numbers of calves die each year, anthelmintic drugs that control roundworms are highly effective and widely available.  </P>
    912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     893
    913894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adult water buffalo appears to have a high degree of resistance to strongyloid nematodes. Being such excellent converters of rough fodders they do not suffer the nutritional deficiency and the resulting liability to these roundworms experienced seasonally by cattle.  </P>
    914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     895
    915896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver Fluke- During wallowing, water buffaloes can easily become infected with the waterborne infective stages of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica). Although the number of flukes in a buffalo may be phenomenally high, no clinical signs of the disease are usually evident. It seems likely that the resulting liver damage reduces the growth and the work and milk production of buffaloes more than is generally appreciated.  </P>
    916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     897
    917898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trypanosomiasis- The water buffalo is susceptible to trypanosomiasis and is reportedly more susceptible than cattle to Trypanosoma evansi.Experience with the animal in Africa is limited, but trypanosomiasis may be the reason why Egypt is the only African country that has traditionally employed water buffalo.  </P>
    918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     899
    919900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Parasites- The wallow and its resulting mud cake seem to protect water buffalo from many biting flies, but the main ectoparasite in Australia and Southeast Asia is the buffalo fly (Siphona spp.). Pediculosis, caused by the sucking louse (Hematopinus tuberculatus), occurs widely among buffalo, and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. bubalus) is a serious disease, especially among calves and during dry seasons when wallowing opportunities are restricted. The lung worm Dictyocaulus ririparus thrives in warm, humid areas and sometimes infects buffaloes heavily, although its outward manifestations are rare.  </P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     901
    921902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    922903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     904
    924905<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barlow, J. N. 1977. Toxicology and safety evaluation of Phosvel to Egyptian water buffalo. Pages 517-522 in: Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, edited by D. L. Watson and A. W. A. Brown. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
    925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     906
    926907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on the pathology of chronic lesions in the mammary glands of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). 1. Actinomycosis, nocardiosis and lesions simulating tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 54(5):342-346.  </P>
    927 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     908
    928909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., Singh, S. P., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on chronic mastisis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). lndian Journal of Animal Health 16(2) :157-160.  </P>
    929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     910
    930911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Aspects of disease. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     912
    932913<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dhar, S., Bhattacharyulu, Y., and Gautam, O. P. 1973. Susceptibility of Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) to Theileria annulata infection. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 3(1):27-30.  </P>
    933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     914
    934915<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwivedi, S. K., Mallick, K. P., and Malhotra, M. N. 1979. Babesiosis: clinical cases in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 56(4):333-335.  </P>
    935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     916
    936917<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Griffiths, R. B. 1974. Parasites and parasitic diseases. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     918
    938919<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, S. M., and Krauss, H. 1979. Detection of antibodies against some respiratory pathogens in the sera of domestic animals in Egypt. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 27(3):209-214.  </P>
    939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     920
    940921<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ho, T. M. 1976. Animal disease control program in Republic of China for better animal production. Korean Journal of Animal Science 18(4):317-321.  </P>
    941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     922
    942923<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iannelli, D. 1978. Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis Arnee) allotypes: identification of a multiple allelic system. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9(2):105113.  </P>
    943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     924
    944925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapur, M. P., and Singh, R. P. 1977. Diagnosis of mastitis: a comparative study of four indirect tests.Haryana Veterinarian 16(2):69-73.  </P>
    945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     926
    946927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leue, A. 1971. Buffaloes in Nepal. Tierartliche Umschau 26(4):173-178.  </P>
    947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     928
    948929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohan, R. N. 1968. Diseases and parasites of buffaloes. I. Viral, mycoplasmal, and rickettsial diseases. II. Bacterial and fungal diseases. III. Parasitic and miscellaneous diseases. Veterinary Bulletin 38:567-576, 647-659, 735-756.  </P>
    949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     930
    950931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murthy, D. K., and Sharma, S. K. 1974. Studies on reactivity and immunogenecity of cell-culture rinderpest vaccine in different species of ruminants. Indian Journal of Animal Science 44(6):359-365.  </P>
    951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     932
    952933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Agustin, F. 1973. Important diseases and parasites of Carabaos. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2):68-79.  </P>
    953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     934
    954935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schneider, C. R., Kitikoon, V., Sornmani, S., and Thiachantra, S. 1975. Mekong schistosomiasis. III. A parasitological survey of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) on Khong Island, Laos. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 69(2):227-232.  </P>
    955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     936
    956937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, K. N. S., Jain, D. K,, and Noble, D. 1975. Calf mortality in pure and crossbred Zebu cattle and Murrah buffaloes reared artificially from birth. Animal Production 20(2):207-211.  </P>
    957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     938
    958939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, S. K., Banegee, D. P., and Gautam, O. P. 1978. Anaplasma marginale infection in Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Health 17(2): 105-110.  </P>
    959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     940
    960941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shaw, J. J., and Lainson, R. 1972. Trypanosoma vivax in Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66(1):25-32.  </P>
    961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     942
    962943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shukla, R. R., and Singh, G. 1972. Studies on tuberculosis amongst Indian buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 49(2):119-123.  </P>
    963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     944
    964945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soni, J. L. 1978. Suitability of different serological tests for diagnosis of brucellosis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Science 48(12) :873-881. </P>
    965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     946
    966947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tantawi, H. H., Fayed, A. A., Shalaby, M. A., and Skalinsky, E. I. 1979. Isolation, cultivation and characterization of poxviruses from Egyptian water buffaloes .Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 37(4):15-23.  </P>
    967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     948
    968949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomson, D. 1977. Diseases of water buffalo in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australian Veterinary Practioner 7(1):50-52.  </P>
    969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     950
    970951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young, P. L. 1979. Infection of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with bovine ephemeral fever virus. Australian Veterinary Journal 55(7):349-350. </P>
    971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    974 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     952
     953<B>
    975954<!--
    976955</Section>
    … …  
    980959  </Description>
    981960-->
    982 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     961</B>
    983962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder, but the average animal is so poorly fed that its reproductive performance is unrepresentative of its capabilities. Without reasonable nutrition the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life or reproduce as regularly as their physiology or genetic capability would normally allow.  </P>
    984 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     963
    985964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actually, adequately nourished buffaloes reach puberty at about the same age as cattle, as early as 18 months of age in buffalo bulls. In northern Australia Swamp females have conceived even as early as 14 months of age and feral buffaloes routinely conceive at 16 months of age. In the herd at Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India, 11 River buffalo heifers showed estrus at ages less than 18.5 months and a few came into heat when less than 15 months old. </P>
    986 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     965
    987966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo also can calve at an age comparable to that of cattle. At the Ain Shams University in Egypt a well-fed Egyptian buffalo herd of several hundred animals has an average age at first calving of 27 months, 22 days(Information supplied by M. El Ashry. Because of nutritional uncertainties, El Ashry and his colleagues believe that body weight is a better indicator of sexual preparedness than age is. These researchers at Ain Shams University recommend mating heifers when they weigh 365 kg no matter what their age. Research at Punjab Agricultural University shows that buffalo heifers can be bred when they weigh over 270 kg and manifest estrus).Most animals in the Punjab Agricultural University River buffalo herd calved before 35 months, one at 28.3 months.! In one Venezuelan herd almost all heifers 20-24 months old were pregnant; virtually all calved before age 38 months, most by 30 months, and one at age 23 months. </P>
    988 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     967
    989968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In trials in Queensland, Australia, and in Papua New Guinea buffaloes produced more calves over a 3-year period than the cattle tested with them. In the hot, humid Sepik Plains in northern Papua New Guinea it was noticed that female buffaloes (Swamp breed) came into estrus even while they were losing weight because of inadequate nutrition, whereas cattle did not. Under these stressful conditions the buffalo calves also reached sexual maturity earlier and the buffaloes had a higher calving percentage and a shorter calving interval because they came back into estrus more quickly than cattle(Information supplied by J. Schottler. The age at first calving of more than 60 nutritionally poor buffaloes was 38 months in one herd and 45 months for Brahman cross cattle) . Similar observations have been made in Florida, Trinidad, the Brazilian Amazon, Venezuela, and elsewhere. Although these are exceptions to the normal observations in Asia, where buffaloes seem to breed more slowly than cattle, they do demonstrate the buffalo's potential for improved breeding.  </P>
    990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     969
    991970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estrus in buffalo cows usually lasts about 24 hours, but duration varies and may range from 11 to 72 hours. It occurs on an average 21-day cycle. Determination of when a cow is in estrus is difficult because often the animal shows few outward signs of "heat." This increases the chances of missing a cycle, especially for artificial insemination. Unclean surroundings, poor nutrition, and poor management, cause a high death rate among calves; this also contributes to the buffalo's often low reproductive rate.  </P>
    992 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     971
    993972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, calving is seasonal. This seems to be largely due to changes in nutrition. It may also be caused by heat stress, in either males or females, which results in a low breeding rate during the hot season. However, when buffalo cows are well fed, they come into estrus and will breed in any season.  </P>
    994 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     973
    995974<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many matings take place at night and are therefore unobserved. In one set of pregnancy diagnoses in northern Australia, the buffalo's conception rate (81 percent) was higher than that of the Brahman crossbreeds (70 percent) they were with. In India, artificial insemination of water buffaloes began in the late 1950s. Deep-frozen semen is now available and its use is spreading. Overall conception rates of 70-80 percent are obtained. It is estimated that some 100,000 buffaloes are now being artificially inseminated.</P>
    996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     975
    997976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo's gestation period is about one month longer and is more variable than that of cattle. Whereas cattle give birth after about 280 days (Angus, 279, Holstein, 279-280, Brown Swiss, 286), buffaloes take 300334 days (average 310) or roughly 10 months and 10 days (differences between breeds are unknown). In Punjab, India, River buffaloes have been observed to come into estrus as early as 40 days after calving. </P>
    998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     977
    999978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, only under uncommon circumstances can a buffalo cow produce a calf each year. In one herd of 800 cows in Venezuela the average female buffalo over age 4 produces 2 calves every 3 years. In response to a recent questionnaire, the majority of Indonesian farmers estimated that the calving rate was between 3 and 4 calves in 5 years. A few claimed a calf a year, some only 1 or 2 calves In 5 years. In Florida it has been noted that some buffalo cows having just calved became pregnant more quickly than cattle, so that a calf may indeed be produced each year. Regular yearly breeding has been noted also in northern Australia.</P>
    1000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     979
    1001980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The incidence of abortion, dystocia, retained placenta, and other parturition problems in buffaloes is similar to that in cattle. Twinning is very rare; probably no more than 0.01 percent of buffalo pregnancies produce twins.</P>
    1002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     981
    1003982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary results in northern Australia indicate that weaning can be carried out as late as 12 months of age without any effect on conception time of the buffalo dam.  </P>
    1004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     983
    1005984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1006985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    1007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     986
    1008987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhattacharya, P. 1974. Reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    1009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     988
    1010989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chauhan, F. S., Singh, N., and Singh, M. 1977. Involution of uterus and cervix in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(4):286-291.  </P>
    1011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     990
    1012991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eusibio, A. N. 1975. Breeding, management and feeding practices of buffaloes in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    1013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     992
    1014993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 1979. Buffalo Reproduction and Artificial Insemination. Proceedings of the Seminar Sponsored by FAO/SIDA/Government of India, held at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001-India, December 4-15, 1978. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    1015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     994
    1016995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955a. Environmental causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25 :301-311.  </P>
    1017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     996
    1018997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955b. Genetic causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25:307-311.  </P>
    1019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     998
    1020999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, E., and Gupta, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of water buffalo (Bos bubalis) spermatozoa. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaerrnedizin 23(2):106-120.  </P>
    1021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1000
    10221001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu, C. H. 1978. The preliminary results of crossbreeding of buffaloes in China. Research Institute for Animal Science of Kwangsi, People's Republic of China.  </P>
    1023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1002
    10241003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matharoo, J. S., and Singh, M. 1980. Revivability of buffalo spermatozoa after deepfreezing the semen using various extenders. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaermedizin 27(5): 385-391.  </P>
    1025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1004
    10261005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rao, A. V. N., Murthy, T. S., and Dutt, K. L. 1979. Effect of lunar cyclicity on oestrus rhythmicity in the Indian water buffalo. Livestock Advisor 4(7):29-30.  </P>
    1027 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1006
    10281007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rawal, C. V. S. 1978. A study on correlations of weight of pituitary gland and reproductive organs in males of Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Heredity 10(3):11-12.  </P>
    1029 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1008
    10301009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
    1031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1010
    10321011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, A. 1974. Observations on the physiology of reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    1033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1012
    10341013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R., and Singhal, R. A. 1977. The sex chromatin profile of water buffaloes of Murrah breed. Indian Journal of Animal &amp;Science 11(2):63-67.  </P>
    1035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1014
    10361015<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, A. 1978. Studies on the process of spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm reserve in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University 4(4):331.  </P>
    1037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1016
    10381017<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, M., Matharoo, J. S., and Chauhan, F. S. 1980. Preliminary fertility results with frozen buffalo semen in Tris extender. Theriogenology 13(3):191-194.  </P>
    1039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1018
    10401019<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, N., Chauhan, F. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Postpartum ovarian activity and fertility in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Sefence 32(2): 134-139.  </P>
    1041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1020
    10421021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunkaporn Ratanadilok Na Puket. 1975. The improvement of buffalo production through breeding and management under Thailand conditions. In: Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    1043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1022
    10441023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takkar, P. O., Chauhan, F. S., Tiwana, M. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Breeding behaviour of buffalo cows. Indian Veterinary Journal 56: 168-172.  </P>
    1045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1024
    10461025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toelihere, M. R. 1975. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of water buffaloes. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    1047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1026
    10481027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1968. Incidence of calving and birth weights of domesticated buffalo in the Northern Territory. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Animal Productlon 7: 144-147.  </P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1028
    10501029<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. The water buffalo in Australia: reproductive and parent-offspring behaviour of buffalo. Australian Wildlife Research 6:265-287. </P>
    1051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1054 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1030
     1031<B>
    10551032<!--
    10561033</Section>
    … …  
    10601037  </Description>
    10611038-->
    1062 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1039</B>
    10631040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are adaptable and are managed in many ways. In general, they are raised like cattle. But in some operations they must be handled differently. This chapter highlights these differences.  </P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1041
    10651042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millions of water buffaloes are managed in "backyards" in Asia. They exist on the resources of small holdings. Management and expenditures are minimal. Care of the family buffalo is usually entrusted to children, old people, or women not engaged in other farm duties; the buffalo allows them to be useful and productive.  </P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1043
    10671044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo fits the resources available on the farm, but it is also an urban animal. Thousands of herds of 2-20 buffaloes may be found in the cities and towns of India, Pakistan, and Egypt-all fed, managed, and milked in the streets.  </P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1045
    10691046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the buffalo has important qualities as a feedlot animal; it can be herded and handled with relative ease because of its placid nature. The Anand Cooperative in India's Gujarat State, which daily contributes thousands of gallons of milk to Operation Flood (the world's largest nutrition project), involves more than 150,000 Surti buffaloes that are fed, managed, and milked by their owners under feedlot-like conditions in their villages. Many of Italy's 100,000 buffaloes are maintained under similar conditions.  </P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1047
    10711048<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes can also be managed on rangelands. In Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere there is rising interest in raising buffalo beef on the range. The production practices for raising them are similar to those used for range cattle.  </P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1049
    10731050<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes in the humid tropics must be able to cool off. Shade trees are desirable, and although a wallow is not essential, it is probably the most effective way the animal has of coping with heat. Alternatively, water showers may be provided to wet down the animals 3-5 times during the hottest part of the day.  </P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1051
    10751052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are intelligent animals. Young ones learn patterns quickly and often are reluctant to change their habits. Feral animals-even those born in the wild-tame down after a week or two in a fenced enclosure to the point where many can be handled, haltered, and hand fed(In one example, loo feral buffalo were captured in Northern Territory, Australia. With in 14 days all the animals-males and females, young and old-had become docile and amenable to handling. -Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch) . Among feral herds of northern Australia it has been observed that buffaloes have clans and families. A female calf seems to remain with its family and mother for many years (possibly for life). A male calf stays until it is about 2 years old, when it is driven from the group by an adult bull. </P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1053
    10771054<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also been noted in northern Australia that free-ranging buffaloes instinctively select clean water areas to drink from, other areas to wallow in, and still others as "toilet areas." In addition, China's buffaloes reportedly are being "toilet trained" to defecate only at specific sites to avoid contaminating waterways with schistosome eggs.  </P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1055
    10791056<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another interesting observation from northern Australia is that most buffalo dams readily adopt a calf that has been orphaned by the death of its mother. In fact, females will allow several calves to nurse (including calves of other mothers and sometimes even adults).  </P>
    1080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1057
    10811058<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also self-reliant. For several months each year in Vietnam and Malaysia, for instance, they are turned loose in the forests to fend for themselves.  </P>
    1082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1059
    10831060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provision of adequate fencing is one of the great problems of buffalo management. The  animals have strong survival instincts and if feed runs short, such as in the dry season,  they will break through fences that would deter cattle who would remain and starve. They  will also break through fences if their family unit is split up. Barriers must be stronger  than those used for cattle and the wires closer together and lower to the ground because  buffaloes lift fences up with their horns rather than trample them down. In northern  Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Costa Rica it has been found that buffaloes are  particularly sensitive to electric fences (a single wire is all that is needed), and in Brazil a  special suspension fence has been devised(Moura Carvalho et al., 1979). Both of these  seem to be cheap and efficient answers to the fencing problem.  </P>
    1084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1061
    10851062<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are easily handled from horseback and easily worked through a corral.  Actually, because of their docility they can be mustered on foot, even on ranges where  cattle require horses. Unless they come from different areas they tend to herd together  and can be mustered like sheep.  </P>
    1086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1063
    10871064<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major management adjustments to be made by cattlemen is understanding  and capitalizing on the buffalo's placid nature. Buffaloes are naturally timid and startle  easily; they must be handled quietly and calmly. Rough handling, wild riding, and loud  shouting make handling them more difficult and training them much harder.</P>
    1088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1065
    10891066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village buffaloes are led and managed by a ring threaded through the septum between  the nostrils. The technique is frequently applied crudely and cruelly, often resulting in a  ripped septum.  </P>
    1090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1067
    10911068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The identification of individual buffaloes is difficult. Fire brands do not remain legible on  the skin for long. Cryobranding (freeze branding) is more durable. Most types of ear tags  are not very successful; the numbers wear off and mud covers up the tag's color. In  northern Australia ear tattooing has been the most successful identification technique,  with tattoos remaining legible for at least 8 years(Between 1958 and 1962 hundreds of  Australian buffalo were shipped on the hoof to the meat markets in Hong Kong without  trouble, despite crowded shipboard conditions and the long sea voyage. But in 1962 one  roughly treated bull went berserk in Hong Kong and killed a handler, and the Hong Kong  authorities stopped the trade as a result, although the problem was really one of  mismanagement. Buffalo have since been sent by air from Australia to Venezuela,  Nigeria, and Papua New Guinea and by barge to Papua New Guinea. No handling  problems have been experienced en route).  When they pasture together, cattle and  buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. They segregate themselves into their own groups and do  not interfere with one another. The buffaloes, however, usually dominate the cattle and  tend to monopolize the areas with the best feed supply.  </P>
    1092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1069
    10931070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed troughs and mineral boxes used for cattle are suitable for buffaloes, but chutes and  crushes must be widened to accommodate the buffalo's broader body and, when  necessary, the Swamp buffalo's greater horn spread. </P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1071
    10951072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are powerful  swimmers. In Brazil they have been known to escape by swimming down the Amazon River. An unusual management difficulty is caused by piranha in the rivers and swamps of Venezuela. In one herd of 100 heifer buffaloes, 40 have lost all or part of a teat to these voracious fish.</P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1073
    10971074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of water buffaloes are seldom removed or prevented from growing, a  testament to the animal's docility. (When questioned, one Thai villager said that he wouldn't  allow it because it would be a disgrace to the buffalo.) However, the animals can be  dehorned as calves in the same manner as cattle. They are then easier to handle In  chutes and cause less accidental injury to neighboring animals, handlers, walls, and  trees.  </P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1075
    10991076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11001077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    1101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1078
    11021079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benya, E. G. 1972. Cattle and buffalo production in Vietnam. Dairy Science Mimeo  Report, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
    1103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1080
    11041081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Management, conservation and use. In: The Husbandry and Health  of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
    1105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1082
    11061083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Boer, A. J. 1976. A further report on the Taiwan livestock industry: general policy  conclusions and further research needs. Journal of Agricultural Economics 19:116129.  </P>
    1107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1084
    11081085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lin, C. H. 1975. The breeding, management and feeding of water buffaloes in Taiwan. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon  Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei,  Taiwan.  </P>
    1109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1086
    11101087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R. E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W. H.  Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
    1111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1088
    11121089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., LouIenco, J. B., Nascimento, C. N. B., and Costa, N. A. 1979.  Cerca de Contencao pare Bubalinos e Bovinos. Comunicado Tecnico No. 28,  Agricultural Research Center for the Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
    1113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1090
    11141091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufener, W. H. 1975. Management and productive performance of water buffalo in  northeast Thailand. In: The Asiatic TVater Buffalo. Proceedings of an International  Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
    1115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1092
    11161093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo in Australia: grouping and home range. Australian  Wildlife Research 5:327-354.  </P>
    1117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1094
    11181095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. Redomestication of water buffaloes in the Northern Territory of  Australia. Animal Regulation Studies 2(1):5-20.  </P>
    1119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1122 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1096
     1097<B>
    11231098<!--
    11241099</Section>
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    11281103  </Description>
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    1130 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1105</B>
    11311106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grazing and wallowing habits of water buffaloes may have unexpected consequences when the animals are introduced to new, perhaps fragile environments. The presence of several thousand feral buffaloes on the coastal plains of northern Australia, for example, has become a very emotional issue among Australian environmentalists, some of whom foretell the complete destruction of the environment if the uncontrolled feral herds are not destroyed( It is not at all clear, however, that the buffaloes (which have existed in the area for 150 years) are causing the observed environmental degradation. Other possibilities include: fire, climatic stress, overgrazing, and a variety of farming, hunting, and other human activities, especially the use of four-wheel-drive vehicles. Thousands of wild pigs also share the area, along with crayfish that burrow into and weaken the levees that keep out the sea, something for which the buffaloes have been blamed). </P>
    1132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1107
    11331108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11341109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Compaction</P>
    1135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1110
    11361111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have larger hooves than cattle of comparable size and thus they compact the soil less. But buffaloes often live in damp, boggy areas where their feet may compact soft soils. Also, buffaloes are creatures of habit and, when able, they set up fixed points for drinking, feeding, defecating, wallowing, and sleeping. Between the points they wear sharply defined trails in the vegetation and soil.  </P>
    1137 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1112
    11381113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11391114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallowing</P>
    1140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1115
    11411116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the water buffalo's greatest environmental limitation is its propensity to build wallows. In hot climates every buffalo will wallow at some time during the heat of the day if water is available. When they can, buffaloes will make their own wallows, enlarging a mud puddle by rolling in it or even using their heads to flip water out of a drinking trough and muddying the ground nearby.  </P>
    1142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1117
    11431118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pasture in the immediate area of the wallow is usually damaged by trampling and waterholes may become fouled, but buffaloes return to the same wallow day after day and do not build new ones indiscriminately. Thus, the muddied area is not a large proportion of the location in which they graze unless a large number of animals are confined in a small space(At Gainesville, Florida (possibly because of its subtropical but not hot climate), a herd of 52 buffaloes concentrated in a one-hectare field did not attempt to build a wallow at ale -Information supplied by H. Popenoe.) . In addition, man-made wallows can be dug at safe sites and the animals will use them. The problem of wallowing is therefore not generally a serious one.  </P>
    1144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1119
    11451120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11461121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Waterways</P>
    1147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1122
    11481123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes often live near and enter water freely, they may cause erosion in ditches, river banks, canals, and levees. Also, their wallowing muddies the water, which may adversely affect some fish species and reduce the growth of algae. Buffaloes commonly urinate and defecate in the water, possibly creating a pollution hazard, although in most situations this contamination is likely to be minor.  </P>
    1149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1124
    11501125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of this herbivore in natural waterways may reduce the number of water plants. Some plants are trampled, some eaten, and some underwater species are suppressed because the muddied water transmits less light. This (and several other of the buffalo's environmental effects) can be turned to advantage (see picture page 85) when, as often occurs, aquatic plants grow out of control and become obnoxious weeds.  </P>
    1151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1126
    11521127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11531128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Pastures</P>
    1154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1129
    11551130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have very strong jaws, and when forage is sparse they graze it close to the ground; this overgrazing can destroy a pasture. In addition, they eat virtually all available plant material (including many species that cattle shun), so that a densely stocked pasture can become completely defoliated. In northern Australia it has been found that, with time, buffaloes become accustomed to a given pasture, and unless fences are strong they will instinctively return to it until the forage has been depleted.  </P>
    1156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1131
    11571132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo's inclination to eat many plants can be used to improve the environment and suppress growth of coarse weedy species of plants. On the Sepik Plains in Papua New Guinea buffaloes are being used to graze and suppress sedges (Cyperus species), as a result, the more desirable Paspalum species are beginning to appear. At Mount Bundy in northern Australia native pastures are being improved on a commercial scale by overstocking them with buffaloes. The animals reduce or completely eliminate spear grass and other weeds-even those with thorns-and thus foster the survival and growth of introduced forage legumes such as stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). In Sri Lanka buffaloes have been used to graze out the vigorous tropical grass Imperata cylindrica.  </P>
    1158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1133
    11591134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11601135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Trees</P>
    1161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1136
    11621137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes instinctively rub against trees (and walls and fences), eagerly browse leaves, and sometimes nibble bark, so they damage trees more so than cattle. In northern Australia it has been noted that each "family herd" of feral buffaloes selects one or two trees for rubbing against so that the rubbing damage is confined to them. </P>
    1163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1138
    11641139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11651140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
    1166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1141
    11671142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rajapske, G., 1950. Death of illuk. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly, 1:7-9.</P>
    1168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1143
    11691144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1969. Home range in feral water buffalo. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:143-152.  </P>
    1170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1145
    11711146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1970. Seasonal movement and distribution of the sexes in the water buffaloes in the Northern Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:399-414.  </P>
    1172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1147
    11731148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1975. Buffalo in the northern swamplands. Proceedings III of the World Conference on Animal Production. Theme 1, Paper 7.  </P>
    1174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1149
    11751150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1977. Some aspects of the ecology of the water buffalo in the Northern Territory. In: The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers, edited by B. D. Ford and D. G. Tulloch. Technical Bulletin No. 18, Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra, Australia. </P>
    1176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1179 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1151
     1152<B>
    11801153<!--
    11811154</Section>
    … …  
    11851158  </Description>
    11861159-->
    1187 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1160</B>
    11881161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has outlined the water buffalo's apparent merits, but most of the statements made about the animal are based on empirical observations. Many of its most exciting and potentially valuable features have not been subjected to the careful scrutiny needed to confirm their validity.  </P>
    1189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1162
    11901163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the fact that there are 130 million or more water buffalo in the world, research on the animal is scanty and limited to only a few situations and sites. Quantitative information (especially for the various breeds), tests, trials, and comparison studies are needed.  </P>
    1191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1164
    11921165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research to be done on the water buffalo offers scientific challenges that can be undertaken in laboratories and experiment stations in most parts of the world and in many disciplines: breeding, physiology, microbiology, veterinary science, nutrition, food science, dairy science, and other fields. Water buffalo research is an area worthy of financial support by philanthropic institutions and international development agencies concerned with problems of food and resource shortages. The dominant role of the buffalo in the rural economies of Egypt and Asian countries offers the opportunity for buffalo research that can bring improvements quickly and easily to the rural poor. For other countries the water buffalo is an untapped resource, and they should test its productivity on native pasturelands, marshy lowlands, hot and humid areas where cattle do not thrive, and on areas prone to cattle diseases and parasites that are difficult to control.  </P>
    1193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1166
    11941167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific recommendations follow.  </P>
    1195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1168
    11961169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    11971170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison with Cattle</P>
    1198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1171
    11991172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists worldwide should undertake trials to compare growth rate, feeding, nutrition, breeding, and other aspects of buffalo and cattle performance.  </P>
    1200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1173
    12011174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle and water buffaloes are obviously different animals. Each has its own limitations and advantages, and each deserves to be studied in its own right. Perhaps the quickest way for animal scientists to experience for themselves the merits of the water buffalo is to conduct their own comparative trials with buffaloes and cattle in their areas. The results will provide local guidance and will help extend recognition of the buffalo's value, especially under difficult conditions where it may exceed cattle in productivity and profitability.  </P>
    1202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1175
    12031176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12041177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germ Plasm Preservation</P>
    1205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1178
    12061179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urgent action is needed, especially in Southeast Asia, to preserve and protect outstanding buffalo specimens.  </P>
    1207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1180
    12081181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries (Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, for example) buffalo populations are decreasing dramatically. High demands for meat are causing slaughter at younger and younger ages. Much of the meat is exported to restaurants and markets in Singapore and Hong Kong. Unfortunately, the largest and quickest growing animals are often selected for slaughter. This results in the loss of a major genetic resource, which is compounded by the practice of castrating the largest males to make them more tractable as work animals. Ten years ago in Thailand it was common to find buffalo weighing 1,000 kg; now it is hard to find 750-kg specimens. A similar situation exists in the Philippines where there is no dearth of good breeding stock, but butchers are paying such high prices that farmers are selling even quality animals for slaughter. In northern Australia, where some of the bulls weigh almost 1,200 kg, the largest animals are being shot for meat, hides, pet food, or sportsmen's trophies,  </P>
    1209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1182
    12101183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of high-yielding buffaloes are taken each year to big cities in India (for example, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) for milking. At the end of lactation many are returned to the villages, but many others are slaughtered, rather than being fed and retired. This creates a huge loss of valuable germ plasm. In many locations most of the largest animals have already been lost. Only urgent action will protect those remaining.  </P>
    1211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1184
    12121185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12131186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Shipment</P>
    1214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1187
    12151188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo quarantine stations should be organized in "disease-free" areas to develop buffalo germ plasm pools for international exchange.  </P>
    1216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1189
    12171190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importation of buffaloes presents difficulties for any government, researcher, or farmer wishing to obtain the animals for the first time or for breeding purposes. Quarantine laws make it extremely difficult and expensive to exchange genetic resources.  </P>
    1218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1191
    12191192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia is one of the few nations where there are large numbers of water buffalo in an area free of the major animal diseases. Papua New Guinea, </P>
    1220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1193
    12211194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, and other nations have taken advantage of this and have  imported Australian buffaloes. But Australian herds are all Swamp buffaloes(The island  of Guam is also a safe source of Swamp animals, although the feral herds there are  depleted, only 300 or 400 animals were left on Guam in 1978) and so breeding centers  should be set up also (in Sri Lanka and Italy perhaps) where importers can obtain  River-type (including Mediterranean) buffaloes.  </P>
    1222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1195
    12231196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
    1224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1197
    12251198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide efforts should be made to select superior buffalo bulls and cows for breeding.  </P>
    1226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1199
    12271200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance testing, leading to the mass selection of superior animals, deserves high  priority. Virtually all buffalo breeding is haphazard and unplanned. Village animals graze  together and matings are usually not con" trolled, observed, or recorded. Thus, the full  genetic potential of the water buffalo is not being realized.  </P>
    1228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1201
    12291202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A massive selection program is needed to bring about genetic progress. For each breed,  bulls and cows with the potential for improving production of meat and milk and  increasing draft power should be identified and used for breed improvement. However,  the wide variations between the characteristics of individual animals may make  exceptional genetic advances difficult to achieve quickly.  </P>
    1230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1203
    12311204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important traits for culling and selection include behavior, temperament, reproduction  rate, easy milk letdown, average daily gain in weight or weight at a given age, carcass  quality (for example, large hindquarters), and milk production, as well as strength and  endurance for work.  </P>
    1232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1205
    12331206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding of Swamp and River buffaloes is a potentially important route to genetic  improvement. The progeny reportedly show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability,  fertility, meat production, and working ability. Infusing genes for high milk production into  the Swamp buffalo, now used mainly for meat and work, creates the potential for a  triple-purpose animal.  </P>
    1234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1207
    12351208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen should be a major help in  upgrading the buffalo. Moreover, the transport of live embryos (rather than neonatal  animals) for implantation in the uterus of surrogate mothers could be important for water  buffalo. It seems unlikely, however, that buffalo embryos can be implanted in cattle.  </P>
    1236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1209
    12371210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most genetic selections should be made in Asia where 97 percent of the world's water  buffaloes are located. The improvements will depend on how accurately bulls can be  identified, selected, and mated. Performance and  progeny testing is sorely needed at research stations as well as "on the farm." Governments should also institute bull-loan or artificial-insemination programs as a means for upgrading the village herds.  </P>
    1238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1211
    12391212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12401213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison of Breeds</P>
    1241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1214
    12421215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relative merits of the various buffalo breeds should be determined,  </P>
    1243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1216
    12441217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little or no information is available on the comparative performance of the different buffalo breeds in various environments, especially the 17 or so River breeds in the Subcontinent and the Egyptian and Mediterranean breeds. Comparison trials of the breeds and breed-crosses are needed in a wide range of climates from the humid tropical to the temperate. In addition, the cytogenetic, immunogenetic, and inheritance relationships of breeds should be clarified.  </P>
    1245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1218
    12461219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel encourages countries such as India and Pakistan that have a number of buffalo breeds (for example, Murrah, Surti, Jafarabadi, Mehsana, and Nili/Ravi) to set up experimental farms for scientific reproduction of superior specimens. Substantial research benefits as well as profitable economic returns from using and exporting some of them would be realized.  </P>
    1247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1220
    12481221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12491222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat and Milk Research</P>
    1250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1223
    12511224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and demonstration is needed to foster the widespread consumption of buffalo meat and milk.  </P>
    1252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1225
    12531226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, cheese, and other dairy products are considered outstanding foods in all locations where they are produced. Taste tests so far have indicated that buffalo meat is similar or slightly superior to beef produced under the same conditions.  </P>
    1254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1227
    12551228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A specific need is to feed the male calves and use them for meat. Many are now slaughtered at a young age and light weight. Research that provides either a partial or complete milk substitute for feeding calves would have a major impact on meat supplies and farmer income. Diets being developed for calves in Egypt incorporate such ingredients as whey, soybean meal, corn flour (corn starch), and yeast.  </P>
    1256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1229
    12571230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other research topics include:  </P>
    1258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1231
    12591232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate, thermoregulation, and wallowing on meat and milk production;  </P>
    12601233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The meat characteristics of each of the breeds and the differences between them,  </P>
    … …  
    12631236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Developing new or improved milk products (such as yogurt, cottage cheese, and hard  cheese); and  </P>
    12641237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banking genetically superior germ plasm for later use.  </P>
    1265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1238
    12661239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12671240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Research</P>
    1268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1241
    12691242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends research on new harnesses to replace the omnipresent yoke.  </P>
    1270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1243
    12711244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the wooden yoke, which has not changed in 1,500 years or more, is an  inefficient harness. Research is needed to adapt horse collars, hames, breast straps,  and other devices for the buffalo. Because much of the farm power in Asia comes from  buffaloes, the impact of improved harness could be dramatic, widespread, and of  enormous value to millions of small farmers there. If the experiments in Thailand  described earlier are an indication, the farm power in Asia could be increased by 25  percent overnight with the adoption of an improved harness. The buffalo will continue to  be the small farmer's "tractor," so the benefits from improved harnesses are likely to  continue for a long time.  </P>
    1272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1245
    12731246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 13 million buffalo and bullock carts in India and 20 million Indians are engaged  in the business of road haulage. Application of appropriate technology would eliminate  the archaic wooden wheels, axles, and heavy carts and substitute lightweight carts,  perhaps with such features as metal wheels, pneumatic tires, ball bearings, and fixed  axles. With such improvements, loads might be increased and hauled over longer  distances at greater speed and with less work.  </P>
    1274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1247
    12751248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12761249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trials in New Areas</P>
    1277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    12781251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing of water buffalo production is needed in many areas where the animal is not  known.  </P>
    1279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    12801253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seemingly adaptable animal, the water buffalo should be productive throughout the  earth's warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones. Different breeds may adapt  differently to extremes of heat, humidity, and cold, and this needs further study.  </P>
    1281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1254
    12821255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States, the Mediterranean Basin of Europe, and some of the more temperate  European areas like southern England are worth considering for water buffalo trials. In the Southern Hemisphere River buffaloes are already found as far south as 25° latitude in Brazil's Sao Paulo State (where large herds are raised); an experimental herd of Swamp buffaloes has performed outstandingly in Brisbane, Australia (27°S); and there are a few Swamp buffalo in South Australia and Victoria (35°S or more). There is good reason to believe that water buffaloes may be productive in all of the states in Australia, New Zealand's North Island, South Africa, Argentina, and other warm temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere.  </P>
    1283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1256
    12841257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest void in the water buffalo map is virtually the entire continent of Africa. It seems a paradox that the buffalo-Egypt's most important domestic animal-is not farmed commercially in any other African country. Experimental herds have been introduced to Nigeria, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania, and other countries in the past, and the initial success of three of them is described in Appendix A.  </P>
    1285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1258
    12861259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo, with its tolerance for heat, disease, poor-quality feed, and mismanagement, appears to have outstanding promise for African nations such as Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, and The Gambia as well as all nations south of the Sahara (Nambia perhaps being an exception).  </P>
    1287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1260
    12881261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More specific aspects of environmental tolerance deserving research attention are:  </P>
    1289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1262
    12911263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The physiology of the buffalo's response to heat, cold, humidity, and other environmental factors;  </P>
    12921264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate on growth, reproduction, milk production, health, respiration rate, behavior, and carcass quality; and  </P>
    12931265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Measurement of the calorific efficiency and chemical composition of all breeds of buffaloes and cattle to determine the environments best suited to each breed.  </P>
    1294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1266
    12951267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    12961268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition Research</P>
    1297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1269
    12981270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite observations of the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality forage, research is needed to learn how the animal does it.  </P>
    1299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1271
    13001272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This research should:  </P>
    1301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1273
    13021274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establish the buffalo's nutrient requirements by breed, sex, age, and weight for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and work;  </P>
    13031275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine voluntary forage consumption and the nutrient utilization of different forages in various stages of maturity;  </P>
    … …  
    13081280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Compare various breeds of water buffaloes and other ruminants to determine possible differences in nutritional requirements and performance; and  </P>
    13091281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply economic research to production practices, including night feeding of cut forage and the use of improved pastures.  </P>
    1310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1282
    13111283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    13121284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
    1313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1285
    13141286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to improve management practices could benefit small farmers, ranchers, and feedlot feeders alike.  </P>
    1315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1287
    13161288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the farm management factors that influence water buffalo productivity. Studies and extension literature for farmers are needed on subjects such as:  </P>
    1317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1289
    13181290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proper fencing;  </P>
    13191291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Procedures for dehorning and for preventing horn growth in calves;  </P>
    … …  
    13331305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Control of internal parasites; and  </P>
    13341306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Disease prevention and treatments. </P>
    1335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307
    13361308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    13371309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
    1338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1310
    13391311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in areas where uncertainties about buffalo diseases are hindering  the animals' use.  </P>
    1340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1312
    13411313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research should:  </P>
    1342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1314
    13431315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop control and management practices to prevent specific infections and parasites  for buffalo groups such as calves, yearlings, heifers, pregnant cows, newly calved cows,  and bulls;  </P>
    1344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1316
    13451317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elucidate the factors (genetic, nutritional,management, disease) causing losses of  newly born calves;  </P>
    1346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1318
    13471319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prevent and control the major diseases and parasites of the buffalo: hemorrhagic  septicemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, sarcoptic mange,  fascioliasis, nematode parasites, rinderpest and "rinderpestlike" diseases, nephritis, and  conjunctivitis;  </P>
    1348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1320
    13491321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop herd-health programs and specific disease-control programs for the various  production systems;  </P>
    1350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1322
    13511323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine the level of susceptibility to trypanosomiasis, a disease that might mitigate  against introducing the animal widely to Africa; and  </P>
    1352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1324
    13531325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Define the buffalo's role in malarial ecology.  </P>
    1354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1326
    13551327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    13561328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
    1357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1329
    13581330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to improve water buffalo reproduction.  </P>
    1359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1331
    13601332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research topics should include:  </P>
    1361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1333
    13621334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology and deep-freezing of buffalo semen. (Although it is possible to freeze the  buffalo semen now, further improvements are needed to achieve higher conception  rates.)  </P>
    1363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1335
    13641336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Incidence of sub-estrus and anestrus. This is fairly high in buffaloes. Work is needed to  determine the factors contributing to this problem and find solutions applicable in the  field. A simple, inexpensive test for the routine diagnosis of estrus is needed. It could  ensure that buffaloes are inseminated at the optimal time and could lead to the possible  synchronizing of estrus in groups of animals as well as the elimination of seasonal  breeding.  </P>
    1365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1337
    13661338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Seasonality of breeding. Investigations are needed into seasonal effects on the intensity  and deviation of estrus in buffaloes. Most of the buffaloes in northern India and Pakistan,  for example, calve between July and December, causing scarcity of milk in the summer  season and a flush of production in the winter months (this phenomenon causes serious  marketing problems).  </P>
    13671339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low libido and low semen yield in buffalo bulls. Semen yield in buffalo bulls is less than half of the yield from cattle bulls.  </P>
    13681340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Effect of season and other factors on semen quality.  </P>
    13691341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Variation in the freezability of semen from different bulls.  </P>
    1370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1342
    13711343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    13721344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dissemination of Information</P>
    1373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1345
    13741346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends that two water buffalo publications be produced.  </P>
    1375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1347
    13761348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These should be:  </P>
    1377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1349
    13781350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· An international water buffalo newsletter. It is important to maintain communication among researchers working with the water buffalo in far flung research stations, universities, missions, and villages. Research findings may not be widely shared if technical animal science journals and the one or two national newsletters now available remain the only source of water buffalo information. A newsletter would bring together results from different parts of the world. It would provide rapid exchange of information as well as a forum for informal opinions, observations, and preliminary experimental data that are usually not accepted by journals.  </P>
    1379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1351
    13801352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A formal journal of water buffalo research.  </P>
    1381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1353
    13821354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, other methods for disseminating water buffalo information are to be encouraged. </P>
    1383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1385 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1355
     1356<B>
    13861357<!--
    13871358</Section>
    … …  
    13911362  </Description>
    13921363-->
    1393 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1364</B>
    13941365<B><P></P>
    13951366<!--
    … …  
    13991370  </Description>
    14001371-->
    1401 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1372</B>
    14021373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Buffalo in Africa</P>
    1403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1374
    14041375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the water buffalo, Africa is the unknown continent. Apart from Egypt, where the  "gamoosa" is a major livestock resource, there have been few recorded experiences  with the animal in Africa. While this may be attributed to disease, chances are it is  because of historical oversight.  </P>
    1405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1376
    14061377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small herds of buffaloes were recently introduced to Uganda, Tanzania, and Nigeria, but  because there were so few animals no firm conclusions can be drawn. Initial  observations, however, suggest that the water buffalo could have an important future role  in Africa, south of the Sahara. There seems little reason to believe that they won't thrive  there as they have done elsewhere in the tropics.  </P>
    1407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1378
    14081379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following statements were provided by researchers involved in the enterprises.  </P>
    1409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1380
    14101381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14111382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
    1412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1383
    14131384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Uganda imported a herd of 12 buffalo cows and one bull in 1969. Grazed on poor-quality  unimproved pasture they received neither supplementary feeding nor any preferential  treatment over the East African zebus kept with them. The herd stayed 7 years at  Entebbe before being moved to another part of the country. They proved to be very  efficient converters of the low protein, high-fber fodder. During this time the herd grew to  40 adult cows and 2 bulls (all other steers were slaughtered). The cows calved every  year. The calves matured at 2 to 21/2 years; the zebu calves took at least 3 years to  mature. Buffalo calves were much heavier than the zebus of comparable age.  </P>
    1414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1385
    14151386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The buffalo cows averaged 7 liters of milk per milking. In taste it was preferred to zebu  milk. Also, the quality of the meat after slaughter was much better than that of the zebus.  </P>
    1416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1387
    14171388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A major advantage the buffaloes had over the cattle was that they were remarkably  unaffected by diseases endemic to the area. Apart from a few calves that died of  diseases that also killed cattle on the farm at Entebbe, the buffaloes resisted tick-borne  diseases, the biggest killers of cattle in Uganda, and were unaffected by the virulent  strains of East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), Uganda's most serious endemic animal  disease."(Information supplied by G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, Entebbe  Uganda)  </P>
    1418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1389
    14191390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14201391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
    1421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1392
    14221393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in 1976, 194 buffaloes aged 6-9 months were imported from the environs of Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory. The animals settled down quite well, and by the end of 1978 the stock population had risen to about 320, the adults weighing about 400 kg with about 80 percent fertility. The animals were in excellent health when an outbreak of streptothricosis occurred early in 1979. Because of the intractable nature of this rare disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the apparent spread of the disease in the confined area of the ranch, and the persistence of the organism, the animals were slaughtered(nformation supplied by Dr. J. E. Erhiaganoma, Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria)..  </P>
    1423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1394
    14241395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14251396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
    1426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1397
    14271398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania introduced 21 buffalo heifers and 2 buffalo bulls from Egypt in 1968 and 1970. By 1977 the herd had grown to 150 animals. They were kept at the Livestock Production Research Institute at Mpwapwa, a site representative of central Tanzania(Mpwapwa is located at an elevation of 1,000 m. It receives an annual rainfall of 700 mm during a single season between late November and early May. Mean minimum temperatures of 13°C occur in June, and mean maximum temperatures of 26°C occur in November). </P>
    1428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1399
    14291400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 10 years the buffalo were studied and compared with crossbreeds of local Mpwapwa cows and Friesian steers. On average, the buffaloes conceived and calved 4 months earlier than the cattle, their mean calving intervals were about a month shorter, their birth and weaning weights were 1.5 times higher, and their daily weight gain was about double that of the crossbred cattle. The milk yield from the buffaloes was only about two thirds that of the crossbred cattle, but their rnilk's high butterfat content meant that the overall butterfat production was higher in buffaloes.  </P>
    1430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1401
    14311402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figures reported are shown below:  </P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1403
    14331404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p98.png"></center><br>
    14341405 Table</P>
    1435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1406
    14361407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a second study (Shoo, R A. 1980. A study of the performance of Egyptian water buffaloes. Student project, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.), 30 buffaloes and 34 Mpwapwa cattle (not the crossbreeds) were compared(Mpwapwa cattle are a Tanzanian breed with 55 percent Asian, 35 percent African, and 10 percent European blood). The calving intervals were 396 + 126 days for buffaloes and 437 + 109 days for cattle. The buffaloes first conceived at mean ages of 23-25 months (matings occurred in both wet and dry seasons), the cattle at 27-36 months. The buffaloes calved at 35 months, the cattle at 46 months.  </P>
    1437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1408
    14381409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On farms at Ruvu and Mabuki the calving rate was 63 percent, and the mortality rate 1.2-6.9 percent(Rakha, A. 1980. water buffalo Production, Tanzania. Report of the technical Cooperation Program TCP/URT/9002, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy). The buffalo's overall milk yields averaged 1,237 kg in 225 days, or 5.5 kg per day.  </P>
    1439 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1410
    14401411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the introduction of buffalo to Tanzania are considered "quite encouraging and the future of buffaloes in Tanzania will be bright." (Oloufa, M. M. 1981. The future of water buffaloes in Tanzania Paper presented at the Tanzania Society of Animal Production Eighth Scientific Conference, Arusha, Tanzania May 26-29, 1981.) Future plans call for increasing the herd to about 200 animals with a view toward establishing another buffalo herd. In addition, 5 buffalo sires have been selected in Egypt for shipment to Tanzania.  </P>
    1441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1412
    14441413<B><P></P>
    14451414<!--
    … …  
    14501419  </Description>
    14511420-->
    1452 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1421</B>
    14531422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
    1454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1423
    14551424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A directory of names in buffalo studies and research is available from the International Buffalo Information Center, Kasetsart University Library, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.</P>
    1456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1425
    14571426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14581427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
    1459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1428
    14601429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Industry Branch, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 5160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790 (D.R. Thomson, B. Ford)  </P>
    1461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1430
    14621431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berrimah Agricultural Research Station, Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
    1463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1432
    14641433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coastal Plains Research Station, near Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
    1465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1434
    14661435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. G. Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie 5789, Northern Territory</P>
    1467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1436
    14681437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Queensland, Department of Animal Husbandry, St. Lucia, Queensland (D.D. Charles)  </P>
    1469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1438
    14701439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14711440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
    1472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1441
    14731442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associacao de Criadores de Bufalos do Brasil, Cx Postal 832, Sao Paulo (President, Dr. Paulo Joaquim Monteiro da Silva)  </P>
    1474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1443
    14751444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido (Agricultural Reseach Center of the Humid Tropics), Caixa Postal, 48, Belem, Para, 66000  </P>
    1476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1445
    14771446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnology), Universidade Estadual "Julio de Mesquita Filho," Campus de Botucatu, Estado de Sao Paulo  </P>
    1478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1447
    14791448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Zootecnia (Institute of Zootechnology), Nova Odessa, Sao Paulo (Prof. Alberto Alves Santiago)  </P>
    1480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1449
    14811450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Geraldo Mosse, Rua Apinages 716-CEP, 05017, Sao Paulo, S.P.  </P>
    1482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1451
    14831452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Walmore Muller Lacort, Ministerio de agriculture Explanada des Ministerios, Bloco 8-50 Andar Sala 518, 70.000 Brasilia, D.F.  </P>
    1484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1453
    14851454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14861455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulgaria</P>
    1487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1456
    14881457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sofia (P. Ivanov, Z. Zahariev)</P>
    1489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1458
    14901459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Basis, Livestock Breeding Research Institute, Shumen (Dr. D. St. Polikhronov, Director; Dr. A. Alexis)  </P>
    1491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1460
    14921461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14931462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
    1494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1463
    14951464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Nanking Agricultural College, Nanking (Professor Sieh Chen-Hsia)  </P>
    1496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1465
    14971466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kwangsi Agriculture College, Nanning, Kwangsi (Professor Wang Pei Chien</P>
    1498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1467
    14991468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Farm, Lu Hsu, Pinyang County, Kwasngsi Chang Autonomous Region</P>
    1500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1469
    15011470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Science, Nanning, Kwangsi (Dr. Chou Chi-Sheng)</P>
    1502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1471
    15031472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singchow Dairy Farm, Kwangtung Province</P>
    1504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1473
    15051474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15061475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
    1507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1476
    15081477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Luis Pacheco, Director, Dept Formento, 8502 JAPDEVA, Puerto Limon</P>
    1509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1478
    15101479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15111480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</P>
    1512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1481
    15131482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ain Shams University, Kasr-EI-Zaafran, Abbasiyah, Cairo (M.A. El-Ashry, A.M. El-Serafy)</P>
    1514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1483
    15151484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo (Dr. M.T. Ragab)  </P>
    1516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1485
    15171486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Alexandria, 22 Al-Gueish Avenue, Shatby, Alexandria (K. El-Shazly)</P>
    1518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1487
    15191488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15201489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
    1521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1490
    15221491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. R. Dunkel, Herzeleidstrasse 39, 5330 Konigswinter 41, Bonn</P>
    1523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1492
    15241493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Dr. H. Fischer, Insitut fur Tropische Veterinarmedizin, Wilhelmstr. 15, 6300 Giessen</P>
    1525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1494
    15261495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gesellschaft fur Agrarentwicklung (GAE), Meckenheimer Allee 113, 5300 Bonn 1</P>
    1527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1496
    15281497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15291498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungary</P>
    1530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1499
    15311500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Kovacs, Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, Deak F. -u16, 8361Keszthely  </P>
    1532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1501
    15331502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15341503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
    1535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1504
    15361505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Director of Research)</P>
    1537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1506
    15381507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
    1539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1508
    15401509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Sciences, Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
    1541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1510
    15421511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Sambalpua, PO: Sunbeda, Distt. Kerapur, Orissa</P>
    1543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1512
    15441513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Frozen Semen Bank, Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Kamataka</P>
    1545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1514
    15461515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Murrah Breeding Farm, Almadi, Tamil Nadu</P>
    1547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1516
    15481517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Surti Buffalo Farm, Dhamrod, Gujarat</P>
    1549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518
    15501519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chief Superintendent, Govenment Livestock Farm, Hissar, Haryana</P>
    1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1520
    15521521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura Campus, Mathura, U.P.  </P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1522
    15541523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Co-ordinator, All India Buffalo Improvement Project, Natioal Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, (Dr. V. N. Tripathi)  </P>
    1555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1524
    15561525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Military Dairy Farm, Army Headquarters, Quatermaster, General Branch, DHQ PO New Delhi 11  </P>
    1557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1526
    15581527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.  </P>
    1559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1528
    15601529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Livestock Farm, Anjora Distt: Durg, Madhya Pradesh</P>
    1561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1530
    15621531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat Agricultural University, Reproductive Biology Research Unit, PO Anand Agricultural Institute, Anand, Gujarat  </P>
    1563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1532
    15641533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haryana Agricultural University , Hissar, Haryana</P>
    1565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1534
    15661535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Barcilly, V.P. (Dr. S.K. Ranjan)</P>
    1567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1536
    15681537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482004, M.P.  </P>
    1569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1538
    15701539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union Ltd., Anand, Gujarat (Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman)</P>
    1571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1540
    15721541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Development Board, Anand, Gujarat</P>
    1573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1542
    15741543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal 132002, Haryana (S.P. Arora, Dr. D. Sundaresan, Director)  </P>
    1575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1544
    15761545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (Dr. J.S. Ichhponani, Dr. S.K. Misra)</P>
    1577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1546
    15781547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus, Dharwar, Karnataka</P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1548
    15801549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1550
    15831551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15841552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
    1585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1553
    15861554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balai Inseminasi Buatan Lembang, Jawa Barat (Dr. R.D. Simangunsong)</P>
    1587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1555
    15881556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Jl Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta (Dr. Jaman Zailani)  </P>
    1589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1557
    15901558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pusat Penelitian den Pengambangan Ternak (Centre for Animal Research and Development), Bogor</P>
    1591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1559
    15931560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    15941561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq</P>
    1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1562
    15961563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Rearing Station, Abu Ghraib, Baghdad</P>
    1597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1564
    15991565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16001566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1567
    16021568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,00100 Rome</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1569
    16041570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Provinciale Allevatori, via Redentare, Caserta (Professore de Franciscis,Presidente)</P>
    1605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1571
    16061572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Ricerche soll'Adattamento Bovini e dei Bufali, Ponticelli, Napoli (Director: Pro£ Lino Ferrara)  </P>
    1607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1573
    16081574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnica, via Onofrio Panvino, Rome (Prof. A. Pilla)</P>
    1609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1575
    16101576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnice di Roma, via Salaria 31, 00016, Monterotondo Scalo (Dr. Augusto Romita)  </P>
    1611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1577
    16121578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ugo Jemma, Torre Lupara, 81050 Pastorano, near Caserta</P>
    1613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1579
    16151580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16161581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
    1617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1582
    16181583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimuzu, The University of Tsukuba, Sakura-mura niihar gun ibaraki-ken 300-311</P>
    1619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1584
    16211585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16221586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1587
    16241588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Animal Husbandry Station, Kluang</P>
    1625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1589
    16261590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor</P>
    1627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1591
    16281592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor</P>
    1629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1593
    16311594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16321595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
    1633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1596
    16341597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial Insemination Project, Tfipureshwar, Kathmandu (Dr. A.C. Gupta)</P>
    1635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1598
    16361599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu (Dr. N.D. Joshi)</P>
    1637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1600
    16391601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16401602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
    1641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1603
    16421604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore (Dr. Mohammad Shafi Chaudhry)</P>
    1643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1605
    16441606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Reproduction, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Dr. Rashid Ahmad Chaudhary)  </P>
    1645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1607
    16461608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar District, Sahiwat, Punjab (Dr. S.K. Shah, Director)  </P>
    1647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1609
    16481610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore 13</P>
    1649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1611
    16511612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16521613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
    1653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1614
    16541615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugo Giraoud, Apartado 60-2745, El Dorado</P>
    1655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1616
    16571617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16581618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
    1659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1619
    16601620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Primary Industry, ERAP, P.O. Box. 348, Lae (John H. Schottler)</P>
    1661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1621
    16621622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sepik Plains Livestock Station, Ufimo via Wewak, E.S.P.  </P>
    1663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1623
    16651624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16661625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
    1667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1626
    16681627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Science Department, Central Luzon State University, Muiloz, Nueva Ecija</P>
    1669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1628
    16701629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Systems, Diliman, Quezon City Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila (Dr. Conrado A. Valdez)  </P>
    1671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1630
    16721631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
    1673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1632
    16741633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Science, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720 (Dr. V. C. Momongon)  </P>
    1675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1634
    16761635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
    1677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1636
    16781637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Livestock Research Division, Los Banos, Laguna 3732 (Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio)  </P>
    1679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1638
    16811639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16821640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal</P>
    1683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1641
    16841642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross CockriII, 591 Vale do Lobo, Almansil, Algrave 8100</P>
    1685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1643
    16871644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16881645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka</P>
    1689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1646
    16901647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya (Dr. K. Balachandran)</P>
    1691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1648
    16921649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Veterinary Science, University of Sri Lanka, Peradenlya Dr. B.M.A.O. Perrera)</P>
    1693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1650
    16941651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    16951652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
    1696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1653
    16971654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, P.O. Box 22-149, Taipei City</P>
    1698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1655
    17001656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17011657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
    1702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1658
    17031659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro (M.L. Kyomo)  </P>
    1704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1660
    17051661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAFCO Farm, Ruvu</P>
    1706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1662
    17071663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Livestock Development Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam</P>
    1708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1664
    17091665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.J. Katyega, Director, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa M.M. Oloufa, FAO, Morogoro  </P>
    1710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1666
    17121667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17131668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
    1714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1669
    17151670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kasetsart University, Department of Animal Science, Bangkok (Dr. Charan Chantalakhana) Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Street, Bangkok 5 (Dr. Maneewan Kamonpatana)  </P>
    1716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1671
    17171672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Bangkok 10500  </P>
    1718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1673
    17191674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Regional Office, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2 (Dr. B. K. Soni)</P>
    1720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1675
    17211676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Livestock Development Project, Tha Phra, Khon Kaen</P>
    1722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1677
    17231678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Buffalo Research and Training Center, Surin</P>
    1724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1679
    17261680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17271681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad</P>
    1728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1682
    17291683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bennett, 61 Mucurapo Road, Port-of-Spain</P>
    1730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1684
    17321685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17331686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
    1734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1687
    17351688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, P.O. Box 24, Entebbe</P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1689
    17371690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Mugerwa, Faculty of Agriculture, MaKerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala</P>
    1738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1691
    17401692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17411693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
    1742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1694
    17431695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Begg, Resident Veterinary Surgeon, Howletts and Port Lympne Estates, Ltd., Port Lympne, Lympne, Kent CT21 4PD  </P>
    1744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1696
    17451697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. N. Wilson, BOCM Silcock Ltd., Basing View, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2EQ</P>
    1746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1698
    17481699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17491700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
    1750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1701
    17511702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wyland Cripe, Asst. Dean for Public Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box J-125, JHMHC, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610  </P>
    1752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1703
    17531704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Harrington, IRI Research Institute, Inc. One Rockefeller Plaza, New York, New York 10020 James Hentges, Department of Animal Science, Room 2104 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
    1754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1705
    17551706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jack Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616</P>
    1756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1707
    17571708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nels M. Konnerup, 609 East Iverson Road, Camano Island, Washington 98292</P>
    1758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1709
    17591710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P. Leonards, P.O. Box 1094, Lake Charles, Louisiana 70602</P>
    1760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1711
    17611712<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John K. Loosli, Department of Animal Science, Room 2103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
    1762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1713
    17631714<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853  </P>
    1764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1715
    17651716<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
    1766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1717
    17671718<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616  </P>
    1768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1719
    17701720<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17711721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
    1772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1722
    17731723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abelardo Ferrer D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, Avenida Jose Felix Rivas, San Bernardino, Caracas</P>
    1774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1724
    17761725<B><P></P>
    17771726<!--
    … …  
    17821731  </Description>
    17831732-->
    1784 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1733</B>
    17851734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
    1786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1735
    17871736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman  </P>
    1788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1737
    17891738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    17901739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    1791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1740
    17921741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
    1793 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1742
    17941743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas  </P>
    1795 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1744
    17961745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia  </P>
    1797 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1746
    17981747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDREW HAY, President, Calvert-Peat, Inc., New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
    1799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1748
    18001749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona  </P>
    1801 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1750
    18021751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah  </P>
    1803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1752
    18041753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
    1805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1754
    18061755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.  </P>
    1807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1756
    18081757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
    1809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1758
    18101759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    18111760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development  </P>
    1812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1761
    18131762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman  </P>
    1814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1763
    18151764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members  </P>
    1816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1765
    18171766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
    1818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1767
    18191768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEDRO BARBOSA, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (member through 1979)  </P>
    1820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1769
    18211770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLETCHER L. BYROM, Chairman, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  </P>
    1822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1771
    18231772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON BROWN, Director, Resource Systems Institute, The East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii  </P>
    1824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1773
    18251774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DORIS GALLOWAY, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
    1826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1775
    18271776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY E. CARTER, Associate Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.  </P>
    1828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1777
    18291778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH COLSON, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
    1830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1779
    18311780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREWSTER C. DENNY, Dean, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (member through 1980)  </P>
    1832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1781
    18331782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND I. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, ex-officio  </P>
    1834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1783
    18351784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBERT I. FUSFELD, Director, Center for Science and Technology Policy, Graduate School of Public Administration, New York University, New York, New York (member through 1979)  </P>
    1836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1785
    18371786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARTIN GOLAND, President, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas (member through 1979)  </P>
    1838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1787
    18391788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINCOLN GORDON, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. (member through September 1980)  </P>
    1840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1789
    18411790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES P. GRANT, President, Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C. (member through 1979)  </P>
    1842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1791
    18431792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, ax-officio  </P>
    1844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1793
    18451794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE R. HERBERT, President, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  </P>
    1846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1795
    18471796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan (member through 1980)  </P>
    1848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1797
    18491798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT N. KREIDLER, Private Foundation Consultant, New York, New York  </P>
    1850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1799
    18511800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD LASTER, Executive Vice President, General Foods Corporation, White Plains, New York </P>
    1852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1801
    18531802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LISTON, Director, Institute for Food Science &amp; Technology, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington  </P>
    1854 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1803
    18551804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS F. MALONE, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, ex-officio  FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
    1856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1805
    18571806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY W. NICHOLS, Executive Vice President, Rockefeller University, New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
    1858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1807
    18591808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANIEL A. OKUN, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina  </P>
    1860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1809
    18611810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. RAY PARISER, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts  </P>
    1862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1811
    18631812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAMES BRIAN QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business Administration, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (member through 1979)  </P>
    1864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1813
    18651814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRISCILLA C. REINING, Director, Project on Desertification, International Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
    1866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1815
    18671816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. RICHARDSON, JR., Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (member through 1979)  </P>
    1868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1817
    18691818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, Rockefeller University, New York, New York  </P>
    1870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1819
    18711820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. GUYFORD STEVER, Consultant, Washington, D.C.  </P>
    1872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1821
    18731822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Program Officer, Africa and the Middle East, International Agricultural Development Service, New York, New York  </P>
    1874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1823
    18751824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICTOR RABINOWITCH, Director</P>
    1876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1825
    18771826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Deputy Director  </P>
    1878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1827
    18791828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Deputy Director</P>
    1880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
     1829</FONT>
     1830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    18821831<!--
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    1414  </Description>
    1515-->
    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing Tropical Animal Resources</P>
    18 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     18
    1919<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
    2020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
    21 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    22 </FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     21
     22</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff">
    2323</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="Acknowledgements"></A></P>
    2424<!--
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    30 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     30</B>
    3131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation </P>
    3232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development </P>
    3333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs </P>
    3434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council </P>
    35 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     35
    3636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo, Papua New Guinea </P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     37
    3838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing  Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of  the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the  Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were  chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     39
    4040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the  procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the  National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute  of Medicine.</P>
    41 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     41
    4242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in  1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's  purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council  operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the  authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a  private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the  principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National  Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,  and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both  Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the  Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter  of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
    43 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     43
    4444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the  Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which  science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the  complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of  bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts  special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes  topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to  developing countries.</P>
    45 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     45
    4646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee  on Technology I innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International  Development, Office of international Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs  for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia,  Agency for International Development under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and  the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant  No DAN/5538-GSS- 1023-00.</P>
    47 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     47
    4848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
    4949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
    50 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     50
    5151</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Panel_on_Butterfly_Farming_in_P"></A></P>
    52 </FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     52</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
    5353<!--
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    5858  </Description>
    5959-->
    60 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     60</B>
    6161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Chairman, Lepidoptera Specialist Group, International  Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,  Switzerland, Chairman </P>
    6262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian  Institution, Washington, D.C. </P>
    … …  
    6767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University  of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
    6868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei,  Taiwan </P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     69
    7070</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Contributors_"></A></P>
    71 </FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     71</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
    7272<!--
    7373</Section>
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    7777  </Description>
    7878-->
    79 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     79</B>
    8080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea </P>
    81 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     81
    8282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER CLARK, Manager, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
    8383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROLE GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
    … …  
    9090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL PARSONS, Ecologist, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
    9191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLU RAIRI, Butterfly farmer, Maprik  </P>
    92 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     92
    9393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries </P>
    94 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     94
    9595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. S. BROWN, JR., Department of Zoology, State University of Campinas, Sao  Paulo, Brazil </P>
    9696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. M. COLLINS, Co-compiler, Invertebrate Red Data Book, International Union  for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge, England </P>
    … …  
    9999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHLEY C. MORTON, Department of Biology, The University, Southampton,  England </P>
    100100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan, Queensland, Australia </P>
    101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     101
    102102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
    103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103
    104104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Butterfly Study Director </P>
    105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    106106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff </P>
    107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     107
    108108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
    109109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
    110110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary </P>
    111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    112112</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Preface_"></A></P>
    113 </FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     113</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
    114114<!--
    115115</Section>
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    121 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     121</B>
    122122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is a growing new industry in Papua New Guinea, and by  turning irdwings, mauve swallowtails, and other insects into a cash crop  villagers are both earning money and practicing sound wildlife conservation.  In this unique program butterfly farming is being used to complement the  preservation of species and of habitats. In balancing the utilization of  common butterflies with the protection of the most threatened species, Papua  New Guinea is providing a model for other countries, particularly those in the  tropics. The program demonstrates how village development can become an  integral part of conservation.</P>
    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     123
    124124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report convened in Papua New Guinea in  May 1981. Its purpose was to investigate the concepts underlying this  project and to assess their potential for application elsewhere. Panel members  met with staff of the government's Division of Wildlife in Port Moresby and  later visited butterfly farms in Popondetta and the insect trading agency in  Bulolo. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro  Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging the itinerary in Papua New  Guinea and to Peter Clark and Michael Parsons for hosting the Bulolo and  Popondetta visits.</P>
    125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     125
    126126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is one of the National Research Council series, Managing  Tropical Animal Resources. Current titles in the series are:*</P>
    127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     127
    128128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (  1981 ) </P>
    129129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future  (1983) </P>
    130130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983)</P>
    131131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea ( 1983)</P>
    132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     132
    133133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities have been conducted under the auspices of the Advisory  Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research  Council (see page 29). The purpose of ACT}iS the assessment of  unconventional scientific advances that might prove especially applicable to  problems of developing countries. Since its founding in 1971, it has produced  about 30 reports covering subjects as diverse as ferrocement construction  materials, the winged bean (a high-protein tropical food crop), and techniques  to provide more water for arid lands. This study adds the dimension of  conservation and ecosystem protection to ACTI'S principal concerns of  promising but neglected resources.</P>
    134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     134
    135135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International  Development (AID). Program costs for this study were supported by AID'S  Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which  also made possible the free distribution of this report.  </P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    137 </FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     136
     137</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff">
    138138</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="BM1_Introduction_and_Summary_"></A></P>
    139139<!--
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    145145-->
    146 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     146</B>
    147147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international demand for tropical butterflies is much greater than is  generally recognized. Each year millions of them are caught and sold  throughout the world. Many buyers are scientists engaged in research on  aspects of systematics, ecology, ethology, evolution, and conservation.  Others are individuals who like expensive curios that incorporate butterflies,  such as display cases, coffee tables, wall hangings, or other objects. But  increasingly, the fragile, iridescent creatures, mounted in plastic or glass, are  used to decorate less-expensive items such as purses, trays, platters, screens,  and other common objects in Europe, North America, and Japan. In addition,  amateur butterfly collecting, which reached a peak in Victorian times, is again becoming popular.</P>
    148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     148
    149149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has produced a strong and active market. The current trade is  estimated to be between US $10 and $20 million annually, and the demand is  rising.</P>
    150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     150
    151151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </P>
    152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     152
    153153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remote regions of Papua New Guinea are benefiting from this burgeoning  interest in tropical insects, and several hundred villagers are rearing or  collecting butterflies, beetles, and other insects for export. The Papua New  Guinea government now considers insects a national resource, and it has  made butterfly farming part of the nation's village economic development. At Bulolo it has established an Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) to  handle the business details of a growing international trade. And Papua New  Guinea is the only country so far to specify insect conservation as a national  objective in its constitution.</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     154
    155155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botanical research is the key to Papua New Guinea's butterfly farming  program. Local botanists and ecologists have identified the plants that the  various butterfly species use during their life cycle. The butterfly farmers  then build up their "livestock" by clearing small areas of ground  and planting leafy food plants for larvae, together with the nectar-producing  flowering plants that adult butterflies feed on. The combination of flowering  and leafy plants provides a complete habitat where butterflies find everything  they need to grow and reproduce. Therefore, most remain, and the farmer  retains his livestock without fences or walls.*</P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     156
    157157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are among the most unusual farms in the world. Around their edges  are hibiscus and bougainvillea that attract the adult butterflies, whose  mouthparts are adapted for drinking nectar from flowers. And inside are leafy  plants, such as the strange Dutchman's pipe vine (Aristolochia tagala), on  which the caterpillars of several birdwing butterflies feed.</P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     158
    159159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enriched butterfly habitat in the villager's garden attracts and holds a  breeding population that becomes a self-renewing resource. By varying the  plant species the farmer can even maintain colonies of different butterfly  species. And because insects are so prolific, some butterfly farmers are  beginning to have problems with overstocking and have had to shift larvae  from plant to plant—rather like moving cattle from one field to the next as the  grazing runs out.</P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    161161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Development </P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162
    163163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IFTA program started in 1974 with fewer than 30 Papua New Guineans  from villages in two provinces. By 1978, more than 500 villagers in 10  provinces had been introduced to farming or collecting butterflies for export.  Since then, business has been increasing about 40 percent a year.</P>
    164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    165165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gram for gram, exotic butterflies are far more valuable than cattle. Prices  paid by dealers in Europe, North America, and Japan range from 30 cents for  individuals of common species to around $10 for the two birdwing species  whose export is allowed. A specimen of a rarer species (for example, a female  of the mauve swallowtail Graphium weiskei) may bring as much as $50.</P>
    166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    167167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project is still an embryonic activity; it is not large, as development  programs go. IFTA has only one professional staff person and two local  technicians to handle the distribution of specimens. The agency's goal is to  export between 5,000 and 10,000 specimens a month, from which the villages  can expect a return of $10,000 or more.</P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    169169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency purchases butterflies from villagers and uses them to fill orders from overseas buyers. Colorful beetles, strange-looking stick and leaf insects, and some moths and cicadas are also caught in the wild and sent to Bulolo. The profits, less 25 percent, are returned to the villagers. At the time of the panel's visit, IFTA had received about 4,000 shipments of butterflies and other insects from the rural people and had paid out about US $180,000 to purchase them. In 1979, the average farmer or collector received about $37 per box of specimens. By 1980, this had risen to about $50 per box. In 1981 it was estimated that a diligent butterfly farmer could earn an annual income of about $1,200.</P>
    170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    171171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so small an annual income is substantial in rural areas where the mean annual per capita income may be only $50. In many remote areas it is difficult to create income-producing opportunities because of illiteracy, dispersed population, and, in some cases, resistance to foreign ways.</P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    173173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through butterfly farming many rural Papua New Guineans are for the first time participating in a cash economy. The product is a highvalue, low-volume crop. It brings needed or supplementary income to the people of the predominantly rural areas. Compared with farming coffee, another possible industry in Papua New Guinea's rural regions, it requires far less effort or land, and it involves minimal costs to the producer. And where a few expatriate opportunists once made small fortunes exploiting Papua New Guinea's butterflies, the profits now go to the villagers.</P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    175175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    177177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat loss is by far the most critical issue in butterfly conservation. If habitat changes, the animals must change, leave, or die. Usually they die, since alternative habitats are already occupied or too distant.</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     178
    179179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's butterfly species have suffered diminished ranges, and an estimated half of the world's butterfly populations face threats from human development. From Britain to Bhutan, the insects' habitats have come under siege. In Europe, perhaps one-third of all butterfly species are threatened, owing chiefly to the reductions in their various habitats. In California, half-a-dozen coastal butterflies have been lost since the 1860s, and an equal number are now endangered. In Madagascar and Rwanda, swallowtails and some species that occur nowhere else are being sacrificed to the clearing of forests.</P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     180
    181181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The losses are much more than aesthetic, for many butterflies benefit people. They pollinate crops, are a major link in the food chain, and serve as sensitive indicators of ecological health.</P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     182
    183183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A striking feature of the Papua New Guinea butterfly farming program is that it is designed to conserve and increase the species being traded. It is a pioneering conservation effort that has been endorsed by the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The program helps relieve pressure on endangered populations, because for successful butterfly farms the villagers must retain - and even foster - a healthy wild population on or near their land.</P>
    184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     184
    185185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect farming also helps preserve habitats because it leaves the bulk of the land intact and it helps landowners earn money without requiring them to cut down the rain forest as they would for timber or for cocoa, coffee, or oil palm plantations. Similarly, villagers can retain their traditional hunting grounds while cropping the insects that rely on these grounds for survival.</P>
    186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     186
    187187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The existence of the butterfly farming project has served to focus attention on the status of all butterfly species. In 1968 this led to a law banning the taking of even a single specimen of the seven birdwing species threatened with extinction in Papua New Guinea. These large, brilliantly colored creatures can bring as much as $1,000 each in international trade, but there is a stiff fine in Papua New Guinea for even possessing one.</P>
    188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     188
    189189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching habitats with butterfly food plants (notably the Dutchman's pipe vine, Aristolochia tagala) has greatly increased the numbers of Papua New Guinea's two common birdwing species, Ornithoptera priamus and Troides oblongomaculatus. Now the country is taking on the challenge of increasing the seven endangered birdwing species that are protected and banned from trade. Already the IFTA staff has found that at least one of these rare species (Ornithoptera victoriae) is easily reared on the Dutchman's pipe vine. Farms are now being designed and sited with a view to building up the populations of this giant endangered species.</P>
    190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     190
    191191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclusions</P>
    192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     192
    193193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the importance of this pioneering activity lies not in its size, but in the new vistas it opens up for the use of tropical resources.</P>
    194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     194
    195195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Development</P>
    196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     196
    197197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In farming butterflies, Papua New Guinea is showing that indigenous wildlife resources (especially those being depleted because of their commercial value) can contribute to economic development and that the farming of indigenous animals can be fitted smoothly into traditional village life.</P>
    198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     198
    199199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing employment in rural areas is a major problem of developing countries. And in a sense, butterflies are an "appropriate" livestock, particularly for remote areas of the tropics where other income-producing activities are difficult to establish or are harmful to traditional lifestyles and fragile environments.</P>
    200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     200
    201201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies may seem unusual farm animals, but to villagers in the Papua New Guinea jungle it is cattle that are exotic. The villagers live in close contact with their local insects; invariably they know much about butterfly locations, behavior, habits, life cycle, and the food eaten by the caterpillars.</P>
    202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     202
    203203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming butterflies is proving a business to which villagers quickly adapt. Butterflies do not require the equipment or financing of a conventional farm; no capital is required, except for postage on the first shipment of specimens. Insect farming allows people to participate in the cash economy without causing disruptive changes in traditional village life. The villagers can work long and hard if they wish or they can put in only enough time to produce a little cash for necessities, leaving plenty of time for raising crops and other village activities.</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     204
    205205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat Conservation</P>
    206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     206
    207207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often claimed that economic development is necessarily destructive to the environment and detrimental to conservation - that as rural societies develop, their natural surroundings must suffer. The Papua New Guinea butterfly farming project is an innovative program that demonstrates this need not be true.</P>
    208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     208
    209209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program also shows that where human needs are given attention, conservation can be successful. Elsewhere in the tropics, attempts to conserve habitat without considering the needs of the people who live nearby have often failed.</P>
    210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     210
    211211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sum, the butterfly farming program demonstrates that certain natural resources can be used profitably in a way that protects the environment. The program offers a culturally appropriate use of the land; on a broad scale, it could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the forest for timber exports or the wholesale conversion of rain forest to cash-crop monocultures such as coconut, coffee, or oil palm. Most of Papua New Guinea is still covered by primary rain forest; exploiting the economic value of the insects that live there is helping safeguard this increasingly rare habitat, which is fast disappearing in most parts of the tropics.</P>
    212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     212
    213213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Conservation </P>
    214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     214
    215215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The knowledge gained from farming Papua New Guinea's butterflies has already contributed to relieving the threat of extinction from seven endangered species of birdwings. This experience could be replicated in other places where there are endangered butterfly species. Indeed, the program provides a model for nations that could profitably farm butterflies while protecting their threatened butterfly species.</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     216
    217217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension to Other Organisms</P>
    218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     218
    219219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project has a strategy and organizational structure that could well be applied to plants, such as rare orchids, and animals, such as crocodiles, that are endangered because of their commercial value. Indeed, using similar concepts of combining village income and conservation, the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife is farming crocodiles,* ruse deer, wallabies, and two native birds, the megapode and cassowary.</P>
    220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     220
    221221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through such husbandry practices, many species elsewhere might be saved from extinction, while providing income to the local people who traditionally have used the resource. Other countries should look with interest at the way Papua New Guinea is handling its wildlife enterprises. </P>
    222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     222
    223223</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM2_Butterfly_Status_and_Conserva"></A></P>
    224 </FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     224</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
    225225<!--
    226226</Section>
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    230230  </Description>
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    232 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     232</B>
    233233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 100,000-150,000 species of butterflies have been described; perhaps half that number remain to be discovered. Although there are important concentrations in the Arctic and temperate regions, most species are found in the tropics. There, the diversity of colors and forms is dazzling; every imaginable combination of hue and color is displayed. And many tropical butterflies are enriched with "structural" colors, which cause the wings to flash iridescently in the sun as they bend the light they reflect.</P>
    234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     234
    235235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although butterflies have long been admired and often depicted in art, they have been seriously studied only since the end of the seventeenth century. Linnaeus, in his Systema Naturae, placed the small number of butterflies then known in the single genus Papilio. Today that genus is restricted to the true swallowtails, and more than 700 genera of butterflies are recognized.</P>
    236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    237237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Butterfly Trade</P>
    238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     238
    239239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last century, as knowledge of butterflies grew and methods of preserving them improved, they become popular collectors' items. Wealthy naturalists such as Rothschild and LeMoult dispatched collectors to all parts of the world for specimens. Today the trade in butterflies is even more extensive.</P>
    240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     240
    241241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major kinds of butterfly and insect trade. In one, large numbers of common species are collected in the wild and processed for use in ornamental objects such as coasters, mats, and lampshades. This is a low-value, high-volume industry that is both labor- and capital-intensive. It frequently uses "chipped" or slightly damaged butterflies. It often sells butterflies with paper bodies and only the wings of actual insects, which seem to be acceptable to a large part of the buying public.</P>
    242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     242
    243243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwanese butterfly trade is an example. It operates on a large scale. At least a dozen Taiwanese factories employ scores of workers to capture and process butterflies. Estimates of annual sales vary from 15 million to 500 million butterflies. Taiwanese butterfly wings pasted onto paper bodies with pig-bristle antennae are used in ornaments and household objects from wall hangings to clear-plastic toilet seats. The bodies are recycled as pig feed. Despite this massive trade, Taiwan's wild butterfly populations seem to be remaining steady.</P>
    244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     244
    245245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar, though smaller, industries trafficking in common butterflies are found in Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Honduras, and several African nations. The famous blue morpho butterflies of the American tropics enter the trade at the rate of some 50 million per year. Nearly all of these are the brilliant iridescent males, and biologists believe the number sold could be doubled without harming the overall population.</P>
    246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     246
    247247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of trade involves higher value and lower volume. This produces a vastly different product from the paper-bodied butterflies bound for novelty stores. It is exemplified by the operation in Papua New Guinea where sales are to collectors, museums, and students, and the specimens are high-quality insects in good to perfect condition, usually bearing scientific data. Because of the relatively high value per specimen, this trade can be carried on by fewer individuals in a nonfactory setting, and it is well suited to village industry, provided there is supervision and a quality-control checkpoint.</P>
    248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     248
    249249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of butterfly trade is for high-quality, expensive ornamental items, such as glass cases, domes, wall mounts, or jewelry containing beautiful insects. Brazil, for example, has a thriving jewelry trade based on the iridescent blue morpho butterfly. This type of trade can also furnish high-paying outlets for village-farmed insects.</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     250
    251251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p08.png"></center><br>
    252252 Papua New Guinea.</P>
    253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     253
    254254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all three divisions of the butterfly trade, dealers fulfill an essential role. Few collectors and scientists can travel the world collecting their own specimens. Some dealers have established reputations for honesty, some have not. Exploitation of suppliers and customers alike has been rife. Few dealers are careful to attach accurate locality data to their specimens; some make serious mistakes in identifying them. (To combat this problem, British insect dealers have formed an association to monitor conservation-related activities and improve professional practice.)</P>
    255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     255
    256256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, dealers supply specimens bred from the caterpillar or chrysalis and described as "ex pupa." Unless butterflies are caught immediately after emerging from the pupa the fragile wings tear and the scales detach to produce "worn" specimens.</P>
    257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     257
    258258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Taxonomy</P>
    259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     259
    260260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classifying butterflies is difficult. Their most obvious features, the color and pattern of the wings, vary greatly; individuals and populations of the same species often look quite different. This has led to the dubious naming of many species and subspecies. And the uncertainties it causes have led some biologists, especially those working in ecology and genetics, to name populations rather than species or subspecies. However, populations frequently evolve, and this introduces a further uncertainty. Much additional work on basic butterfly systematics is needed. The knowledge gained should contribute particularly to the conservation of endangered species.</P>
    261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    262262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Conservation</P>
    263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    264264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly conservation is still in an early state of development, bedeviled by scarce or incomplete information. The conservation status of even the most thoroughly studied butterfly species is known in only a few areas. The distribution and status of most species is essentially unknown, and proposals for conservation measures are largely based on guesswork. Nevertheless, some conservation programs have been enacted. Most have concentrated on designating endangered species and banning their collection.</P>
    265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     265
    266266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest threat to butterflies and other insects, however, is habitat alteration. On several continents some species have already become extinct or endangered when humans altered the special environment they require. The importance of protecting butterfly habitats should not be underrated. Many species are restricted to very small areas, particularly to individual islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Sumba, the Comoros, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Manus, and the Duke of York Islands, for instance). Such species are vulnerable to extinction because nearly all island habitats are fragile and are changing rapidly.</P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     267
    268268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is uncommon for insect species to be dangerously reduced merely by the capture of specimens, renewed commercial interest in butterflies gives rise to concern for their conservation. Most insects reproduce rapidly, and their high fecundity enables them to replace such losses in a generation or two - provided the basic environment has not been altered.</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     269
    270270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are certain species of butterfly that reproduce slowly and are therefore more threatened by collection. The unusual birdwing butterflies of New Guinea, for example, produce only small broods. Moreover, these rare species command higher prices. Because this makes them particularly vulnerable, legislation to protect birdwing butterflies has been instituted in both parts of New Guinea - Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.</P>
    271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     271
    272272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accordingly, to save Queen Alexandra's birdwing (the largest and most threatened of the birdwings) from extinction, several wildlife management areas have been set up in Popondetta on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The government is also setting up refuges, administered by village councils, to preserve and protect other birdwing butterflies and wildlife resources. This habitat conservation is an important adjunct to the butterfly farming program. </P>
    273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     273
    274274</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM3_History_and_Government_Policy"></A></P>
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    283 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     283</B>
    284284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soon after Europeans discovered New Guinea's remarkable insect fauna around the turn of the century, collectors began arriving, and they have been coming ever since. Many were reputable professional or amateur scientists, gathering modest numbers of specimens for study and for museums, including Papua New Guinea's own national collection. Others, however, were plunderers who carried away large numbers of rare butterflies, giving little or no compensation to the local people and showing no concern for survival of the species.</P>
    285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     285
    286286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1966 the Papua New Guinea government responded to excessive collecting by designating seven rare birdwing butterflies as protected species. It became illegal to collect these huge, colorful birdwings, and strong measures were instituted - fines for nationals, deportation of expatriates - to halt black market trade.</P>
    287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     287
    288288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s and early 1970s commercial collecting of the other butterfly species continued piecemeal and unsupervised. Income was erratic, and expatriate dealers often paid their Papua New Guinean suppliers only a few cents for specimens that retailed for several hundred dollars in Europe and Japan.</P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     289
    290290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Insect Farming and Trading Agency</P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     291
    292292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975, the new government decreed that only nationals should profit from the country's butterfly resource. Since that time only Papua New Guineans have been able to export butterfly specimens (nonprotected species) for profit. </P>
    293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     293
    294294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1978, to guarantee Papua New Guineans fair prices and stable sales, a marketing agency was established. Its purpose was to protect the resource, to foster butterfly farming, and to ensure a high-quality export product.</P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     295
    296296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modest in its beginnings, the Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) was organized by Angus Hutton, a former tea planter and amateur lepidopterist. The business side of the agency was later developed by Peter Clark, who had worked with Hutton. Identification and production of food plants was advanced by Michael Parsons, Robert Pyle, and others.</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     297
    298298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA provides a market for those Papua New Guinea nationals who farm and collect butterflies and other insects. The agency allows them to obtain fair and fixed prices, maintains quality control, and ensures that current data accompanies all specimens. It also pools the insects from many sources and fills large orders from overseas dealers. </P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     299
    300300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the butterflies IFTA exports, about 30 percent are from village farms and 70 percent are collected in the field. However, more than 50 percent of the revenue is made up of the farmed butterflies because of their better quality.</P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     301
    302302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality Control</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     303
    304304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency strives to sell only highest-quality insects; it rejects many butterflies as substandard. Most specimens are sold as named subspecies and to identify and name them requires much skill. Staff members have been specially trained to do this. (To a large extent, the area of origin, particularly in the case of the offshore islands, defines the subspecies concerned.) Locality data, usually consisting of village, province, and month and year of collecting or emergence, is affixed to all butterfly envelopes before they are pooled at the agency.</P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     305
    306306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA stores its collection by species, in simple wooden boxes kept in cupboards lit from below (to lure potential pests away from the insects and to warm the cupboards and prevent mold). </P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     307
    308308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing</P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     309
    310310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency makes up orders and dispatches them (with the required export permits) to customers "on trust." Although this is open to abuse, most buyers pay promptly and the system is easy and convenient. Careful records are kept of all suppliers, customers, and species in stock.</P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     311
    312312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the time of the panel's visit, about 80 percent of the agency's business consisted of responding to requests from dealers. However, less than 10 percent of the orders received from all sources could be filled.Some requests were too small and others too specialized; in some cases the agency simply didn't have the specimens on hand (for example, a request for all the subspecies of a given butterfly). Furthermore, the agency has neither the office staff nor space to cope with every order in a business whose volume is almost doubling every two years.</P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     313
    314314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field Extension</P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    316316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife extension officers periodically visit clients and new villages to sustain or develop enthusiasm for insect farming. They explain and demonstrate the procedures of butterfly farming and collecting and teach potential farmers how to recognize a valuable species in each of its life stages. Above all, they demonstrate how to prepare specimens for sale. This is because it is often difficult to convince farmers of the need for extreme care and delicacy in handling, and many inexperienced farmers send in bruised or hopelessly damaged specimens. Although about 500 villagers were farming butterflies at the time of the panel's visit, fewer than 50 were supplying good material regularly.</P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    318318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These contacts are also important because the butterfly farmers easily become discouraged if no interest is shown in their work. In the Papua New Guinea countryside there is often little need for cash; people can obtain all their food, clothes, shelter, and resources from their gardens or from the bush. Money received from one shipment of butterflies may last a subsistence farmer for months, making it difficult for the agency to sustain his interest in providing regular shipments.</P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    320320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's extension officers have initiated a number of butterfly farming projects at primary, secondary, and vocational schools. These projects have proved most successful. Apart from the practical education they give students, they provide early insight into one of Papua New Guinea's most useful resources. Several vocational schools also provide training in mounting butterflies and beetles as souvenirs for tourists, as well as in the construction of hatching cages and solar driers. Beautiful wooden cabinets to hold butterflies have also been made by some teenage students.</P>
    321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    322322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Monitoring</P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    324324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to teaching Papua New Guineans to collect and farm insects, IFTA promotes research both to conserve species and to make them available in quantity. Success has already been achieved in farming the common birdwing butterflies by planting large numbers of the Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia tagala) vines that they feed on.</P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     325
    326326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's staff includes an ecologist, indicating the importance of the scientific basis for conservation in this project. The ecologist is at hand to conduct research on life histories, farming methods, and management measures for rare species.</P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     327
    328328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA staff are now identifying new food plants that will permit more species to be farmed. Research into the life histories of many butterflies with economic potential is well under way, so that an increasing number of species will become "farmable" and will be available in future in perfect ex pupa condition. </P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     329
    330330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sources of all specimens received by IFTA are recorded on a map so that a butterfly's range and rarity or abundance can be assessed and conservation measures implemented where necessary. In this way, even insects too damaged for sale at least have value to conservation efforts. All specimens of unusual scientific interest are lodged in the national insect collection for future study. </P>
    331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     331
    332332</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM4_Operating_a_Butterfly_Farm"></A></P>
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     341</B>
    342342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting the Farm</P>
    343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     343
    344344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key to farming butterflies is to establish a garden of the plants the various species need for their life cycles. The ideal farm area is about 0.2 hectares. This is spacious enough for growing food plants for adults and larvae and small enough to keep the plants watered, weeded, pruned, and generally well tended. Such a farm can contain about 500 vines, grown like bean plants on poles or shade trees.</P>
    345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     345
    346346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to surround the site with a thick hedge of hibiscus, bougainvillea, ixora, poinsettia, or other nectar-bearing plants whose flowers attract adult butterflies and encourage them to remain in the area. The hedges also keep out pigs and other livestock that may damage the leafy plants inside the farm.</P>
    347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     347
    348348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a farm is to establish it in a vegetable garden. (Papua New Guinea butterfly farmers often plant butterfly vines between their rows of sweet potato or tarot) By the time the vegetables are ready to harvest, the area already has some thriving butterfly food plants and probably some winged livestock as well.</P>
    349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     349
    350350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful butterfly food plants in Papua New Guinea is Aristolochia tagala, a vine on which the larvae of more common birdwing butterflies feed. Another is Evodea - a food plant of the large blue ulysses swallowtail and many colorful weevils.</P>
    351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     351
    352352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees also can be food plants for butterflies other than birdwings and for beetles or weevils. Examples are species of Annona (such as soursop), Citrus (such as lemon), Cerbera, and Graptophyllum. Wallace's Longhorn Beetle feeds on breadfruit (Artocarpus communis). </P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     353
    354354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, one area of the farm is kept aside for growing seeds or cuttings. (IFTA sells seed of some suitable species.) In this nursery the butterfly food plants are watered and cared for, and unhealthy ones are easily spotted and weeded out. </P>
    355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     355
    356356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
    357357 Stylized diagram of a butterfly farm:</P>
    … …  
    362362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E A hut for tools.</P>
    363363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Diagram courtesy IFTA, Bulolo)</P>
    364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     364
    365365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Cycle</P>
    366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     366
    367367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, each butterfly species has a preferred food plant for its larvae. After the female has mated she searches for the correct plant and lays her eggs on or near it. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars usually eat their own eggshells and begin feeding on the softer leaves and shoots of the food plant.</P>
    368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     368
    369369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As they grow, the caterpillars shed their skins. Each molt is called an instar, and five instars occur before a larva is big enough to pupate. Pupation is a resting stage during which the adult butterfly develops inside the hard, protective chrysalis. For pupation the larva selects the underside of a stem or leaf to protect it from rain and predators.</P>
    370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     370
    371371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 10 days to 3 weeks, depending on the type of butterfly, the pupal case splits open and the adult insect emerges. This usually occurs before 9 o'clock in the morning. The freshly emerged adult then takes from 3 to 4 hours to expand and dry its wings before flying off to feed on nectar and to search for a mate to begin the life cycle once again. </P>
    372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     372
    373373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvesting</P>
    374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     374
    375375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the farm is well established, pupae can be collected daily. Ideally, about 50 percent should be left or released. At least as many females as males should be released. Pupae that are too high to reach are usually left to emerge naturally and repopulate the farm. Others are left because they are not quite perfect.</P>
    376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     376
    377377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can usually see that emergence will occur on the next day, since the pupa becomes darker in color as the adult wing and body colors develop. He then plucks off the stem or leaf to which the pupa is attached. (The soft, new pupae are not touched because this damages the adult.)</P>
    378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378
    379379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He pins the leaf to a board or puts it in a net or in a small cage. Often these are kept inside to protect the pupae against pests and large predators. However, some farmers construct small houses out of bush materials to hold pupae ready for hatching. Others keep their pupae in the open and count on being able to collect the adults before they have flown away.</P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    381381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care is taken to protect the specimens from ants and rats. For example, the legs of the cage are placed in bowls of water to deter ants from climbing up. The pupae are sprayed with water 2-3 times a week to speed up the hatching process and to prevent them from drying out. (Only a light spray is used; otherwise the pupa develop mold.)</P>
    382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     382
    383383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pupae are best kept in a shady place so the butterflies will remain calm after hatching and will not flap and damage their wings.</P>
    384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     384
    385385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Processing</P>
    386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     386
    387387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the newly emerged butterfly has completely dried its wings, it is carefully caught by the thorax and injected with a small amount of a killing agent such as ethyl acetate or boiling water.</P>
    388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     388
    389389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small butterflies are particularly easily damaged if handled, so they are placed for about 10 minutes in a killing jar containing cotton (cotton wool) soaked with a little ethyl acetate. A layer of cardboard is placed above the cotton so that the butterflies are not stained by the solvent.</P>
    390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     390
    391391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer places the dead butterflies in paper envelopes, being careful at all times not to touch or damage the wings. The envelopes are easily made from grease-proof paper, which the agency supplies on request.</P>
    392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     392
    393393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the butterflies will not mold, they are placed on a black plastic tray and dried in the sun, in their papers, for about 4 days. During this time they are protected from pests such as ants, and the drying trays have a screen on top to prevent the envelopes from blowing away or from being rained on.</P>
    394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     394
    395395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once properly dried, the insects, still in their envelopes, are stored in boxes, preferably airtight to prevent condensation and molding. When enough specimens have been collected, the villager packs them carefully in strong cardboard boxes (which the agency also supplies) with cotton or kapok. A few naphthalene crystals are added to keep away pests, and the box is wrapped and sent to Bulolo. </P>
    396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     396
    397397</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM5_Application_to_Other_Nations"></A></P>
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    406 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     406</B>
    407407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the essence of the Papua New Guinea approach is the cultivation of food plants that the butterflies need to complete their life cycles. This is a process that could be replicated elsewhere, and the potential for butterfly farming exists in many countries. In fact, although Papua New Guinea is rich in butterfly species - some 700 of them - it is not unusually so. Other countries also have large numbers of species. There are, for instance 2,500 species known in Costa Rica.</P>
    408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     408
    409409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are some 14,000 species of true butterflies in the world. Although there is possible competition, many countries have no overlap in species at all. As collectors and specialists usually want butterflies from many different parts of the world, the likely competition among countries exporting farmed or wild-caught butterflies is minimal.</P>
    410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     410
    411411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies are supplied to the trade from nearly every part of the world. But because they are most diverse in the tropics, it is likely that the best chance for success in farming them lies there. However, some temperate countries also have an abundance of particular species, and in Europe, the United States, and Japan, butterfly farming is already established on a small scale. This is mainly because many collectors like to rear their own material and they purchase eggs, caterpillars, or chrysalids instead of killed adults. Many dealers in these countries supply a few tropical species that are easy to rear, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus). However, this trade is generally low in volume and value, and temperate-zone butterfly farms are little more than a sideline to normal dealerships.</P>
    412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     412
    413413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some general comments follow on the potential of butterfly farming in various parts of the world.</P>
    414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     414
    415415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Old World (Palaearctic Realm). East palaearctic species are in great demand internationally and obtainable with great difficulty. China, in particular, has species of both Parnassius and Papilio that might be farmed. However, all Parnassius species are montane to some degree and none has been farmed yet. Eurasian arctic satyrids, lesser fritillaries, and sulphurs are also in great commercial demand and could perhaps be farmed. Swallowtails are few and are frequently protected.</P>
    416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     416
    417417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical Africa and associated islands (Afrotropical Region). The potential for butterfly farming has not yet been considered in Africa, although the diversity of desirable species is great and the potential market extensive. This area has important swallowtails and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae), but so far as is known, no farming enterprises exist. Experimental or trial farms for butterflies are needed in different parts of Africa.</P>
    418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     418
    419419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian tropics (Oriental Realm). Silk moths, such as Bombyx mori, are commercially farmed in Asia, and butterfly farming would seem to be a natural extension of this. Many Asian butterflies are supplied to dealers, especially from Taiwan and the Philippines, but there is little farming. A very large trade originates in Malaysia, especially for Rajah Brooke's birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana). Farming is reputed to take place, but most specimens are actually collected. Desirable species of swallowtails, including the black and gold birdwings (Troides species), occur throughout the region. Species belonging to the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae are good candidates for farming, as they are in much demand from dealers.</P>
    420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     420
    421421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Australia, New Guinea, and associated islands to the west (Australasian Realm). Australia is not rich in butterflies, but it has some important endemic species. At least one "farm" exists in Australia, but this appears to be an offshoot of a normal dealership, which rears a few local species to supply at early stages to collectors. Farming is to be encouraged here.</P>
    422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     422
    423423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Guinea's most coveted butterflies, which it shares with Irian Jaya, are the Ornithoptera birdwings. But almost equally desired by collectors and specialists are the Troides birdwings, concentrated to the west of New Guinea.</P>
    424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     424
    425425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Americas (Nearctic Realm). There is a considerable trade in New World butterflies from nearly every family (few Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae), but almost all are caught in the wild. There is a strong market for far-northern species (Boloria, Colias, Erebia, Oenesis). Farming these might be possible among Canadian and Alaskan Indian or Eskimo groups.</P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     426
    427427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical regions of the Americas (Neotropical Realm). This is a likely area for the development of butterfly farming, particularly as its species are completely different from those of the tropics elsewhere. The Morpho and Agrias species of South America are much desired by collectors. It is possible that some of the highly prized morpho butterflies are already farmed (as the law, in fact, requires), but evidence is conflicting, and most biologists believe that the major supply of specimens is from wild populations. Other groups that lend themselves to farming include the swallowtails, nymphalids (including Agrias), and certain members of the family Satyridae. There are large fauna of Riodinidae and Lycaenidae that are potentially suitable for farming.</P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     428
    429429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dealer in preserved butterflies has recently set up business in the Dominican Republic, and butterfly farms have been established in Costa Rica.</P>
    430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     430
    431431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· General. Butterflies in the family Riodinidae and, especially, Lycaenidae seem to be a neglected resource. Many species are relatively small but brightly colored. A major difficulty is that many Lycaenidae have to live with ants for part of their lives and this complicates their rearing.</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     432
    433433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Parks</P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     434
    435435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some regions with tourist industries are showing interest in establishing "butterfly zoos" or "butterfly jungles." These displays have live butterflies (usually farmed or reared) in artificial habitats resembling the natural ones. Some species, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus), respond well to such conditions. One British dealer has a "tropical jungle" in an enclosed environment in which both temperature and atmospheric pressure are regulated. A large British butterfly zoo has been established and a smaller one has been proposed. The New York Zoological Society is developing a butterfly component in its Wild Asia Hall at the Bronx Zoo, and San Francisco, Portland, Cincinnati, and Tokyo all have thriving insect zoos. Also, the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka has a live display and a successful program of butterfly rearing. Similar enterprise could be shown in other places with tourist industries.</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436
    437437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting a Butterfly Farm</P>
    438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    439439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is initially an ecological and botanical challenge. One must first observe, identify, and propagate the plants that the various species use for food.</P>
    440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     440
    441441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for butterfly farmers rests on their choosing commercially attractive species. Unfortunately, ecological details of the life histories of suitable species are known in only a few cases. The prospective farmer will be largely on his own and must first develop this information.</P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     442
    443443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the most desirable species are native to primary tropical forests, and they may need protection because of the rate at which their habitat is being destroyed.</P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     444
    445445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any program to commercially exploit butterflies and other insects must either bypass the rarest, most restricted, and slowest reproducing species; farm them cautiously with a high percentage of adults released; or take them with the greatest of care. Further, there must be adequate habitat protection both in the natural state and in mixed land uses (rather than just agricultural croplands) to support the insects and furnish a continuing supply.</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     446
    447447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some competition could occur if live butterflies were exported between countries and used to establish farming enterprises. In general, however, butterflies are easier to farm in their native habitats. </P>
    448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     448
    449449</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_A"></A></P>
    450 </FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     450</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
    451451<!--
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    456456  </Description>
    457457-->
    458 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     458</B>
    459459<B><P></P>
    460460<!--
    … …  
    464464  </Description>
    465465-->
    466 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466</B>
    467467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carvalho, J. C. M., and O. H. H. Mielke. 1972. The trade of butterfly wings in Brazil and its effect upon survival of the species. Proceedings 19th International Congress of Entomology (Moscow) 1 :486-488.</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    469469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fenner, T. L. 1976. Aspects of butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea, Pp. 121-127 in Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea, K. P. Lamb and J. L. Gressitt eds. Pamphlet 2. Wau Ecology Institute, Papua New Guinea.</P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    471471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parsons, M. n.d. Insect Farming and Trading Agency Farming Manual. Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Division of Wildlife, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.</P>
    472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     472
    473473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. 1981. Butterflies: now you see them.... International Wildlife I I (1):4- 11.</P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474
    475475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R., M. Bentzien, and P. Opler. 1981. Insect conservation. Annual Review of Entomology 26:233-258.</P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    477477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. M. and S. A. Hughes. 1978. Conservation and utilization of the insect resources of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report, copies available from the author, see Research Contacts.</P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    479479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Severinghaus, S. R. 1977. The butterfly industry and butterfly conservation in Taiwan. Atala 5(2):20-23.</P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    481481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unno, K. 1974. Taiwan's butterfly industry. Wildlife 16: 356-359.</P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    483483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vietmeyer, N. D. 1979. Butterfly ranching is taking wing in Papua New Guinea. Smithsonian 10(2):119-135. </P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    485485</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_B"></A></P>
    486486</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
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    492492  </Description>
    493493-->
    494 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     494</B>
    495495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
    496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     496
    497497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wayne Gagne, Bishop Museum, P.O. Box 6037, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818 USA</P>
    498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     498
    499499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie 4570, Queensland, Australia</P>
    500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     500
    501501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Farming and Trading Agency, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (Peter Clark, Manager; Michael Parsons, Ecologist)</P>
    502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     502
    503503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani, Papua New Guinea</P>
    504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     504
    505505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea</P>
    506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     506
    507507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rudi Mattoni, 9620 Heather Road, Beverly Hills, California 90210, USA</P>
    508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     508
    509509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael G. Morris, Chairman, Butterfly Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset BH20 5AS, England</P>
    510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    511511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashley C. Morton, Department of Biology, Building 44, The University, Southampton S09 5NH, England</P>
    512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    513513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814, Australia</P>
    514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    515515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert M. Pyle, Chairman, Monarch Project, Xerces Society, 369 Loop Road, Gray's River, Washington 98621, USA</P>
    516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    517517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheldon R. Severinghaus, Representative, The Asia Foundation, 42, Chien Kuo North Road, Taipei 104, Taiwan, Republic of China </P>
    518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    519519</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_C"></A></P>
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    528 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528</B>
    529529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</P>
    530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    531531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary-General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Under exploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
    532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    533533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.</P>
    534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    535535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
    536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    537537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
    538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538
    539539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
    540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    541541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
    542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     542
    543543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this sytem. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
    544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    545545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A </P>
    546546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     547
    548548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     549
    550550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with the Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     551
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    562 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     562</B>
    563563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
    564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     564
    565565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     566
    567567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania </P>
    568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     568
    569569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
    570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     570
    571571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L.GADEN,JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     572
    573573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
    574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    575575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
    576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    577577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
    578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    579579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
    580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     580
    581581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
    582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     582
    583583</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Board_on_Science_and_Technology"></A></P>
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    592 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592</B>
    593593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
    594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    595595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
    596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     596
    597597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
    598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     598
    599599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
    600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600
    601601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
    602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    603603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
    604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    605605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     606
    607607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     608
    609609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
    610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     610
    611611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
    612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     612
    613613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
    614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     614
    615615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     616
    617617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     618
    619619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     620
    621621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     622
    623623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
    624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     624
    625625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE 1. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
    626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     626
    627627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
    628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     628
    629629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
    630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     630
    631631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    632 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     632
    633633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
    634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     634
    635635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
    636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     636
    637637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
    638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     638
    639639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
    640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     640
    641641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
    642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     642
    643643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    644644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. HURLEY, Director</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    646646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
    647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    648648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
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    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN UNION</P>
    19 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    2020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
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    2222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
    23 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    2424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom, regarded as a fundamental human right, is also a key component in the democratization process.</P>
    25 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    2626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of experts in the field, we look at what various organizations are doing to combat censorship and promote a free press in ACP countries and elsewhere.</P>
    27 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    2828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also highlight the new trend of donor support for projects aimed at promoting press freedom. These include, notably, provisions for the training of journalists. And as new means of communication, such as the World Wide Web, develop, we consider what is being done to prevent the opening up of a new divide - this time between the 'information rich' end the 'information poor'.</P>
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    3030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
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    3232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde</P>
    33 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     33
    3434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the least-developed countries, Cape Verde is seen as a model of good governance and stable democracy. It is also admired for its perseverance in the struggle against the exigencies of history and climate. The country suffers from almost permanent drought and has virtually no regular supplies of fresh water.</P>
    35 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     35
    3636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its history has been punctuated by serious famines and while the people are no longer hungry, they still face formidable economic difficulties.</P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     37
    3838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde produces just 10% of what it consumes and its exports are one fifteenth of its imports. The one bright spot is in services, where it enjoys a positive trade balance. This sector (in particular, international transport and tourism), together with the country's cultural industries, offer the best hope for future development.</P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    40 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    41 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     39
     40<B>
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    5756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Combating attacks on press freedom</P>
    58 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     57
    5958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res' was founded in June 1985 in Montpellier where Robert M&eacute;nard was working as a journalist with Radio France. Now based in Paris, RSF has two main policy areas. In the first place it alerts international public opinion and the media to situations involving violations of press freedom (via publications such as 'RSF News letter' the Annual Report and specific books and reports). Secondly, RSF actively intervenes by sending letters of protest to official bodies and assisting victims. Last year RSF dealt with more than 350 cases involving the press throughout the world. The organisation's ambition, according to Mr M&eacute;nard, is to be a kind of Amnesty International in the press field. The interview began with Mr M&eacute;nard giving a detailed description of RSF's work.</P>
    60 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     59
    6160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We do two things - we report violations of press freedom and help journalists who are the victims of such violations. Take the former Yugoslavia, for example. It would have been unthinkable to monitor what was going on in that war-torn country without, at the same time, helping the media who were victims of the repression. So we sent over lawyers to help in trials involving the press, helped the families of imprisoned journalists and gave general assistance to the media. In the case of Oslabodenje, the Sarajevo daily, this went on for four years. We did similar work in Rwanda where RSF helped the media to get back on its feet after the genocide. In Algeria at the moment we are involved in aiding  journalists who are obstructed when doing their work. We also give help in Europe - currently to refugee journalists in Belgium, France, Spain, Switzarland and Germany. That's basically what we do; reporting violations of press freedom and helping those who are the victims of it.</P>
    62 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     61
    6362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you work with other organisations, for example the United Nations ?</P>
    64 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     63
    6564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We work with various types of organisations. We have daily contact with other NGOs specialising in press freedom, such as Article 19 in London and the Committee for the Protection of Journalists in New York, to give just two examples. We also have contacts with NGOs involved in human rights issues in general and, above all, with Amnesty International.</P>
    66 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     65
    6766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are our links with international organisations and, first and foremost, with the UN system. RSF has submitted reports in response to requests from various organisations, ranging from the UN Committee for Human Rights to UNESCO. We also work with the Council of Europe and the Organisation of African Unity. But our closest  relationship is with the European Union, or two reasons; firstly because it is RSF's main financial backer and secondly Because the EU enables us to do three things. It has helped us set up and has Financed a vast network of correspondents in 130 different countries and, to my mind, this is the most important thing in terms of defending human rights and press freedom. We also publish reports, which we write in response to EU requests, on press freedom in one country or another and which are made available to the EU and European Parliament. Our third \ink comes in the form of assistance. We manage an aid fund to help where the press is in difficulties, and the money is provided by the Union.</P>
    68 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     67
    6968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-You have mentioned a network of correspondents which has been set up. How does it operate ?</P>
    70 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     69
    7170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is a network of people who are in daily contact with RSF and who tip us off when a situation requiring our attention arises. Whenever there is a violation of press freedom in a country where the network operates, our correspondent lets us know - that's the first priority. Then, they make enquiries at our request. The third stage is to set up events. For example May 3 was World Press Freedom Day and, on that day, in about 20 countries in Africa, our correspondents organised events on the theme of press freedom. A fourth aspect of our correspondents' work is that they are often responsible on the ground for helping journalists in difficulty. They also help the media in general because we give them documents and supply them with information which they distribute in their particular country. Their task, therefore, is to alert us to a situation, meet our requirements for information and, on our behalf, physically to assist people on the ground, set up events and disseminate information.</P>
    72 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     71
    7372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Are the correspondents all nationals of the countries in which they work ? </P>
    74 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     73
    7574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Also, about 90% of them are joumalists and they are all paid for what they do. Their relationship with us is clear-cut. It is very important for them to be paid because this means that   we can ask certain things of them. If you   work as a volunteer no-one can give you  a deadline to produce such and such a   document. In our case, we pay them to   do this work for RSF.</P>
    76 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     75
    7776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you choose countries where the situation is already problematic ?</P>
    78 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     77
    7978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unfortunately, problems exist in many countries. Less than half the countries in the world show any degree of respect for press freedom and that means we have a great deal of work. In addition, information arriving at RSF from the correspondents is distributed to other organisations. We have set up a system called Infex which is an electronic mailbox.</P>
    80 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     79
    8180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All RSF's information is put on a computerised system and immediately disseminated to all the organisations involved in the defence of human rights, and press freedom in particular.</P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     81
    8382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So the technological revolution is a positive thing as far as you are concerned ?</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     83
    8584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Absolutely. Both the Imais and Internet systems are unbelievably useful tools which have completely revolutionised our work. For example, RSF might protest about the situation in some country or other. Take China, for example - we regularly lodge protests against the lack of press freedom there. There are 17 journalists in jail, no freedom for the press and a great many problems. However, people in China are not aware of what we do and in order to get information they have to listen to international radio stations. On the Internet, RSF's services are available in French, English and Spanish and it is consulted by people the world over. It is thus one of their sources of information. Another example would be a case where we set up an operation and inundate a number of people in a particular country with faxes, in order to pass on the information. Modern technology enables us to break down the fortresses which totalitarian or dictatorial regimes attempt to construct around themselves.</P>
    86 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     85
    8786<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- RSF has just published its 1996 Report. What do you have to say regarding the current position of press freedom ? Has progress been made ? </P>
    88 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     87
     88
    9089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say two things. In the long term, the situation is improving. If you remember, 25 years ago, the regimes in half the countries in Latin America were dictatorships, communism dominated half of Europe and nearly all of Africa had single-party systems. Even in Europe, there were dictatorships - in Spain, Portugal and Greece. So we cannot deny that there has been progress. The problem is that, for three or four years now, there has been a noticeable rise in new threats to press freedom, and this is a great source of concern to us. Here I am thinking of the rise in power of fundamentalist movements, particularly religious fundamentalism. In a number of countries nowadays - the best example, or perhaps I should say the worst example, is Algeria - journalists are not only threatened by the state but are being killed by armed Islamic groups. The rise in religious fundamentalism is indeed a real danger.</P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     90
    9291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of threat confronting the press is the increased influence of mafia-type criminals. You will, of course, have heard about drug trafficking in places like Colombia or Peru. Nowadays, in some countries where communism has been overthrown, the big threat comes from these criminal gangs. Not so long ago in Russia, the star presenter on the main TV channel was killed because he got in the way of 'Mafia' interests.</P>
    93 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     92
    9493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third threat comes from uncontrolled actions by groups fighting for autonomy or independence, like the Kurdish movement in Turkey (the PKK), and a number of separatist groups in India. The EU is no stranger to this either</P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     94
    9695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ETA poses a continual threat to the press, as do members of the FLNC in Corsica. It is only a few months since members of the latter group machine gunned a journalist's house. A fourth and new kind of threat, particularly in countries with a democratic system, comes from the rise of the extreme right.</P>
    97 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     96
    9897<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lastly, a point I draw particular attention to in our recent report is, in fact, a dual phenomenon. On the one hand there are states which pass laws under which any criticism is a crime and may lead to prosecution. An example of this is Egypt where the government has enacted a law which has led to charges being brought against some 60 journalists since summer 1995. On the other hand, there are states where justice simply does not operate and there is no will to make it function.</P>
    99 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     98
    10099<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year, 51 journalists were killed and a number of others were attacked, but there has not been a single trial or conviction. It is a real culture of impunity. In some countries, the justice system either does not operate, or it is not independent. In such places, the authorities are reluctant to identify and prosecute those responsible for attacks on journalists.</P>
    101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     100
    102101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSFcurrently has project running in Rwanda, in collaboration with the EU. Could you tell us something about this ?</P>
    103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     102
    104103<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is helping us to meet a wide range of needs in Rwanda, as well as in Burundi, where sadly, the situation is rather similar. In Rwanda, there are those who governed the country before the genocide and those in power at the moment. There was a specific problem there in that nearly half of Rwanda's journalists were killed during the genocide - 49 out of about 100. We had virtually to reconstruct the press system and the EU gave us the means to do this.The press currently has difficulties vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities but it is attempting to do its job.  in Burundi, where our work is of a more conventional type, we see continuing attacks on press freedom. There, RSF is trying to resist the pressure, again supported by the EU. In fact, thanks to the EU, we are helping a   number of countries' media to survive despite difficult conditions.</P>
    105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     104
    106105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another quite new problem is that before and during the genocide in Rwanda, the media were used as vehicles for disseminating hatred. They issued calls for people to kill their compatriots, in this instance the Tutsis, and the language they used was unbelievably violent. On Radio Mille Collines, presenters would say - and I quote; 'The graves are not full yet'. They would give out the addresses of people who had to be killed and when the murders had been carried out they would actually say, 'You killed them too quickly - you should have killed them more slowly to make them suffer more', or, 'You didn't kill the children, go back and kill the childreni. We actually have recordings of statements like this.</P>
    107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     106
    108107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a situation, journalists must be made to answer for what they have done and be brought to justice.</P>
    109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     108
    110109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has helped us conduct a number of surveys which will enable the international criminal court in The Hague to charge Rwandan journalists with complicity or incitement to genocide. We expect this to take place in the very near future.</P>
    111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     110
    112111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course in Rwanda, all that is in the past but the same thing is happening today in Burundi where there is a radio station called 'Radio Democracy' - what a joke! A number of journalists there are issuing calls for people to be killed and we have a copy of one of their newspapers whose front page offers a cash reward to anyone who kills such and such a person. This is not journalism. RSF has lodged complaints against these people and one of these 'journalists' has just been charged.</P>
    113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     112
    114113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are doing three things in Rwanda and Burundi: denouncing violations of press freedom by the authorities, helping media victims and - something new - reporting what has come to be known as 'the media of hatred'. Unfortunately, this type of media is not restricted to Rwanda and Burundi. it is a phenomenon that we see in a number of African countries, in the former Yugoslavia, the Caucasus and the</P>
    115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     114
    116115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Perhaps you are aware that the 50th anniversary of the Nuremberg trials has just passed ? But did you know that there were two journalists among the accused? The press has forgotten that journalists played a part in the rise of Nazism. RSF is pointing out that the same thing is happening today in many countries and we have to fight it.</P>
    117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     116
    118117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 'The EU is a  perfect partner</P>
    119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     118
    120119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said, should restrictions be placed on press freedom ?</P>
    121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     120
    122121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is a very complex subject. You have to remember that international texts, particularly the convention on civil and political rights, place restrictions on press freedom. Article 19, which defines press freedom, stipulates that there are certain limits to this and Article 20 forbids any dissemination of racist or antisemitic ideas and any incitements to violence.</P>
    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     122
    124123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RSF has two things to say. First, governments which have signed the agreements must ensure they are observed. These set limits. Journalists are not above the law and they must be punished when they say certain things. So states must face up to their responsibilities and apply the treaties they have signed. Second, I feel that the international community, and Europe in particular - when it signs agreements or gives aid to third countries - should demand that they respect press freedom but clamp down on the media of hatred.</P>
    125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     124
    126125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSF has just published a draft model legislation governing the press. In preparing this, were you influenced by your experience of the extremist media ?</P>
    127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     126
    128127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Perhaps we were influenced too much. I am my own worst critic. We sent a mission to Rwanda before the genocide but did not appreciate the full effects of the evil disseminated by the media of hatred, particularly Radio Mille </P>
    129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     128
    130129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collines. We underestimated the situation and are concerned at what is happening. We believe there must be express limits on press freedom and this draft framework law is one way of formulating such restrictions. It is not necessarily the best way of going about things, but our profession has to ask itself questions regarding the definition of press freedom and the limits we must not exceed. </P>
    131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     130
    132131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Are you satisfied with what the EU is doing in this area ?</P>
    133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     132
    134133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is a perfect partner and has never exerted any pressure. With the Union, we are able to do things that would not be possible with individual Member-State government because the latter conduct foreign policy in defence of certain interests. Each country has its own cultural history linguistic links or links arising out of former colonial times which prevent it financing RSF's studies unconditionally. As far as our missions are concerned, RSF decides what it wants to do and we send our reports to the EU. They have also granted us a budget enabling us to give immediate aid to people in difficulty. This is the most positive action possible If the EU were not there, there would unfortunately be no-one else to finance an organisation like ours. 60% of our budget comes from the Union, 20%from various companies. We generate the remaining 20% ourselves through sales of books and contributions. Because the EU is a grouping of governments, the Commission has some room for manoeuvre. This is the only possible kind of support for organisations like RSF and, if it were not there, it would be the end for the people whom RSF supports.  interview by Dorothy Morrissey</P>
    135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    136 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     134
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    154153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an astonishing sight to behold during the rainy season. As you drive along the road from Yaound&eacute; to Bamenda, you come to a point where human habitation starts - and it then continues unbroken for more than 100 kiLom&eacute;tres. Just before Bafoussam, and as far as the eye can see, every patch of land is cultivated. Bananas, oranges, mangoes, sugarcane, cassava, palm trees, groundnuts and maize grow luxuriantly in open fields and in the front and back gardens of many houses. This route, of course, takes you mainly through the western part of Cameroon, home to the Bamilelr&eacute;s, recognised as one of the country's most enterprising and industrious ethnic groups. The population density here is 200 per km2 as opposed to 1 per km2 in the East.</P>
    155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     154
    156155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The impact of this widespread farming, carried out by a large number of smallholders, is visible in the local markets, whether in Bafoussam, Mbouda or Bamenda. There, the stalls overflow with fruits and vegetables and prices are very low - a virtual paradise for the middlemen whose unmistakable presence is signalled by the significant number of trucks loading the produce for distribution throughout the country.</P>
    157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     156
    158157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These scenes come as no surprise to the long-time observer of Cameroon's economy. The country achieved virtual self-sufficiency in food over 15 years ago. It is one of the few African countries to have been able to do this, thanks both to its physical  endowments and an early recognition of its agricultural vocation.</P>
    159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     158
    160159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon is often described as a microcosm of Africa, not just in terms of its make-up of English- and French speaking communities, but because it enjoys almost all the continent's climatic conditions. The south is equatorial, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons of equal duration, the centre is Savannah country with one rainy season and one dry season, while the extreme north (part of the Sahel) is hot and dry. The country has a very good supply of rainfall - from 5000 mm annually in the southwest to around 600 mm near Lake Chad.</P>
    161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    162161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such varied climates favour the cultivation of a variety of crops. Timber is  produced mainly in the southern provinces while palm oil, tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, timber and foodcrops are produced in the southwestern and western areas. The central and north provinces specialise in cattle and cotton production.</P>
    163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162
    164163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentration on agriculture</P>
    165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    166165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon has, not surprisingly, concentrated on agriculture. Indeed the government has given top priority to the sector in all its development plans   since independence in 1960. It has been involved in the marketing of the main export crops and has provided subsidies to farmers in the form of low-priced fertilisers and pesticides for their cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil, etc. Almost three-quarters of the working population (the majority of whom are smallholders) are engaged in farming. And despite a low level of mechanisation, they are very efficient. The rate of growth in food outstrips the rate of population growth. Only a few largescale farmers or firms are involved in the production of cash crops.</P>
    167 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    168167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until the early 1980s, when oil came into the picture, these large scalefarmers and firms amounted for more than 70% of export earnings, 40% of state revenue and 32% of the Gross Domestic Product. The plan initially was to use oil revenues to further boost and transform agriculture. However, the dramatic increase in the country's oil production, combined with much higher world petroleum prices during the first half of the 1980s, made the sector not only Cameroon's biggest export earner, but also, in a certain sense, a 'spoiler' for agriculture. Increased revenues enabled the government to maintain the level of prices paid to farmers, even though world prices had slumped to disastrous levels. This created distortions in the market. (Later, when the oil price slumped, and revenues dropped sharply, producer prices were also reduced, bringing them closer into line with international prices.)</P>
    169 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    170169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined steadily to around 21 % in 1985, rose to 27% in 1989 and has hovered around 30% ever since. The sector's share of export earnings has also fallen to about 40% of total exports by value.</P>
    171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    172171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this, Cameroon's agriculture remains, comparatively, in a much better shape than that of most African countries. Indeed, it contributed in large measure to the country's reputation as one of Africa's economic successes in the 1980s. During that decade, growth averaged 8% per annum. However, the period was also marked by dramatic increases in oil revenues which induced  significant policy changes as well as leading to maladministration. The government paid less attention to taxation and customs duties as sources of income and turned a virtual blind eye to smuggling which harmed the manufacturing sector. The civil service, on the other hand, expanded beyond reason, a phenomenon that some have attributed to patronage by the ruling single party.</P>
    173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    174173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom in public expenditure</P>
    175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    176175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protected somewhat against fluctuations in earnings from export crops, by a strong but overvalued CFA franc, the government embarked on a wide range of capital expenditure and imports. Then, in 1987, international oil prices fell as dramatically as they had risen earlier in the decade. At the time, public spending was running at CFAF 8 billion - well above the CFAF 5.6bn the country actually earned. Revenues from oil continued their downward slide to CFAF4.5 bn in 1988, CFAF 2.8 bn in 1991 and CFAF 2.5 bn in 1994. 1995 saw a modest rise to CFAF 3 bn.</P>
    177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    178177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1987 thus marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in Cameroon's financial situation. In the period which followed, civil servants' salaries were unpaid for months, several of the country's foreign missions were left without resources and both domestic and foreign debts worsened. In 1993, the government owed commercial banks around CFAF 3.3bn. Its external debt stood at around $7.5bn with a service ratio of more than 25% of foreign exchange earnings. The devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 improved the internal debt situation significantly. In February, the government signed a letter of intent with the IMF after agreeing to a series of reforms which included, among other things, rationalising the banking and insurance sectors, raising revenue from non-oil sources, bringing inflation down and reducing the budget deficit. In return the IMF provided a stand-by loan equivalent to CFAF 1.4bn. However, the agreement was suspended just a few months later when the Fund reached the conclusion that the government lacked the will to carry the reforms through. The 1994/95 budget foresaw a deficit of 4.5% of GDP - well above the IMF's guideline of 1.5%.</P>
    179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     178
    180179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the country's financial situation had become so critical that it could no longer service its debts, most notably, those it owed to the World Bank. France, which had traditionally been ready to come to the rescue, refused to bail Cameroon out and it finally dawned on the authorities that structural adjustment was unavoidable. When, in September 1995, talks resumed with the IMF, the commitment to adjustment was no longer in doubt. The government agreed, in addition to fiscal reforms, to liberalise trade in cocoa, coffee and timber, to prune the civil service and to privatise state enterprises which dominate the industrial sector.</P>
    181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     180
    182181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commitment to reforms</P>
    183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     182
    184183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since then the reform process has been in full swing. The first and most important task has been to improve the government's financial position. The civil service, which employs more than 175000 people, is gradually being reduced and salaries have been cut. Trade is also being liberalised and subsidies are being removed. The 1995/96 budget, unveiled in June last year, was welcomed by the IMF. It included, for the first time in a long while, increases in income tax and a widening of tax bands. A series of measures have also been introduced to combat tax evasion and fraud. External signs of wealth, water and electricity consumption, and telephone bills are now being used as means of assessing income tax.</P>
    185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     184
    186185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Responsibility for the collection of customs duties has been removed from the Customs Department which was often accused in the past of corruption and inefficiency. The task has been given instead to a Swiss-based preshipment inspection company. </P>
    187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     186
    188187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The donor community has responded positively. With French assistance, the government has been able to clear its outstanding debt to the World Bank. The IMF has provided a stand-by credit facility of $101 million in support of the adjustment programme for 1995/ 96 and debts to the Paris Club covering the same period have been rescheduled. In addition, now that Cameroon has been reclassified as a poor country, it is entitled to benefit from the terms of the Naples Agreement, which allow for up to 67% of debts to western govemments to be written off. A number of creditor nations have either forgiven the country its debts or have reduced them substantially. More loans have come from France and a number of other donors, including the World Bank and the European Community.</P>
    189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     188
    190189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EC is financing a series of projects within the framework of the adjustment programme, including the restructuring of the civil service and preparation of the ground for privatisation.</P>
    191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     190
    192191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lately though, the donor community has been showing signs of disenchantment, following allegations of misuse of funds and perhaps even outright embezzlement. Last March, an IMF mission to Yaound&eacute; failed to obtain an adequate explanation concerning the allocation of certain sums. The result, at the time The Courier went to press, was that an IMF loan for settlement of Cameroon's debt to the African Development Bank was being held up.</P>
    193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     192
    194193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dealing with the negative social impact</P>
    195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     194
    196195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
    197196 Figure</P>
    198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     197
    199198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sudden devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 halved Cameroon's purchasing power overnight. The government has since cut wages twice. The average salary of a top civil servant, which stood at around CFAF 300 000 before devaluation, is now less than CFAF 180 000 while the lowest paid government employees receive just CFAF 30 000. At the same time, prices, particularly of imported manufactured goods and inputs, have risen sharply. Increases of up to 150% have been  recorded. By way of example, the price of a baguette (french bread), which was only CFAF 80 in January 1994 had risen to CFAF 130 by March 1996.</P>
    200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     199
    201200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is considerable hardship, Cameroonians are a great deal more fortunate than fellow Africans in many other countries undergoing a similar adjustment process. Staple food remains cheap and affordable to the vast majority, thanks to the continuing strength of agriculture. As a result, there are few, if any, cases of malnutrition.</P>
    202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     201
    203202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of donors, including China, Belgium and the EC, are concentrating on health and education with the specific aim of reducing the negative social impact of adjustment. The EC, for example, has a project designed to strengthen health provision at the grassroots. This entails rehabilitating  infrastructures (health centres and district hospitals in particular) and establishing medical supply centres in areas that are not covered by other donors. The project is governed by the principle of cost-recovery to ensure viability and sustainability. But one area where the donors cannot do much is in the field of job creation. There is growing unemployment and job prospects in the formal sector, at least in the short term, are not good.</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     203
    205204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In macro-economic terms, things are locking up slightly for Cameroon. After recording economic growth of 3% in 1994/95, the hope is for a 5% increase in 1995/96. However, Cameroon's main economic operators, grouped under the umbrella of GICAM (Groupement inter-patronal du Cameroun), expressed fears late last year   that the country would not achieve this level of growth.</P>
    206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     205
    207206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon exports a variety of primary commodities, most of whose prices have recovered in recent years, and devaluation has had a positive impact on the country's balance of trade. Specifically, it has helped make exports more competitive and in 1994/ 95 the trade surplus was a healthy CFAF 349bn, almost double the CFAF 128bn recorded in the previous year. There was a noticeable slowdown in the export of timber in the latter half of last year and the qualities of coffee and cocoa being sold were not up to the usual standard, a situation that led to both crops being shunned in the world market. Bananas exported to France were also meeting stiffer competition from French Caribbean bananas. However, the fact that rubber production has risen by more than 10%, while aluminium output and sales have increased, should help Cameroon to record another positive trade balance when the figures are next published.</P>
    208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     207
    209208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector, which has huge foreign-exchange earning and employment potential, is being rationalised as part of the current structural adjustment programme. The Canadian Agency for International Development</P>
    210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     209
    211210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(CAID) has a five-year project to conserve and regenerate some 30 000 hectares. In fact, half of Cameroon is covered by forest and less than 500 000 ha is currently being exploited. The objective is to ensure that forest resources are exploited in the future at a sustainable level.</P>
    212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     211
    213212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector</P>
    214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     213
    215214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry, which is still in its infancy, has been developed by the government since independence largely with a view to import-substitution, although with some gearing towards the regional market. It accounts for about 14% of GDP and is currently dominated by aluminium smelting. Although devaluation has lately improved the competitiveness of those enterprises that add value to locally available raw materials, the manufacturing sector as a whole faces two major challenges now that the government has accepted the idea that the economy is best driven by the private sector.</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     215
    217216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first relates to private investments, which have been sluggish  over the past ten years; a clear illustration of a lack of confidence in the economy. This was amply demonstrated when Cameroonians with funds abroad failed to repatriate them to take advantage of the CFAF devaluation as was widely expected. This phenomenon puts the whole privatisation exercise in jeopardy as it means that the government is more likely to have to rely on foreign entrepreneurs. The best the authorities can therefore expect in the short term, some observers say, is to convert those state enterprises that are not already joint-ventures into ones where private investors become the majority shareholders. Complete divestment will then take place gradually over a longer timescale. Overall, 150 state enterprises have been earmarked for sale.</P>
    218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     217
    219218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Andr&eacute; Siaka, director of Cameroon's Brewery, who is also Chairman of GICAM, another reason for the lack of investment was high interest rates. These hovered around 20% for many years. Even now, after the reform of the banking sector, interest rates remain very high and there are no borrowers, he told The Courier. </P>
    220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     219
    221220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors again have been conscious of this and some of their interventions have reflected this concern. For example, Canada is providing funds for the establishment in Douala (the commercial capital) of a centre for the development of private enterprises. Meanwhile, the Chinese have promised to provide CFAF 7bn to enable a line of credit to be opened for small and medium sized enterprises.</P>
    222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     221
    223222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government itself is puting in place a number of incentives, according to Minister of Trade and Industry Eloundou Mani Pierre. The liberalisation of the economy and the reform of the customs regime in collaboration with UDEAC, to which Cameroon belongs, are part of these. Mr Mani told The Courier that with a population of under 12 million, Cameroun's most important market was Central Africa. He also, perhaps surprisingly, has high hopes for the new World Trade Aareement. </P>
    224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     223
    225224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon meanwhile is reviewing its plan for the establishment of export processing zones with the help of its main donors.</P>
    226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     225
    227226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also looking at other ways of attracting foreign investment, particularly in 'value-added' enterprises involved in the processing of locally available raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, coffee and timber.</P>
    228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     227
    229228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and political peace</P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     229
    231230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second, and by far the more serious challenge facing manufacturing, is the problem of large-scale smuggling by petty traders.</P>
    232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     231
    233232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of this abounds in the booming central market of Douala, where goods of all kinds can be found at very reasonable prices. Ironically the measures which were being taken and judged to be relatively effective against smuggling in recent years have had to be abandoned under structural adjustment rules imposed on the government.</P>
    234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     233
    235234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Mr Siaka pointed out, petty traders dealing in smuggled goods put pressure on enterprises, 'because they do not pay tax', and threaten to render domestic manufacturing uncompetitive. It is also widely acknowledged, however, that the small-scale traders, who dominate the informal sector, provide job opportunities to Cameroonians, which is important at a time of economic austerity. Indeed petty trading has arguably been the safety-valve, helping to ease the social pressures brought about by structural adjustment, and thus preventing civil unrest.</P>
    236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     235
    237236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the extent to which that safety-valve can withstand the emerging political pressures is a different matter. Democratisation, understandably, was one of the conditions imposed by donors for assistance to Cameroon. After a series of elections - presidential, legislative and municipal - which were marred by violence and deaths, there are still doubts about the health of democracy in the country. Indeed, there are signs that tension is  mounting. And few would dispute that if Cameroon is to succeed economically, it needs both social peace and political stability. </P>
    238237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe </P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     238
    240239<B><P></P>
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    248 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    249248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Alex Kremer</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     249
    251250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission President's visit to West Africa</P>
    252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     251
    253252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union's commitment to regional development in sub-Saharan Africa is as strong as ever, but sustainable development can only come from Africa's own initiative. This was the message delivered by Jacques Santer, President of the European Commission, in his address to African heads of state at the UEMOA (Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa) summit in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on May 10.</P>
    254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     253
    255254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I wish to emphasise from the start,' Mr Santer declared to the Presidents of Benin, Burkina Faso, C&ocirc;te d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo, 'that the European Commission and the European Parliament are both determined to make our partnership even more dynamic and in tune with today's rapidly changing world.'</P>
    256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     255
    257256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of the Commission President at the UEMOA summit marks a milestone in the European Community's support for regional integration in the developing world. With its own Commission, Council of Ministers and Court of Justice, the UEMOA appears to be consciously  following the supranational model of regional integration pioneered by the European Union.</P>
    258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     257
    259258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sequencing of UEMOA integration, however, is almost the reverse of the European model. Already linked by a single currency in the CFA franc, the West African Union's member states are now pressing ahead with plans for integration of their 'real' economies. The implementation timetable agreed in Ouagadougou covers freedom of establishment, free movement of capital, mutual macroeconomic monitoring and the first steps to customs union with the harmonisation of external tariffs and the lowering or removal of intra-regional barriers to trade.</P>
    260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     259
    261260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Santer indicated that the European Commission is keen to discuss how the European Development Fund (EDF) can support these initiatives. Such aid could take the form of technical assistance and training as well as direct budgetary support to mitigate the short-term costs of customs union.</P>
    262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    263262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA is not, however, an aid project. Its member states have designed it to stand on its own feet financially from the start. A 'community solidarity levy' was due to come into effect on 1 July 1996. The money will be used for a structural fund programme beginning in late 1997, as well as to finance the Union's operating costs.</P>
    264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    265264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting with the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaor&eacute;, Mr Santer said that it was particularly significant that his first official visit to Africa as President of the European</P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     265
    267266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission was to Ouagadougou. Not only was it a reaffirmation of the partnership between Africa and the EU, and a statement of the EU's willingness to support regional integration in the developing world. It was also a tribute to the determination of the people of Burkina Faso and other African countries to promote their own development.</P>
    268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     267
    269268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community is Burkina Faso's second largest donor, contributing 10% of total aid payments in 1994. Since 1991, the EC has committed an average of ECU 45 million each year to development cooperation with this country, rising to a peak of ECU 100m in 1995.</P>
    270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     269
    271270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Santer visited the EDF-financed road improvement site at Tougan, close to the frontier with Mali, and noted that intra-regional transport links were an essential complement to the legislative programme of the UEMOA. He concluded his tour of regional cooperation projects with a visit to a photovoltaic pumping system financed by the EC under its West African solar energy programme.</P>
    272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     271
    273272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, on a more personal note, the Commission President was able to drop in on a project managed by the charity Chr&eacute;tiens pour le Sahel. Mr Santer worked for this Luxembourg-based organisation before starting his career in politics and he was visibly pleased to see that it was still going strong - supporting home-grown African initiatives with a little financial help from the European Community.</P>
    274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     273
    275274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.K. </P>
    276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     275
    277276<B><P></P>
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    285 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284</B>
    286285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was inaugurated 11 years ago in Ede, Prince Claus of the Netherlands - whose interest in development issues is well-known - attestded as guest of honour. On 19 April, he returned to take part in the official opening of the CTA's new building in neigh bouring Wageningen in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The siting of the purpose built premises is significant. The town of Wageningen has long been an important European centre for agricultural research and the Dutch, of course, are renowned for their commitment to cooperation with developing countries.</P>
    287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286
    288287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CTA may only have moved a short distance from its previous headquarters, but the Centre's 38-strong staff are also aware of the need to move with the times when it comes to fulfilling  their role in the field of agricultural information. This point was particularly emphasised by CTA Director, Dr. R.D. Cooke in his presentation at the opening ceremony. Recalling the Centre's main tasks (see box) Dr Cooke spoke of the 'changing horizons and challenges' which they faced, and he focused on four specific aspects.</P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     288
    290289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these is the big change taking place in national agricultural systems, with the state withdrawing more and more in favour of the private sector and NGOs. This is being accompanied by a trend towards decentralisation with the result that the CTA has many more potential partners to cater for and work with.</P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     290
    292291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global liberalisation has also had an effect on the kind of information being sought by the CTA's 'customers'. In the past, demand was almost exclusively for scientific or technical information, notably aimed at increasing productivity. Dr Cooke reported that while this remained important, there was now  an increasing interest in marketing and socio-economic aspects to facilitate decision-taking.</P>
    293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     292
    294293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It came as no surprise to hear the Director highlight the challenge posed by new technologies such as electronic networking and digital storage. The key point here, he stressed, was to find ways of adapting these to ACP needs and realities. 'In the next century,' he argued, 'the haves and the heve-nots will be defined by their access to information.'</P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     294
    296295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Dr Cooke referred to the growing significance of regional linkages. He indicated that the CTA was locking at ways in which it could help its partners to devise regional development programmes.</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     296
    298297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration signalling the official opening of the building was made in the preceding presentation by E.F.C. Niehe who is Deputy DirectorGeneral for European Cooperation at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In his speech, Mr Niehe emphasised the relevance of the CTA, pointing out that while the world food situation had improved, 'we are now on the threshold of structural food insecurity'. He also spoke in more general terms about the future of ACP-EU cooperation and acknowledged that 'partnership, sovereignty and equality had been somewhat neglected' by donors. However, he suggested that these concepts were now 'coming back'.</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     298
    300299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the ACP side, the Swaziland ambassador, CS. Mamba,who is co-President of the Committee of Ambassadors, took up the theme of food shortages in sub-Saharan Africa and identified some of the difficulties encountered by African producers, particularly in respect of new technologies and marketing. He also referred to the environmental challenges facing ACP countries, especially in the Caribbean and Pacific. He was keen, however, to stress that the picture was 'not entirely negative'. Thus, for example, new technologies and methods had had a positive impact on grain production in Zimbabwe, horticulture in Kenya, and cocoa and coffee in West Africa. Mr Mamba echoed Dr Cooke in stressing the advantages of regional markets, and concluded with a firm statement of support for continuing ACP-EU cooperation.</P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     300
    302301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'History,' he said, 'will show that the Lom&eacute; Convention played a central role in the momentum of development.'</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     302
    304303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final speaker was Steffen Smidt, Director-General for Development at the European Commission, who suggested that the CTA had played a pioneering role in developing a sectoral  approach at a time when the focus of development cooperation tended to be on individual projects. 'The Centre', he said, 'has become a well-respected international institution in the field of agricultural information.' The Director General focused on the need for ACP countries to develop their own capacities and on the gap that exists 'between potential and reality', because of capacity limitations. The Centre, he believed, could 'help bridge this gap.' Mr Smidt also reiterated a point made earlier that the information flow should not just be in one direction. 'Information from South to North is vital,' he argued, to ensure better targeting of programmes in future.</P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     304
    306305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the speeches, guests had an opportunity to learn more about the CTA's work by speaking to the Centre's personnel and visiting a special exhibition illustrating the nature and purpose of the Centre's activities. _</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     306
    308307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer About the CTA </P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308
    310309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CIA's tasks are: </P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     310
    312311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to develop and provide services which improve access to information for agricultural and rural development ; </P>
    313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     312
    314313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to strengthen the Opacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in these areas. </P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     314
    316315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programmes are organised around three principal themes: </P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     316
    318317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening information centres - designing strategies for improving agricultural information services; - promoting use of new information technologies; - providing training; - donating books. </P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     318
    320319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting contact and exchange of: experience among CTA's partners in rural development - seminars; - study visits. </P>
    321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     320
    322321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing information on demand - publication s; - radio and audiovisual materials; - literature services for researchers; - Question and answer service. </P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     322
    324323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The address of the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural cooperation can be found in the CTA section towards the end of the white pages in   this issue.) </P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     324
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    335334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Martin Dihm</P>
    336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     335
    337336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do the Windward Islands' banana industry and Hamlet have in common ? Both are intrigued by the same question: 'To be or not to be.' But unlike Hamlet, whose fete was decided rather quickly and tragically, the future of Windward Canibbean banana production is still open. And what is more, Windward producers have a distinct advantage over Hamlet. They can hire consultants to analyse their problem and come up with fresh solutions. That is what has happened. But before turning to the solutions, what have the problems been ? </P>
    338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     337
    339338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four Windward Islands; Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, have long enjoyed preferential market access to the UK. This first permitted the creation of the industry and then secured its survival, even with production costs that are much higher than those of other producers.</P>
    340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     339
    341340<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A traumatic moment came when the European Community had to decide on a common market regime for bananas. Coming into effect in mid 1993 the regime maintained the principle of preferential access for traditional ACP producers. Nevertheless, it introduced a move towards greater market liberalisation. Fierce attacks on the regime by certain of the EU's trading partners have raised doubts about its viability. The system is due, in any case, to expire in 2002 when even further liberalisation seems likely.</P>
    342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     341
    343342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this could cause great difficulties for the Windward Islands which still depend substantially on banana exports to the EU. A decline in prices since mid-1993 and the appearance of new competitors in the previously protected UK market have further underlined the need for the Windwards to compete in a more liberal arena. The Islands commissioned a study, funded by the UK and the EC, into the competitiveness of their industry and on ways of improving its position. It was not the first study of this type, but earlier ones had had no real impact on the industry which had always been sufficiently protected to avoid swallowing the bitter pill of adjustment. This time, it was clear from the outset that action would have to be taken if the industry were to master the new situation.</P>
    344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     343
    345344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study provided a wealth of interesting insights and recommendations. The first big surprise - at least for outsiders - was the discovery that the industry was wasting considerable amounts each year through certain deficiencies in governance, management and production methods. The second theme of the study was the poor banana quality resulting from an inappropriate pricing system. In effect, price differences paid to farmers were not sufficient to reward extra attention to quality aspects.</P>
    346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     345
    347346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study's recommendations pertaining to management, production and quality were all agreed in a meeting on 29 September 1995, which brought together the Prime Ministers, the EC and other donors. Prime Minister Mitchell of St Vincent labelled this chance for the industry to get its business right as 'the last train to San Fernando'.</P>
    348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     347
    349348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has happened since then ? After some hesitation, the industry has indeed begun to 'take up arms against its sea of troubles' (to return to the Hamlet analogy). The EC, for its part, has taken the part of Horatio, the faithful friend. Its role is a delicate one though - for the EC has a lot of money available. Take, for example, the ECU 25m allocated to St Vincent in the 1994 STABEX exercise (roughly five times that  country's national indicative programme). How are such funds to be injected reasonably into the islands without undermining their own strength and sense of purpose in pursuing the right strategy.</P>
    350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     349
    351350<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer this, one has to look at the actual requirements. Streamlining the banana industry is less a question of big infrastructure projects than of providing expertise to guide the necessary structural changes. It also means fewer people will be employed in the sector. Aid should, therefore, focus on technical assistance, promoting diversification, and social 'cushioning'.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     351
    353352<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge, of course, remains considerable and the outcome will not be known for some time. But it is clear that the Windwards have taken bold steps in the right direction and that further steps are on the agenda. There is also little doubt that the islands small, sweet bananas can only be competitive in their market segment if they are produced and marketed professionally, and with dedication.</P>
    354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     353
    355354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So what could Hamlet have learnt from this experience ? In short - get sound analysis and fresh advice from outside - and then boldly implement. And stick close to your good old friend, Horatio! </P>
    356355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D.</P>
    357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     356
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    367366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent meeting of the EC`s Development Council was one of the first to be hit by the non-cooperation policy adopted by the UK in protest at the export ban on British beef. The Overseas Development Minister, Linda Chalker, announced at the outset to her fellow ministers: 'I will not be able to agree today to the adoption of those texts... on which unanimity is required'. Britain is seeking agreement 'for a step-by-step lifting of the export ban', which was imposed after scientific evidence suggested a link between Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - and its human 'equivalent', Creuzfeld Jakob Disease. Cases of BSE have been recorded across Europe, but the vast majority have been in the UK.</P>
    368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     367
    369368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texts which were approved included a regulation on refugees in non-Lom&eacute; developing countries. This makes available ECU 240 million over a four-year period (19961999) for longer term assistance to refugees and displaced persons - mainly in Asia and Latin America. Also agreed were two three-year programmes covering Aids control and environmental projects respectively. They will cover the period 1997-1999, and each has been allocated the sum of ECU 45m. In addition, ministers confirmed a regulation on the criteria for disbursing humanitarian aid.</P>
    370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369
    371370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the British stance meant that a number of important resolutions were blocked, including a text on mounting projects which link emergency, rehabilitation and longer-term aid. Rino Serri, Italy's Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs who presided the Council meeting, said that once adopted, this approach would represent a 'qualitative leap for the EU's development policy.'</P>
    372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    373372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other resolutions awaiting approval relate to the strengthening of coordination between Member States, evaluation of the environmental impact of development policies, decentralised cooperation, and migration and development. Since good headway was made on these subjects despite the British attitude, the texts are expected  to be speedily agreed once the UK lifts its veto. Ministers also had an initial discussion on a paper presented by Commissioner Pinheiro on preventing conflicts in Africa.</P>
    374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     373
    375374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As is customary at these biannual meetings, several delegations raised points of particular national concern. Belgium, for example, is worried about the Commission's proposal which would finally establish the single market in chocolate products while leaving Member States the choice of adapting their legislation to allow a vegetable oil content of up to 5% in chocolate. Belgium feels that this approach could ultimately prove harmful to cacoa-producing countries and claims that it will be difficult to control the exact percentage of oil used. Sweden, meanwhile, wants action to reform the UN institutions while Italy is keen to increase public awareness of development policies. Finland emphasised the need for better coordination between the European Community and its Member States on environmentally sustainable projects.</P>
    376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     375
    377376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region</P>
    378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     377
    379378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was backing for the June Round Table meeting on Rwanda organised by the UNDP, as well for the various diplomatic initiatives aimed at bringing stability to the Great Lakes region. On 27 May, the ministers dined  with Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner responsible for humanitarian issues, and with former US President, Jimmy Carter, who has played a major role in the search to find a solution to the region's problems. Others active in this effort include South Africa's Archbishop Tutu, and former Presidents Nyerere and Tour&eacute; of Tanzania and Mali respectively. Ministers also commended the efforts of the UN and the OAU.</P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     379
    381380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Serri said there was a 'desperate need for a ceasefire' in Burundi and called for a 'speeding up of the peace process and full deployment of available humanitarian and development aid.' He told journalists it was vital for the EU to make special efforts to strengthen the judicial systems in Rwanda and Burundi - 'so that the justice system can work properly and identify those responsible for the genocide.' He pledged that 'substantial resources' would be made available once peace is secured. Ministers also called for a control of arms sales to the region, although they have no power to legislate in this area, which remains the preserve of the Member States.</P>
    382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     381
    383382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the meeting place, Senegalese fishermen and NGOs joined forces to mount a protests against the effects of traditional EU fisheries agreements. These provide financial compensation to governments in exchange for access to their waters for EU vessels, but the protesters claim that they harm local fishing industries and disrupt food supplies. A significant number of agreements are due to come up for renewal later this year. NGOs are lobbying for a new and 'fairer' type of accord which provides for catch reductions, more selective fishing methods and the employment of locally-hired fishermen on EU boats. These proposals are all set out in a paper entitled 'The Fight for Fish: Towards Fair Fisheries Agreements,' published by Eurostep, a Brussels-based NGO. </P>
    384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     383
    385384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
    386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    387 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     385
     386<B>
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    396 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    404 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     403</B>
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    412 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411</I>
    413412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde has been shaped by the harmattan, the hot dry wind which blows from Africa, strong ocean currents and five hundred years of Portuguese colonialisation. Portugal has been a constant presence in the archipelago's history since the fifteenth century, when it granted the colonists who were to settle on the islands of Cape Verde a monopoly over the slave trade. The country became an interface between Africa, Europe and the Americas, at the centre of the triangle of trade in slaves, hardware and gold. The intermingling of black populations of every origin who  passed through the islands meant that the country was unable to present a united face against the colonialist culture. The colonists were therefore able to impose their own culture, with their fervent and proselytzing Catholicism becoming the principal ingredientin the mixture that is Cape Verde. Strong, scorching winds from the desert have shaped the islands' landscape and inhospitable ocean currents mean that approaches to the islands are difficult, their rocky cliff faces plunging into the sea.</P>
    414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     413
    415414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mythical Portuguese colonial oasis</P>
    416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     415
    417416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Up to the eighteenth century, Cape Verde was no more than a commercial centre for Portugal, its population at the end of that century barely exceeding 50,000, to be halved by the great drought between 1773-75. Other periods of drought regularly decimated the population and the arrival of new colonists and slaves did not offset such losses or compensate for the massive exodus which began in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of American whalers in search of crew members for their ships. Seven hundred thousand Cape Verdians currently live abroad, half of these in the United States.</P>
    418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     417
    419418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only four hundred thousand  have stayed in their own country.</P>
    420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     419
    421420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of the twentieth century, a period which signalled a turning point in the country's history, the population still numbered no more than 150 000. At the time, major sea voyages were being undertaken and Cape Verde's geographical location was highly valued. Mindelo, on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the north of the archipelago, developed as a coal-and-watersupply port for English vessels plying the route between India and the Americas, and England helped construct this port. However, Portugal's policy towards Cape Verde was double-edged. On the one hand, the islands were regarded as a natural extension of the home country, but as a competitor in terms of port activities. This led to Mindelo's slow development, although the trade in  skins, fishery produce, coffee and salt  could have made it a thriving centre. </P>
    422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     421
    423422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A</P>
    424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     423
    425424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixing of races in Cape Verde has often been held up as, so-to-speak, 'humane colonisation', but this opinion is not corroborated by the under-developed state of the country at the time of independence and the fact that Portugal implemented food security measures to combat the ravages of catastrophic famines only when under pressure from public opinion, at the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The island's colonists had always used slave labour to produce food or fabrics which enabled them to purchase more slaves and it was only when the slave based economy began to decline, which   resulted in the impoverishment of the colonists, that a major grouping of free Blacks and rebel or emancipated slaves came into being. That is when the intermixing of races began. Therefore, before the abolition of slavery (18641869-1878), the vast majority of the black population of the island was free; both unmarried and married colonists would generally emancipate their children born of a secret relationship with female slaves. The aristocracy and white upper-middle classes continued to live a cloistered, aloof life and did not mix with other races. A second factor which would suggest that Portuguese colonisation of Cape Verde was sympathetic in outlook is the reputation of this small country's intellectuals; although colonisation created only a small intellectual elite which was the product of a single institution, the Mindelo College, opened in 1917. In a quote by Michel Lesourd, Deirdre Meintel refers to this phenomenon as the mythical 'cultural oasis'. </P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     425
    427426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nation born of a middle class in tatters</P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     427
    429428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its contradictions, it was this black, mulatto and 'petty white' middle class which was to forge the mixed-race culture and national identity, caught between its own privileges and its aspirations of aristocracy, between its rejection of African culture (they sought a 'lusotropical' culture) and the need to find allies amongst the lower classes who retained African cultural values. In order to acquire the wealth and attributes of power, this middle class was to take over the lands vacated by the decline of the slavebased economy and which were often much improved by the former slaves (renamed 'tenant farmers' without a major change in their living conditions) preventing a major economic upheaval which could have put an end to this iniquitous system. Their wholesale appropriation of land explains why, today, there is a very high proportion of landless farmers in Cape Verde, seasonal agricultural workers who survive only thanks to the State's welfare system.</P>
    430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     429
    431430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This petty bourgeoisie was to give birth to growing awareness which would lead to calls for independence. Officially, Cape Verde was not a colony but a province, and its inhabitants in theory had the same rights or lack of rights as Portuguese citizens in Salazar's 'New State', where the right to vote depended on social and cultural status. In other Portuguese territories, members of the petty bourgeoisie held the rank of colonial administrators and, from their ranks, the pro-independence movements emerged. Such was the case of the PAIGC (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde pro-lndependence Party), created by Amilcar Cabral, a symbolic figure in Africa's striuggles for independence and Cape Verde's national hero. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances in Guinea-Conakry in 1973. His brother, Luiz Cabral, was to become president of Guinea-Bissau, and Aristides Pereira his successor as Party leader and Cape Verde's first president.</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     431
    433432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's uneventful transition to independence in July 1975 mirrored Portugalts Carnation Revolution and was quite unlike the fierce war entered into by Portugal in Mozambique and Angola. There was a clandestine struggle during which a number of combatants were imprisoned, but there was never any real guerilla warfare. The Portuguese governor remained at his post until he was replaced by an ambassador. The PAIGC was to govern both Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde until the coup d'&eacute;tat against Luiz Cabral in Guinea-Bissau in 1980, when it adopted the name of PAICV in Cape Verde, thereby signalling the end to any dream of a union between the two countries.</P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     433
    435434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomatic ventures</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     435
    437436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state pursued an even-handed diplomatic approach and accomplished the considerable diplomatic feat of remaining equidistant between the Cold wer's principal adversaries, adapting over time to all the changes which occurred on the world  scene. Post-independence, embassies were opened by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. Cape Verde, with its marxist leanings, maintained the former links created with apartheid South Africa by Portugal. The arrival in power of a liberal party had no effect on this diplomatic tightrope-walking act. It was South Africa which was to provide aid to build the international airport at Sal. Ironically, after the establishment of democracy in South Africa, it was at this very airport that President Mandela was to stress his desire for strengthened links with the archipelago. Latterly, Cape Verde has demonstrated this flexible in its recent decision to Join the group of, French-speaking countries whilst still regarding itself as a mouthpiece for the Portuguese-speaking world, enjoying a privileged relationship with Portugal, the Azores, Brazil and African countries where the official language is Portuguese. It is also a very active member of the CEDAO (Community of West-African States) and its President is currently chairman of the CILSS (Inter  national Commitee to Combat Drought). Cape Verde receives as much aid from China as from the US, from Russia and Sweden as from Cuba and Japan.</P>
    438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     437
    439438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This diplomacy is in keeping with the atypical 'Marxist' Party which first initiated it. With its interventionist approach to economics, its highly developed social policy which gives priority to education, health and combating unemployment through public welfare, this party could be regarded as a socialist party, yet it opted decisively for a market economy. Its single-party structure mirrored the example of would-be popular democracies, but it never set up a system of repression and terror: only one opposition member's death is said to have taken place in suspicious circumstances on the island of Santo Antao. The population was able to discuss politics at popular assemblies and held no fear of openly criticising the government and, in the case of the well-off, of displaying its wealth. A mudan&ccedil;a (change) was implemented calmly and collectedly by the PAICV when it was in power, sowing the seeds of its own downfall. With no pressure from street demonstrations and no insistent demands from political classes, the government of President Aristides Pereira and Prime Minister Pedro Pires adapted to the new situation created by the fall of the Berlin Wall. In early 1990, the PAICV gave up its privileged position as the single party and, one year later, at the legislative elections in January 1991 and presidential elections in February 1991, Africa witnessed the first democratic overthrow of a single-party government which had achieved independence. After the legislative elections, the PAICV, which had placed too great a reliance on being credited for its good governance, was silenced. The desire for change was too great and the position adopted by the Catholic church, anxious to punish a party which had dared to opt for a referendum on abortion, did the rest. President Aristides Pereira's personal prestige stood for little in the full face of this onslaught.</P>
    440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     439
    441440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What change?</P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     441
    443442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, who had founded the MPD only eight months before his overwhelming success in the 1991 elections, became the new figurehead in Cape Verde politics. His power sharing with Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was again successful at the most recent elections (December 1995 and January 1996). Shortly before the poll, the MPD experienced a near-fatal split, but the new party which emerged, the PCD, had only one representative as against 50 (an absolute majority) for the MPD and 21 for the PAICV, which continued to exist. Three other parties taking part in the elections fell by the wayside and the polarisation of Cape Verde's politics into two camps locks set to continue. This is the second time that the MPD has surprised its opponents - this time, the political adversaries had attacked the MPD's attempt to curry favour, but the majority of the electorate, concentrated on the island of Santiago, continued to show their appreciation of the visible signs of modernisation in their lives and also the government's seductive politics, particularly in the ran-up to the elections. The country had also had a good harvest and, although this was unconnected with the MPD, that party could only benefit from it.</P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    445444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite what MPD leaders might say, there has been no real ideological split, any political reorientation having been instigated in 1990 by the previous regime when it threw off its socialist trappings. Diplomacy remains  pragmatic and the new government's liberal rhetoric and social policy, particularly in the areas of education and health, has essentially been maintained. Suspension of the State's collective works programme, the symbol of the State's interventionist social policy, is only temporary, according to statements issued by the Prime Minister, counter to several rumours.</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    447446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible changes have taken place in the economy: partial liberalisation of the banking system; legislation relating to foreign investment; suspension of the requirement for preliminary import authorisation; despite the government's backtracking as regards certain basic products; privatisation of State assets, particularly in the hotel business, etc. Here, too, the PAICV government engineered the changes, but it can surely not be criticised for maintaining a delicate balance between the new demands of the global village and the social practices of a country which is very poor, but which is succeeding in putting an end to its poverty and creating a modest quality of life, but a secure one. Given its bleak geographical location, Cape Verde is simply  continuing to make the best of history. </P>
    448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     447
    449448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
    450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     449
    451450<I><P></P>
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    459 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     458</I>
    460459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The arrival in Praia on 30 April of a throng of IMF officials cannot have failed to cause the government some concern, despite its air of calm. Ministers repeated publicly that Cape Verde had already carried out its own programme of structural adjustments, that they were on the same wavelength as the Bretton Woods institutions, and that they could not, therefore, see any reason why any further adjustments  should be imposed upon them. Nevertheless, the fact that the Cape Verde escudo has had rather a bumpy ride since last year's elections, trading sometimes by as much as 15% under its official rate on the parallel market, caused a certain degree of anxiety within financial circles, with the banks taking action by freezing certain credit facilities.</P>
    461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     460
    462461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government insists that this situation has by no means arisen because of a sudden anxiety raised by opposition parties as to the effects of possible devaluation The truth is that there is a genuine structural imbalance caused by the trade deficit, a disequilibrium which is only being partially offset by official development assistance and the transfer of currency by Cape Verde emigres. As a percentage of the GDP, the overall budgetary deficit has tripled between 1993 and 1994 (increasing from 3.3% to 13.6%). For a country which could always be relied upon to pay its debts promptly, Cape Verde is now, for the first time, in arrears with its payments (see the 1995 report of the Bank of Portugal). The servicing of external debts represents 25.7% of goods and services exported - although these are relatvely small compared with neighbouring countries - the country's total outstanding debt is now nearing $200 million.</P>
    463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     462
    464463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Cape Verde is one of the LDCs (least developed countries) with a total GNP of approximately $850 per capita, out of a total of 174 States, it actually ranks 123 in the Human Development Indicator Tables, which take into account various factors such as life expectancy, education, etc. Its position near the middle of these tables clearly shows that, although the country is poor, its affairs are nevertheless being managed fairly efficiently. Boasting an adult literacy rate of 66% and a life expectancy of 64.7 years, Cape Verde is well ahead of those countries at the bottom of the list, which include a number of its Sahelian neighbours. Efficient administration of the State and the absence of rampant corruption are further feathers in the nation's cap. These achievements have earned Cape Verde much esteem from its sponsors, which goes to explain the prudence of the Bretton Woods institutions and their relative sympathies towards the country.</P>
    465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     464
    466465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unkind Mother Nature</P>
    467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    468467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's history has been punctuated by great famines. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries the country suffered no less than 30 famines, with this century seeing some of the cruellest: 16 000 people died in 1903-1904, the death toll in 1921 was 17000, in 1941-43 it was 25000 and between 1946-48 famine claimed 20 000 lives - a figure which at the time represented 20% of the total population of the archipelago. After the last famine, the colonial authorities, under pressure from international opinion, adopted food programmes which made the country more able to cope with the consequences of subsequent droughts. The last great famine ended 50 years ago. The nation may no longer be hungry, but the factors which make its inhabitants' lives so difficult remain. The  main reason lies in the country's geography. Cape Verde has virtually no permanent springs and the topography of most of the islands, which are very mountainous, means that heavy rain simply runs down to the sea, the parched soil being unable to absorb it sufficiently. What is more, these downpours simultaneously wash away the little arable land that do" exist, thereby aggravating erosion. The whole situation is further worsened by the fact that the winter in this Sahelian region is very short. Despite huge efforts by successive governments, barely half the population has access to drinking water, with this figure barely reaching 25% in rural areas.</P>
    469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    470469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a population of less than 400 000, there are just not enough people to pull off the miracle of making such an unforgiving soil bear fruit. Hence, although providing 50% of all jobs, agriculture represents only 17% of the nation's gross domestic product and produces only 10% of food consumed locally. The mountainous islands that make up Cape Verde are like teeth jutting out of the sea, and with virtually no continental shelf to speak of, small scale fishing is extremely difficult. Even with industrial equipment such as that installed on board large trawlers, catches are small - so small in fact that the country's fisheries agreement with the European Commission brings it only one million ECU over three years, one tenth of the proportional amount earned by neighbouring Senegal. Fishing thus represents less than 4% of the GDP.</P>
    471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    472471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mere survival - a</P>
    473472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herculean task</P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     473
    475474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transport difficulties are another handicap for the economy. The sheer force of the harmattan, the strong ocean currents and the fog which often covers the region, make journeying by boat between the islands frequently hazardous. In addition, the volcanic relief of the islands makes them difficult to reach and means that there are very few locations that make suitable har  bours. construction is both complex and costly due to the steep rocky barriers that seal off deep valleys. Those roads which have been built under the FAIMO scheme (Highly Labour-lntensive Projects) have sometimes turned into real labours of Hercules, and many areas, especially those on sparsely-populated islands, remain completely cut-off. The use of aeroplanes only partly solves the problem. Although competitive, the prices charged by the national airline, TAICV, are still too high for the average inhabitant.</P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     475
    477476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only does the soil on Cape Verde contain very little water, it has virtually no natural resources: a few stones, lime, pozzolana and a little salt. Within the manufacturing sector (which makes up less than 20% of the GDP), only the construction and civil engineering industries, representing more than 10% of the GDP, contribute in any significant way to the economy, thanks partly to the transfer of currency from emigres who invest in the construction  sector and works with wide public interest. These works, known as FAIMO schemes, have to some extent given this impoverished country a gloss that masks its poverty. Launched after Cape Verde gained its independence, they employ more than 25 000 people for up to ten months of the year in the construction of paved roads or in reafforestation projects, and ensure the survival of one hundred thousand people - over one quarter of the population. The workers are on the whole recruited from among farm labourers, with another large section of the workforce being made up of 'Solteiras' or 'single women', numerous in a country where the male population is constantly emigrating. Unfortunately, the liberal option adopted by the present government has cast some doubt as to whether these projects will continue and this year, for the first time, work ceased in April - three months ahead of the usual termination date. Yet the poor wages which these seasonal jobs pay (ECU 2 per day) are sometimes the only source of income for some families.</P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     477
    479478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only the tertiary sector shows a healthy balance of trade, accounting for  more than 60% of the country's gross domestic production, with the biggest slice of the sector going to the hotel industry, followed by the transport industry. Although, overall, Cape Verde's balance of trade records a large deficit, the balance of trade for the services sector generally shows a profit, with the transport services provided by the international airport, Amilcar Cabral de Sal, alone accounting for 13% of exports.</P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     479
    481480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Barely 10% of commercial goods are domestically produced and this has at times fallen below 5%. Cape Verde is therefore genuinely dependent upon foreign aid. Official development assistance represents 27.8% of the GNP (1989 figures), having risen from 17.7% to 27.2% of the GNP between 1980 and 1986. Cape Verde also relies on a second source of income - its emigrant population. In 1990 the currency transfers of its emigres represented nearly 20% of the GNP. </P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     481
    483482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The colonial heritage</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     483
    485484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing too to the country's poverty are relatively low educational standards. In this area too, successive governments have continued their predecessors' efforts to improve standards of education. However, at the time the country achieved independence, it was in a deplorable state. The reputation of a small intellectual elite of Cape Verdians had, over several decades, led the world to believe that Portuguese colonial rule had been 'enlightened'. This was a mere illusion. It was not until 1917, when the Mindelo grammar school was founded, that the country was able to claim an educational establishment of any cultural sophistication. The Mindelo school was the first state school in the country and it was to provide the nation with its first batch of 'home-grown' intellectuals. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Church, which was in charge of all matters educational, had provided basic primary education; then, at the end of the last century, it opened two secondary schools with the purpose of training students for positions in government and the civil service.</P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     485
    487486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so, the Mindelo school remained an exception until the middle of this century. In 1950, no more than 5000 children received primary education and no more than 400 went to secondary school. Thirty years earlier, the figure was slightly higher, but Salazar, with his retrograde ideologies, saw education as dangerous and threatening and trimmed the number of schools on the islands from 150 to 60. True, Cape Verde was undoubtedly in a better state than other Portuguese colonies, but, with an illiteracy rate of 80% at the beginning of the 1960s, its position was nevertheless far from enviable. It was not until independence that any real progress was made, with 60% of children attending primary school in 1989 (the average for LDCs is 54%). However, this figure is still well below the average for developing countries, which stands at 90%, and even now, only 13 % of children have access to secondary education. As for higher education, this is virtually only available abroad; in Europe, Brazil, USA and Cuba, in particular.</P>
    488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     487
    489488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious health problems still exist, exacerbated in particular by the scarcity of water. The cholera epidemic which has struck several African countries over the last two years has killed over 150 people in Cape Verde. The prevalence of AIDS exceeds the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 2000 people being HIV positive and with some one hundred having developed the full-blown disease. According to official figures, 70 have died of the disease. The cholera epidemic which, unlike previous epidemics has affected towns much more than rural areas, is a sign of the deterioration of sanitary conditions in towns - particularly in Praia - affected by a lack of water, a dilapidated sewerage system and overcrowding.</P>
    490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     489
    491490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anchoring the country's economy in its culture</P>
    492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     491
    493492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, through all the doom and gloom, a small miracle is taking place in Cape Verde. Despite such a heavy burden of poverty, the country has, since gaining independence 20 years ago, managed to clamber up the league tables notably in the essential areas of health and education. Life expectancy at birth, which was only 52 years in 1950,  had increased in 1992 to 64.7 years, better than the average for developing countries and 13 years more than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. The infant mortality rate which stood at 110 per thousand in 1960, had dropped drastically to 50 per thousand by 1992, while virtually all children now receive essential vaccinations. Malaria is also now rare. In 1988 the GDP of Cape Verde amounted to only C.V.Esc 20 billion ($289 million), in other words, 6.9% of the GDP of Trinidad and Tobago, and 16.6% of that of Mauritius. But it is growing steadily. From 1980 to 1988, it grew by 6% per annum, compared with 3% per annum for the Sahel, and since 1980 the GDP per capita has doubled.</P>
    494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     493
    495494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solution the nation's leaders should be seeking is greater integration in the global economy context by encouraging foreign investment. They do not need to create free zones but free enterprise, such as the shoe manufacturing concerns which, over the last two years, have contributed to achieving a considerable increase in exports. Various steps have been taken to attract investors, such as the adoption of the principle of tacit acceptance of applications for investment within 30 days. The Prime Minister, Carlos Veiga, and the 'Super-Minister' for Economic Coordination, Antonio Guelberto do Rosario, have highlighted the service, tourism and fishing industries as top government priorities. In order to develop these areas they intend to invest in infrastructures, with the aid, of course, of foreign backers. The modernisation of the port of S&atilde;o Vicente and of the international airport of Sal are currently underway, and the telecommunications project to link the islands by cable has also already been launched. The government's short-term plans also include the development of industries connected with the islands' culture. In the words of Mr Veiga: 'We in Cape Verde should develop our culture and use it as our anchor, to prevent our country drifting into oblivion. That way, our tiny country, which is fortunate enough to have a strong cultural identity, will be a Nation rather than a just a State'. </P>
    496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     495
    497496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G. </P>
    498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     497
    499498<I><P></P>
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    507 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     506</I>
    508507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wealth of culture and a realistic approach to diplomacy: Cape Verde's two major assets</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     508
    510509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How the current government differ from the former administration which had Marxist leanings ?</P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    512511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The two eras are distinct from each other in that, since 1990, the Cape Verde people have been able to choose a life of freedom and democracy. Before that, for the   first fifteen years after independence, there was a single-party system. So it is also valid to speak of a break - a break with the way in which institutions used to function at a political level.</P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    514513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The single-party era does not seem to have been as strict as in other countries and the current regime appears to be continuing along the same lines in some areas. Was the former administration not, to some extent, responsible for initiating the change which has taken place ?</P>
    515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    516515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, that's something else entirely. I often say that we had a civilised single party, and I assume that is what you are referring to. However, it is not possible to speak of continuity when formerly we had a single party and now we have moved on to a system where there is freedom of expression and new parties can be set up. </P>
    517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    518517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Admittedly, the single party did initiate a change when it created the conditions necessary for the advent of democracy. It removed the infamous Article 4 from the constitution, which seates that the PAICV was the guiding force of society and the state. In fact, it was the PAICV which drew up the country's first electoral laws whereby we were elected. When I say 'we', I mean the party which is in power and also myself, President of the Republic. The single party thus opened the way to  democracy here: that much is undeniable.</P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    520519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Am I also right in thinking that many of those who are in power today received their training in that single party ?</P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     520
    522521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - You are quite correct. When a change such as this comes about, one has to appreciate, and I do not wish to be elitist here, that it is the higher echelons of a party which lead the move towards change. Such people were there, working in the administration.</P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     522
    524523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since politics gives direction to economic affairs, has there been a total turnaround in this sector, with a clear decision to opt for liberalisation and privatisation ?</P>
    525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     524
    526525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Before 1990, we had a staterun economy. After that, the country's economy was opened up with a number of privatisations, fewer import restrictions, and so on. The word 'break' is also applicable in this area in that we now have a market economy.</P>
    527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    528527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you feel that the economy has really shaken off state control given that the govemment still manages important sectors, such as the price of raw materials ?</P>
    529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    530529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is necessary a market economy does not mean that the state is entirely absent. I am in favour of a market economy, but with state monitoring. As far as possible, the state has to correct the injustices which are necessarily generated by competition. This is not, as some would have it, ultraliberalism. The government is still entitled to monitor the economy, but the change has been greatest in terms of attitude, in terms of the way things are done.</P>
    531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    532531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you, like many leaders of developing countries, believe that the requirements set by international institutions as regards structure/ adjustment are too great ?</P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    534533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We are not subject to compulsory adjustment - it is on a voluntary basis here. However, I do feel that adjustment, as implemented in Africa, sometimes has regrettable aspects. On occasion, it is asking a little too much to impose the same requirements on countries whose actual situations are very different. What is applicable to Nigeria is not necessarily suitable for S&atilde;o Tome.</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    536535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The 1992 constitution switched Cape Verde over from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. As President of the Republic, do you fee/ trapped by this constitution ?</P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    538537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde's constitution was never a presidential one. The system under which I was elected is effectively 'semi-presidential'. Admittedly, the constitution which was approved by Parliament in 1992 reduced the powers of the </P>
    539538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President, particularly as regards the right to dissolve Parliament - which was unrestricted in the 1980 text. The revision was made to permit democratisation and ensure the proper functioning of the institutions, and it was therefore fairly wide-ranging. Now, in order to dissolve Parliament, the President has to have the support of the Council of the Republic, which means that his hands are tied to some extent. Previously, the President could also dismiss the government, without too many restrictions. I would say that the President's prerogatives have undergone a substantial reduction in comparison with those exceptional powers. As for the rest, things are as they were. In a semi-presidential regime as that envisaged by the 1980 constitution, the President has no executive role.</P>
    540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     539
    541540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You seem to have chosen to play the role of 'wise man' Some observers think you give the Prime Minister too much leeway.</P>
    542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     541
    543542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - They are wrong. The Prime Minister's post is conferred on him by the constitution. He is Head of Government and it is he who governs. I cannot govern in his place. What is true is that there is a great deal of ignorance - people do not restrict themselves to their own fields and attempt to teach lessons in subjects they are unfamiliar with. Germany has a parliamentary  regime like we do - what is the position of the President of the Republic in Germany? If you were to ask a Cape Verde intellectual for the name of the President of Germany, he would be unable to answer you. The parliamentary regime does not give the President of the Republic any powers to run the country. I do not know what the Prime Minister can have taken away from me because I have no power for him to take over. However, I would say that, here, the President of the Republic does have a fairly high profile, in spite of his reduced powers, because all the country's citizens know him. In terms of foreign policy, he plays a significant role in that he represents the country abroad. I attend international conferences like the Rio Summit, go to meetings of the OAU and sign international undertakings on behalf of my country.</P>
    544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     543
    545544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The President is also the guarantor of the new democracy, which observers seem to regard as well-established. But there still seem to be some bad habits. For instance, I have heard criticism of MPD power and of the fact that state  resources are made available to one party at election time.</P>
    546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     545
    547546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Look, this is criticism from the government's opponents - it is a normal state of affairs and happens everywhere. Any party, in any country, which has a parliamentary majority, can govern easily. This is possible, even when the majority is very small - and even in Europe. Look at Portugal when Cavaquo Silva was Prime Minister. There were people who said it was a PSD State. You will be familiar with France when Pompidou and even de Gaulle were in power, and Francis Mitterrand used to speak of a Gaullist state. As far as the election campaign is concerned, I am not aware of the government here having monopolised state resources and I don't believe this has happened.</P>
    548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     547
    549548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Another important factor involved in democracy is the press. Several journalists from the private media sector are awaiting a decision from you on a number of points - for example the lack of pubic support for the private press - in contrast to thestate-run press which has access to all that it needs.</P>
    550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     549
    551550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - What decision are they waiting for ? Do they want me to decide in favour of resourcess being given to the private media ? I have already done that on a number of occasions. Recently, I had a meeting with the Prime Minister and I brought this matter up. He told me that it was something that was currently being considered. Sometimes, however, I get the impression that some of my critics want me to do the work of an opposition leader and to oppose the Government. That is not my job. I think that the President of the Republic, in a regime such as ours, ought to be a unifying force and not someone who foments political tension and instability. That is something I have always tried to avoid, but I do have sufficient courage to tell the government and the Prime Minister exactly what I think and I have actually dared to criticise them publicly several times. I am sole judge of the criticism I make, and I decide if it is appropriate and also when the time is right. Sometimes, people would have   me criticise the government according to a timetable.</P>
    552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     551
    553552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A number of journalists in the private sector are currently being prosecuted and these actions nearly all originate from sources close to the government Surely if they were actually acting unprofessionally, we would see legal actions from parts of society, such as business, and not just from the political class.</P>
    554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     553
    555554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The reason for this is very simple. It is the political class that they vilify. I myself have been insulted on a number of occasions and, despite having put up with it for five years, I have not instigated any lawsuits. There was one case which was taken seriously by the Attorney General's office and there  were other cases when the Prime Minister was called a thief. I would ask you, is this a normal state of affairs ? Does freedom of the press mean that it can call a Minister or the Mayor of Praia a thief? Is that what is meant by democracy ? You have to be aware of the background to these court cases - and there are a good many of them, some dating from 1991. They are not designed to 'get at' any particular newspaper. The reason many of these cases have been brought is because serious insults of the kind we are talking about are a crime. That is true of even the most advanced democracies.</P>
    556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     555
    557556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In economic terms, Cape Verde does not appear too badly off. But some economic indicators do give rise to concern, notably the big gap between the export and import figures. How do you see your country's future when it no longer relies so much on international aid ? Do you believe in the dream of many of your fellow countrymen, that Cape Verde will be Africa's 'little dragon'?</P>
    558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     557
    559558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unlike some people, I have never spoken of becoming a dragon. I don't like this expression. I do believe that, despite our enormous problems - Cape Verde has few resources and we have been in the grip of drought for many years - it does have a number of assets. We are capable of making progress and I believe that there are a number of promising areas which have already been identified: for example, fisheries, tourism and even 'foreign' investment. We have to be optimistic about Cape Verde's future. We are in a difficult situation, everyone knows that, but we are a hard-working and courageous people and our prospects are good. The country will be able to forge ahead.</P>
    560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     559
    561560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-On the diplomatic front, Cape Verde appears something of an expert at maintaining good relations with different regimes: for instance, with both Israel and the Arab countries, with China, and with South Africa before and after apartheid. How do you manage this ? </P>
    562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     561
    563562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There is no magic formula. Since independence, Cape Verde has tried to adopt a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy. We are a small country with no great influence on the international scene and we have to be on good terms with everyone. That is the principle on which we base our foreign policy.</P>
    564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     563
    565564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau used to be fairly close - do you foresee any future rapprochement, perhaps in some form of federation ?</P>
    566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     565
    567566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is difficult to say. I feel that there is already a degree of rapprochement in progress, particularly in economic terms. Recently, we signed a civil aviation cooperation agreement, and there are opportunities for similar achievements in the fisheries and shipping sectors as well. Relations between the Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau governments are excellent but, to my mind, the idea of our forming a federation is out of date. It would not be in our interests nor in those of Guinea Bissau. We do, however, intend to develop a closer economic relationship and our political relations are very good indeed. I would wager that our partners in Guinea Bissau would give you a similar analysis of the situation.</P>
    568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     567
    569568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-In cultural terms, can it be said that your country has succeeded in becoming a multi-ethnic state ?</P>
    570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     569
    571570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The important thing is that the Cape Verde people should have their own identity; that there should be a specific Cape Verde culture. What I would say is that all the citizens of Cape Verde are proud of their culture and citizenship. This constitutes a great source of strength for a country such as ours which has major challenges to overcome. Our culture is also an asset in our country's development.</P>
    572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     571
    573572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
    574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     573
    575574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview with Aristides Lima, leader of the Opposition</P>
    576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     575
    577576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The government owes its victory to abuse of the electoral system'</P>
    578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     577
    579578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As main leader of the Opposition, what are your views on the fact that the governing party has recently been reelected ?</P>
    580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     579
    581580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I believe the country's economy is in crisis. Growth rates are not very high, just like in the 1980s, for example, and there is a high level of structural imbalance. Unemployment has increased: in 1990, unemployment stood at approximately 25% and now it is 30%. There used to be 25 000 people who worked in what we call the high intensity labour sector and who had a job for about 10 months of the year. They were recently laid off early. Such jobs were part of a social programme which, amongst other things, enabled us to build roads. The prices of staple products, such as sugar, maize and rice, which were stable, have just gone up, and the price of cement, which was also controlled to promote economic growth, is no longer subject to the same control and I can foresee this giving rise to many problems in areas outside the towns and cities. In Praia, a 50-kg bag of cement used to cost 440 escudos and, although that price will stay more or less the same, on islands like Fogo, it will go up to about 660 escudos. This will generate problems for economic growth and a number of major projects in the tourism sector, for example, will suffer. The balance between exports and imports has also been adversely affected in that the level of coverage of imports by exports has fallen, despite announcements to the contrary made by the government.</P>
    582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     581
    583582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· From 1993 to 1995, exports tripled in volume, if the government is to be believed. What are your thoughts on that ?</P>
    584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     583
    585584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem is that, in this country, some exports rely on the import of considerable amounts of raw materials. For example, in S&atilde;o Vicente, there is a shoe-manufacturing plant which gets its supplies of raw materials from abroad. The same applies to fishing and a number of fisheries products, such as anchovies, which are still canned in S&atilde;o Vicente but which have to be imported from Chile or elsewhere. This causes great problems when it comes to managing the country's foreign currency reserves, which have fallen markedly. In 1990, reserves provided over 6 months' coverage for imports, but now we have to operate in terms of weeks or even days.</P>
    586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     585
    587586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nevertheless, the government could say that it is not responsible for the economic picture you have just painted because the world economic situation is hitting all small countries harder.</P>
    588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     587
    589588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, the government is responsible, because it has been unable to implement the appropriate liberalization policy. For example, this should have been applied gradually to the trade sector, but the government rushed in and has now had to backtrack on goods which needed import authorization. What happened was that it lifted this authorization requirement but has now  had to bring it in once again. And another thing, the policy of liberalization has not been accompanied by very high levels of foreign investment and, in addition, the country's skilled workers feel marginalised, all of which goes to make the situation worse. As for structural adjustment, the government has always supported the idea of 'less State equals a better State', but, in practice, we have seen spending on the State's everyday activities go up and up. Civil service staff levels have now risen to about 12 000, compared with the former 10 000. However, increased spending is also a result of a not always equitable wages policy - the difference between the highest and lowest salaries is huge and, in some public bodies, one worker might be earning 15 times as much as another.</P>
    590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    591590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· According to the Minister for Economic Coordination, the currency is under pressure as a result of the Opposition's irresponsible scare tactics of announcing a future devaluation, leading to the stock-piling of currency and goods, a kind of artificial speculation.</P>
    592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     591
    593592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's a very good way of offloading one's responsibilities - the Opposition did no more than criticise the government's policy and point to the   facts of the situation. It was members of the government themselves who acknowledged the low levels of currency reserves and the State bank which suspended transfers abroad. The Minister would have people believe that the Opposition lacks any credibility so how could this same Opposition have any influence on peoples' behaviour? The problem is actually extremely basic: economic operators, society and foreigners are not really au fait with the country's real economic situation because the government does not issue information, which is one of our basic criticisms. Parliamentary representatives and political parties no longer receive the figures they need and the latter are sometimes forced to consult foreign sources or to rely on their personal links with people who are close to sources of information. I myself criticised the Prime Minister for adopting this attitude of regarding information as subversive. I asked the Prime Minister for a copy of the study on Cape Verde's economy by a Portuguese professor, which had been paid for with tax payers' money. I never received it. For our part, we hope that Cape Verde's partners will be able to recognise the true situation and persuade the government to act in a more equitable manner.</P>
    594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     593
    595594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nonetheless the people cannot be too disappointed, because they reelected the government for another term.</P>
    596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     595
    597596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That could be explained in many ways - the government controls information and therefore holds the reins of power. It controls television, radio, part of the print media, and the private-press sector is fairly weak, so it has been able to manipulate information and give people the idea that the country is on the right track. The government did do things to change peoples' lives, but it exaggerated its achievements using the State social communication means available to it. In fact, it did not achieve the major objectives it set itself: firstly its fight against unemployment - a failure. Balancing foreign economic relations - another failure. Balancing the domestic  economic situation: differences between our various islands have become more acute. In matters of health, Cape Verde made major advances when our party was in power and, although, to all intents and purposes, the health sector is just as good when compared with other African countries, it has, in fact, deteriorated. Diseases which had been eradicated from the country are returning, like malaria, for example, cholera, etc. Health services are concentrated in the capital city, Praia, and there is no decentralisation, which has negative effects on even links between carers and patients. Humanism shows the effects of a situation such as this, and it applies not only to health: there is an unfair distribution of State financial resources between the central government and local government. The State has been unable to reform local finances and has politicised transfers of funds to those districts which are closest to it. The government has also profited from the structural problems encountered in the working of our democracy. One of these structural problems is Parliament's weakness: it sits only three times a year and the representatives do not work full-time - they are sometimes employed by the administration which they are supposed to monitor. Democracy has a price and although savings can be made in other spheres, when one is  seeking good governance, one of the conditions for which is a strong, functional and effective Parliament, this is not possible. The weakness of the private-press sector is yet another problem.</P>
    598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     597
    599598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-And are you continuing to work in the administration ?</P>
    600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     599
    601600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am a 'full-time' parliamentary representative. There are now about 10 out of 79 representatives who work on a full-time basis. They are members of Parliament's office, chairmen of committees and parliamentary leaders.</P>
    602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     601
    603602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The government says that it inherited a serious state of affairs when it took over power from the PAICV.</P>
    604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     603
    605604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is simply not true that the good life began with this government's accession to power. Here's a little history lesson: think back to colonial times. Admittedly, there were negative aspects to our time in power but you must remember that the PAICV did, in fact, leave in place the subjective.  physical basis for the new policy direction. When we achieved independence, Cape Verde had no ports or airports, apart from small-scale port facilities at S&atilde;o Vicente. We built the port at Praia, the port at Sal, the port at S&atilde;o Nicolau and a number of airports. The telecommunications system was also set up by the PAICV government and we implemented the initial educational reforms. In the 1980s, the GDP growth rate was 7%and the per capita income was one of the highest in Africa, more than $820.</P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     605
    607606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The party in power describes the PAICV as marxist and non-democratic claiming that it was they, not the PAICV, who introduced democracy.</P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     607
    609608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is nothing more than rhetoric, because all of the current governing party's members were in the PAICV - they were radicals, more marxist than anyone. Everyone knows that here, in Cape Verde, we had a pragmatic party, not a marxist party, although marxism was a source of ideas for many people. The idea was not to build socialism here. In those days, we had an open, not a centralised economy and all trade was private. We always had a market economy and to describe us as non-democratic is idle rhetoric. The PAICV's ideology has always been one of national liberation based on political and economic independence, with power vested in the people. This was a normal state of affairs during a national liberation struggle and, although it would be true to say that we were influenced by a certain single-party model which had gained widespread acceptance in Africa, the single party here could not be compared with any other. Both the PAIGC and later the PAICV attempted to force people into taking part in citizens' assemblies in order to put forward suggestions to the candidates. The current Prime Minister, Mr Veiga, for example, was put forward by a militants' assembly - he was on the PAICV's lists and they used to sit one beside the other on the benches in Parliament. The regime was, I suppose, slightly paternalistic but it was the people themselves who were really responsible for national liberation, it was they who had an idea of justice, patriotism, of being African, which explains the total commitment of Cape Verde's people to our party in the struggle for independence and also the good results we achieved when in power.</P>
    610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     609
    611610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Why, then, were you not re-elected ?</P>
    612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     611
    613612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The party had been in power for a long time, with the same president, the same prime minister, the same president of the national assembly and virtually all the same ministers. People were hungry for change because the ruling elite had been in place for so long. The international scene, also, did not favour the old single-party system. Another element, too, was the Church, which fought us over the question of abortion. Perhaps I should point out that, from the very beginning, a section of the Catholic church was not in favour of independence, but younger members of the clergy, with more sympathetic feelings towards the population, supported us and, thus, we changed peoples' attitudes. The Church in Africa is a phenomenon worthy of greater analysis, particularly in Cape Verde, where, I feel, the current government was able to take advantage of the Cape Verde peoples) essentially religious nature to criticise us and present us as an anticlerical party. In fact, the situation is quite different: most PAICV leaders and militants are Roman Catholics and some church" were damaged by opponents in an attempt to discredit the party. Another example of abuse of the electoral system, apart from taking advantage of the peoples' religious nature, is the country's poverty. During election campaigns, the government make it easier for people to obtain food, and it also creates more jobs, en masse, but these disappear again after the elections - precisely as is happening at the moment.</P>
    614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     613
    615614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As it is governed at the moment, Cape Verde is regarded by other countries as a 'star pupil'. Surely this is another success for the government ?</P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     615
    617616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde has always been regarded as a star pupil because, here, our society is fairly homogeneous and there are no major social or ethnic imbalances. However, in my opinion, the future depends on changes at a structural level and such changes cannot take place unless we have a functioning parliament and a strong private press. I cannot deny that the government has had some successes, but I also believe that the people will have an opportunity to judge how it keeps its promises.  interview by Hegei Gouger</P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     617
    619618<I><P></P>
    620619<!--
    … …  
    625624  </Description>
    626625-->
    627 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     626</I>
    628627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It suffices for an unruly little bird to escape</P>
    629628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For, suddenly, Fire to spark, Night to dissolve</P>
    … …  
    633632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a tiny breathless bird.</P>
    634633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mario Fonseca in 'La Mer a tous les coupe')</P>
    635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     634
    636635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most cities in the Third World devote all their energy to mere survival and there are few imbued with the same atmosphere as Mindelo - the very air  appears to brim over with art and good taste, beauty and sensuality. Our guide to the city speaks slowly, measuring his words, his delivery not an indication that he is searching for a translation, although it could be interpreted as an affectation, but matching the modulation of the language which is closest to his heart: 'I believe the air in this city is imbued with hedonism. Here, we mix work and pleasure - today is a holiday, but I am working. However, my day is not so rigidly timetabled that I cannot do some work and, since you have invited me out for a drink, take some time off to accept'.</P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     636
    638637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antonio Firmino, director of the Craft Centre, continues to tell us about his favourite city in the same steady language, a dreamy look in his eyes and wearing a Che Guevara-style beret. The tale he tells is the story of a tiny country which has fallen in love with culture: the actual building housing the Craft Centre used to be a school, the 'Mindelo Technical College', founded in 1917, the first secular educational institution. It was to transform the city into a cultural haven. The story goes that a certain senator named Vera Cruz, who represented the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the Portuguese Senate, wanted to establish Cape Verde's first college. His peers objected, arguing that Mindelo had no building worthy of housing an institution of such a high standing but</P>
    639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     638
    640639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vera Cruz straight away replied: 'So, why not use mine?'. Thus, he casually handed over his private residence.</P>
    641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     640
    642641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Art even in the fish market</P>
    643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     642
    644643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many inhabitants are there in Mindelo? According to Antonio Firmino, 'Just me and my friends'. How right he is. It would be impossible not to become part of such a captivating place. And so a long journey began, which included the creation of Claridade, a review (and cultural movement) established in 1938 by Balthasar Lopes, a writer and essayist of world renown who was born in S&atilde;o Nicolau but taught in Mindelo, and other great artists who were to make up the country's literary and artistic roll of honour. Claridade was to be followed by Certeza which was also to influence the cultural elite. Although historians and other commentators feel that Claridade did no more than praise Cape Verde's 'latinity', rejecting its African side, artists are unanimous in regarding it as the cradle of Cape Verdian intellectual culture and the soil which was to nurture Mindelo and make it such an extraordinary little town. The impression is that everyone here is interested in art - the local authorities encourage and help sculptors in their creative activities all over the town, making it a living museum: here, there is a painting by Antonio Concei&ccedil;&auml;o and, over there, a huge flat sculpture of couples in languorous embraces, by Ro and Anildo, an illustration of the marvellous hedonism evoked by our host.</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     644
    646645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same assured but delicate touch of these two artists can be seen in the lobby of Fishpackers, an anchovy- and tunapacking company, this time in the form of a celebration of fishermen. One of the finest examples of this type of art, which can be seen everywhere in the streets and public places, is the sequence of four huge decorative-tile frescoes in the fish market. When Bela Duarte showed them to us, it was such a delight to see how much at ease this famous artist was in the company of the staliholders, to whom both she and her work seemed so familiar.</P>
    647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     646
    648647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above this hedonistic atmosphere, there is, in Mindelo, an eclecticism which can be detected just as widely in other towns and cities, which means that you can talk about painting with the President of the Republic, dancing with a factory manager and decorative tiles with the man in the street. And the latter is literally 'in the street' - the inhabitants of S&atilde;o Vicente, the capital, derive immense pleasure from strolling in its squares and narrow streets, and around the port. A little stall, looking like a sugar loaf in the middle of one of the city's many squares, opposite a grand hotel, opens up in the early evening just like a flower, attracting hundreds of people to it who come to quench their thirst, to converse or woo, and to dance to the music escaping from the terrace of the Porto Grande Hotel, which has just reopened after being privatised and modernised.</P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     648
    650649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is as if a dress ball were taking place on two different levels, one in front of the other, dancing to the same music and with equal pleasure: above, in an enormous gallery open to the sky, elegant guests (who include a small gathering of government officials and pretty Brazilian actresses who are here to film television soaps) and, down in the square, the dancing promenaders, full of admiration, almost stimulating those above.</P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     650
    652651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verdian nights</P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     652
    654653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all the island's intellectuals, Antonio Firmino has a number of different jobs. In addition to running the </P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     654
    656655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Craft Centre, he teaches 'nautical' English to would-be sailors, is an amateur painter and musician (he plays and composes for his wife, who is a singer). His spare time is devoted to writing a column. The Craft Centre exhibits, amongst other things, a large number of tapestries, an art form much prized in Cape Verde. These admirable examples are by Ju&auml;n Fortes, Juamo Pento, and a good many others, in particular Bela Duarte, Tchal&ecirc; Figueira, Lucia Queiros and Miguel Figueira, Mindelo's top artistic foursome who appear to be  involved in everything, including the frescoes at the fish market. Bela, who showed us her studio, her house and the fish market, does not conceal the joy she derives from colour and allusion in her pictures, tapestries or decorative tiles, ranging from the most distant abstraction to an anecdotal figuration, using her native land with its doleful nuances, soft cries and romantic strength as raw  material. Above all, there is convivial artistic writing: 'Resistencia', which is at first sight a tapestry and then a patchwork of colour and sinuous lines. Scarcely has the artist begun to explain her work than everything becomes clear: this is a story, in threads and colours, about drought, representing roots, energy, space and struggle, all part of the Cape Verdian soul. She is also paying homage to those weavers of traditional African loincloth (badiu) from Cape Verde from whom today's artists inherited their technique.</P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     656
    658657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, where to meet Antonio's friends? To find them, look no further than the Cape Verdian nights (noite caboverdiana), those gatherings which take place everywhere and resemble both a nightclub and an artistic association, all those present sharing a fondness for Cape Verde mingled with nostalgia and yearning. One such place is the Piano Bar, which was closed on account of the departure of its owner Chico Serra, another notable in local society, who was accompanying a friend, C&eacute;saria Evora, in her attempt to conquer new lands. Mission accomplished, Chico Serra is back and will soon be open for business again, his club's atmosphere just as intimate and warm as before - just enough room for his piano, his musician friends and others who come to sample grog and music.</P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     658
    660659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa nonetheless</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     660
    662661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mario Fonseca also adores Mindelo but he would not agree that that wind-blown city has a monopoly on art and culture. He is from an island in the lee of the wind, from Praia, capital of the island of Santiago and of the country. In his opinion, it is the whole of Cape Verde which is bubbling with creativity and he will enchant you with his tales of Praia and its old colonial district, the 'Plateau', which still retains much of the nostalgic character to be seen in the now yellowing photographs taken 50 years ago when the city was not so sprawling and the ambience of Sucupira market was almost tangible. He will also tell you everything about the island of Santiago, with Cidade Velha, the ancient capital  which was too difficult to defend against repeated pirate attacks. It bowed to Praia's supremacy and, today, has an old-fashioned feeling, nestling within a cove around the ruins of its castle, and dominated by the fort which perches above a cliff face. The architecture owes much of its charm to the predominant Creole style which is vaguely reminiscent of Portugal, in every pastel shade. Cidade Velha's central square is caressed by a gentle breeze and groups of young people can always be seen lazing around the monument to the slaves. Time seems to stand still. The pretty little white church whose walls are decorated with sheaves of bougainvillaea, Santa Maria do Rosario, is the oldest on the island and, indeed, along the entire West African coast. It was built in 1460 and the white marble paving in the central nave conceals the final resting place of grandees from colonial times, their epitaphs erased over five hundred years by the soles and knees of penitents.</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     662
    664663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The director of the INAC (National Cultural Institute), responsible for Praia National Museum (which is soon to open its doors), is Mario Alberto de Almeida Fonseca, who once taught French in Portugal; he is a former administrator who has worked in Mauritania and Turkey, a translator and also a former regional manager of the national airline. In addition he is a poet whose works have been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croat and Russian. Above all, he is an amateur connoisseur of the art and artists of his country. As the INAC's director, he is responsible for cultural events, exhibitions, shows, publishing and also the compilation of an oral record of the country's history and the preparation of  a Creole dictionary. The INAC's work also involves a major history of Cape Verde, the first volume of which has already been published. He will show you the future National Museum's collection, moving from one painting to another, from an old photograph to an antique cimboa, a type of locally-manufactured violin from the 1 9th century, or to an old Massachusetts galleon, testament to the past explorations of his people. You will first of all discover the works of artists from Praia such as Mito and Kiki Lima, not on account of Fonseca's chauvinism but because he feels he has to 'convert' the visitor who may have left Mindelo with the impression that that city is Cape Verde's premier cultural centre. There is also the music from the island of Santiago - the funana, the batuque, the fina&ccedil;o - all more African than the languid style so influenced by the Portuguese fado of this island's musical groups (Fina&ccedil;on, Bulimundo, Tuvaroes, Kod&eacute; di Dona or the great traditional style singer Nha Inacia Gomes). Gomes is a 'women of the people' whose musical heritage consists of no more than local tradition.</P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     664
    666665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was she who 'reinvented' jazz and whom Alberto Fonseca admires a great deal. Cesaria Evora, moreover, is not the first musician to publicise Cape Verdian music abroad: Fina&ccedil;on or Kod&eacute; di Dona, for example, have captivated many music-lovers, particularly musicians, in Europe and America.</P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     666
    668667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Chamber and the stage</P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     668
    670669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Brito is not from Mindelo either. He is from Sal but confesses to having to pay regular visits to Mindelo, to immerse himself in that city's hedonistic atmosphere. For three years he has been director of the National Cinematographic Institute which was established in 1967 and is currently exhibiting newfound dynamism on account of the 'production tax' (4% of the filming budget, paid to the Institute and generally converted into a holding, which the State supplements to make the sum up to slightly more than 10% in co-productions). There is also an agreement with Portugal which encourages co-productions between the two countries, thereby enabling Cape Verdian technicians to receive their training. Brito is working on a local video-film-production project (TV viewers are very fond of such things) and wants to set up a major production centre to be made available to lusophone African countries and, perhaps, others. </P>
    671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     670
    672671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Spencer Brito is also Sal's parliamentary representative (10 000 inhabitants), musician, writer/composer and guitarist in his own group, Madrugada. His talents include the composition of morna and coladeira pieces, as well as jazz-rock. At the end of May, the MP was due to appear in his own production at the Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, as part of the lusophone music festival. You could say that he divides his time between the Institute, the Chamber and the stage; however, he is also involved in research into copyright protection in Cape Verde. Daniel (it would never occur to you to call him anything else, even five minutes after making his acquaintance) always gives the same advice to anyone wishing to discover Cape Verde, namely to get to know the atmosphere of a tocatinha, spontaneous jam sessions which take place at one location or another, usually even more intimate than the 'Cape Verdian nights'. By the way, I almost forgot - by training, Brito is a vet, having studied in Romania. </P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     672
    674673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
    675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     674
    676675<I><P></P>
    677676<!--
    … …  
    682681  </Description>
    683682-->
    684 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683</I>
    685684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sponsors are delighted at the full use of aid</P>
    686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    687686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's physical characteristics - its small size, the fact that its territory is scattered over a number of islands and islets, its Sahelian climate (continually rendering it vulnerable to drought), the arid nature of the soil and its low population (under five hundred  thousand inhabitants) - might explain its high levels of poverty and mean that, in order to survive and develop, it requires considerable amounts of foreign aid. However, it is the effort made by this small country to stabilise its economy and to gain maximum profit from foreign aid which has attracted special attention from sponsors. Last year the European Commission decided to increase its contribution to Cape Verde's National Indicative Programme, within the framework of the Lom&eacute; Convention (tome IV, first protocol 199-95, seventh EDF) by 7%, i.e. an extra ECU 1.7 million. Cape Verde had already put virtually all the ECU 23 million allocated to it to good use, an indication of the government's desire to use the aid granted to the full.</P>
    688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    689688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When realism is a luxury</P>
    690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     689
    691690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to imagine an island inhabited by 160 000 people - the island of S&atilde;o Vicente, where the country's second largest city, Mindelo, with its population of 70 000, is located - having no source of drinking water. In former times, water was shipped in from the neighbouring island of Santo Antao, but Mindelo now has a number of seawater desalination plants, most of these provided by Israel, which meet 100% of its supply needs. The supply of both water and electricity is managed by</P>
    692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     691
    693692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electra, a publicly-owned company, which, within the framework of the EDF (European Development Fund), has received European Commission aid to increase its electricity-generating capacity. It has set up three wind pumps, of Danish manufacture, which alone supply 13% of the island's non-industrial requirements. Elsewhere, such solutions as sea-water desalination and wind pumps might appear to be unrealistic but, for 160 000 people with no indigenous supply, realism is sometimes a luxury.</P>
    694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    695694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the island of Santiago, which is home to Praia, the capital city, does have some natural water sources, these are far from sufficient for its needs. One of the projects recently financed by the European Union concerned improvements to water-distribution systems, water purity and rainwater drainage. Amongst other things, this work involves the recycling of waste water which the island cannot afford to let drain away. Cape Verde's Achilles' heel is definitely its lack of water, its strong point unquestionably the dynamic outlook of its population.</P>
    696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    697696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has an office on Cape Verde where the work done at Praia (water distribution and purity, support for poorer districts of the capital threatened with overpopulation) is regarded as symbolic of the EU's desire to take account of both weaknesses and strengths and represents the overall intention behind Community aid to this country. Generally speaking, such aid is geared towards infrastructures (water and electricity production and distribution, urban development) on the one hand and education and health on the other.</P>
    698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     697
    699698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Praia's historic old town, the 'Plateau', with its wealth of fine colonial and neo-classical architecture, risks losing many of its buildings which have been abandoned by their owners who lack the means to maintain them. Community aid has also been provided to help save this part of the country's heritage. Funds are insufficient to finance a complete restoration of the 'Plateau', but, following the example of the Cape Verde government, which has maintained administrative buildings in good condition, the Commission will probably assume responsibility for renovation of a superb nineteenth-century building, the 'Case Cor-de-Rosa'. The purpose of this project is two-fold; not only will the building be restored, but also it will become the core of a more general project to train professionals in building techniques and restoration and it will serve as an example to motivate future purchasers, institutions, businesses and individuals to preserve the historic old town.</P>
    700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     699
    701700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Community has also funded a study into the preservation of the capital's historic old town, which has been used as a basis by Praia Town Council. A project is currently underway, costing 1 million ECU, to restore an islet. The principal aim of this project is to train Cape Verdian technicians. Other work in the field of training has induded the building of the Praia Technical College. The next phase of this project, worth almost ECU 1 million, will fund the supply of equipment and teacher training.</P>
    702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     701
    703702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Still within the context of the overall project to develop Praia city, an EDF programme worth ECU 1.3 million has been created for the development of a designated area as an industrial site. A rural electrification project in the area around Praia was, at the end of 1995, granted a budget of ECU 1.5 million and will benefit a population of 7500 people living in the three most densely populated rural centres on the island of Santiago. The technical side of the works will be entrusted to Electra, with the private sector being responsible for supplying equipment and monitoring the works. </P>
    704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     703
    705704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's 'essence' as a resource</P>
    706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     705
    707706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's leaders regularly point to the richness, which they term the 'essence', of Cape Verde, contrasting this with the fact that their country is so poor. Indeed, despite limited resources, this country devotes a great deal of energy and ingenuity to 'cultivating' its culture. Two projects, financed within the framework of the National Indicative Programme and amounting to ECU 500 000, concern two feature-length films and will play a part in lessening the island's isolation by publicising its culture and people abroad. The first film, made during 1995 and entitled 'llh&eacute;u de Contenda', is the first fiction-based feature film to be made in Cape Verde and is the work of Leao Lopes, a director who has drawn his inspiration from the work of another Cape Verdian citizen, Teixeira de Sousa, and which centres on the history of Cape Verde and the birth of its national identity. The EDF contribution (approximately ECU 250 thousand) amounts to 14% of the total production cost. The film is currently being shown in a number of European countries. Virtually the same amount of  money has been set aside to fund another production, this time by a Portuguese director, Francisco Manso, based on a novel by a Cape Verdian author, Germano de Almeida, and entitled 'O Testamento do Sr. Napuceno', which was being filmed on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente at the time of our visit. 50% of the finance for this film comes from Portuguese producers, the other co-producers being French and Belgian.</P>
    708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     707
    709708<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others EDF projects recently completed or being completed include one for improving roads on the islands of Santiago, S&atilde;o Nicolau and Maio (ECU 3 million) and a micro-project programme (ECU 1 million). In addition to funds from the EDF, Cape Verde has received further finance under the Lom&eacute; Convention, including ECU 700 000 within the context of the Stabex transfer schemes to offset loses in the banana-production sector during 1994.</P>
    710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     709
    711710<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design a micro climate</P>
    712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     711
    713712<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extemal food aid is essential in a country which cannot meet its own requirements and the Commission's most recent food-aid-budget contribution amounted to nearly ECU 2 million. Other special budget lines include funds provided under 'Human Rights and Democratisation in Developing Countries'.</P>
    714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     713
    715714<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To an attentive foreign visitor, one of Cape Verde's most interesting achievements is the progress it has made in reforesting such an infertile soil. One of these reforested areas, covering 5000 hectares (1990-94) forms the basis of a regional project to disseminate knowhow accumulated in this sphere in Cape Verde. Training course. have enabled technicians and others involved in the reformtation of the Sahel countries to gain experience in methods which have proved succesful here. The production and distribution of teaching tools (books, posters, films, etc.) supplement the project. Since independence, Cape Verde has achieved a tenfold increase in the amount of land which is forested - admittedly there was little to start with, but since climatic conditions are so hostile this result can be regarded as a major accomplishment. There is even a hope that a micro-climate might form. On the island of Santiago, in some of these new green areas, wild duck which had long since disappeared have returned. It is nice to dream but the country cannot afford to rest on its laurels.</P>
    716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     715
    717716<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier </P>
    718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     717
    719718<I><P></P>
    720719<!--
    … …  
    725724  </Description>
    726725-->
    727 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726</I>
    728727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
    729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    730729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 4 033 km2 Population: 390 000 (1990) Population density: 97 per km2 </P>
    731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    732731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 2.8 % (forecast for the period 19922000) </P>
    733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    734733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Praia (pop. 75 000)</P>
    735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    736735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main town: Mindelo (pop. 65 000) </P>
    737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    738737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: Portuguese, Creole</P>
    739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    740739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Cape Verde Escudo (CVE). In May 1996,1 ECU was worth CVE 104 ($1 = CVE 83 approx.) </P>
    741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    742741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
    743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     742
    744743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential/parliamentary system. The President is not the head of the executive but he represents the country and is guarantor of national unity and the Constitution. Unicameral Parliament. </P>
    745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     744
    746745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro (elected in 1991 and reselected at the beginning of this year) </P>
    747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     746
    748747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Carlos Veiga (since 1991) </P>
    749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     748
    750749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political parties represented in Parliament:</P>
    751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     750
    752751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Movimento pare a Democracia (MPD)</P>
    753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752
    754753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido Africano pare a Independencia de Cabo Verde (PAICV)</P>
    755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    756755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido da Convergencia Democratica (PCD) - formed as a result of a break away from the MPD</P>
    757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    758757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 </P>
    759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     758
    760759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
    761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     760
    762761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1992 figures)</P>
    763762<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: CVE 23.9 billion</P>
    764763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: US $840</P>
    765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    766765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 13%, industry 17%, services 70% </P>
    767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     766
    768767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth (estimate 1995): 4% Balance of payments: deficit of CVE 11.9 billion </P>
    769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768
    770769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil. </P>
    771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    772771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 9.1%</P>
    773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    774773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
    775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    776775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 64.7</P>
    777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    778777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortality per 1000 live births: 56 Adult literacy: 66.4% </P>
    779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     778
    780779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 59% </P>
    781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     780
    782781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.536 (123rd out of 174) </P>
    783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     782
    784783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 1995; Economic Intelligence Unit 1995; 'Etat et soci&eacute;t&eacute; aux iles du Cap Vert, by Michel Lesourd. </P>
    785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     784
    786785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32a.png"></center><br>
    787786 Figure</P>
    788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    789 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    791 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     787
     788<B>
    792789<!--
    793790</Section>
    … …  
    799796  </Description>
    800797-->
    801 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     798</B>
    802799<B><P></P>
    803800<!--
    … …  
    807804  </Description>
    808805-->
    809 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     806</B>
    810807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poll results and new brochure launched in Brussels</P>
    811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    812809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new poll of Europeans high lights a deficit of information about the European Community's development policies. A brochure just published on the Lom&eacute; Convention, available in all EU languages, seeks to fill some of the gaps.</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     810
    814811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a press conference on May 21, Development Commissioner, Joso de Deus Pinheiro, unveiled the findings of a survey commissioned from the Brussels consultancy, International Research Associates (INRA). The aim of the exercise was to sound out how Europeans perceive developing countries. The sample was 16 346 people, of 15 years and upwards, who were polled in the 15 Member States during December 1995.</P>
    815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     812
    816813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survey shows that since 1991, helping the poor in the developing countries has slipped in the 'league' of issues of most concern to Europeans. The subject now ranks eighth in a table topped by the fight against unemployment. But the better news is that Europeans believe development of these regions should be the fourth most important priority for joint actions between Member States. This comes just below combating terrorism, environmental questions and defending Europe's economic interests.</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     814
    818815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 82% of Europeans are favourable to development cooperation, 12% are against. The degree of support varies, as one would expect, from one EU country to another. Interestingly, the survey shows that Member States facing an economic squeeze are the most reticent, irrespective of their past track record in development aid. In Belgium, only 65% are in favour while in</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     816
    820817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria and France, the figures are 69% and 72% respectively. At the other end of the scale, Greece comes out top with 97% just ahead of Spain on 96% and Ireland on 91%. INRA's explanation for this variation is that it reflects the economic problems which are increasingly being felt in northern states of the Community. It is also worth pointing out that nations on EU's southern flank may be more convinced of the effectiveness of aid since they themselves are recipients of EC structural funds allocated to modernise the Union's disadvantaged regions.</P>
    821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     818
    822819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But INRA's report also reveals some misconceptions about European development aid. These, says Commissioner Pinheiro, may be attributed to the lack of visibility of the relevant development policies.</P>
    823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     820
    824821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57% of those questioned believe that the bulk of the Community's assistance consists of emergency aid, rather than longer-term project support. The reverse is actually true. More people answer 'no' then 'yes' to the question: 'Does aid contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries'? And most consider that United Nations agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO etc.) do more in the  field of helping developing countries than the EC. Non-governmental organisations also have a high profile, with the EU Member States and Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) trailing behind.</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     822
    826823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other key findings from the poll - which Professor Pinheiro says will provide much food for thought in the coming months as thoughts turn to cooperation after Lom&eacute; IV - are highlighted in the box.</P>
    827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     824
    828825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mid-term review and beyond</P>
    829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     826
    830827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro feels that some of results, which signal the need to tighten up on the management of development aid, have already been addressed in the mid-term review of the Lom&eacute; Convention which will come on stream from the beginning of 1997. The programming of the eighth European Development Fund (EDF) is already well under way and, with a view to increasing the effectiveness of aid, just 70% of resources earmarked for each ACP state will be allocated at the outset (for a three year period). An analysis of how the remainder should be spent will take place at the end of the three years. In addition, Professor Pinheiro indicated that a 'strategic' document was being drawn up on each of the 70 ACP states prior to allocation of funds. This was being done in 'permanent consultation with Member States and Commission delegations, in the interests of achieving a real synergy between the two.'</P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     828
    832829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More sweeping changes to the relationship are likely after the current</P>
    833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     830
    834831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some key findings from the INRA report</P>
    835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     832
    836833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must reach its intended destination and arrive where it is needed 93.2%</P>
    837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     834
    838835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must meet the needs of the local people</P>
    839836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90.7%</P>
    840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     837
    841838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must raspect human rights</P>
    842839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85.1%</P>
    843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     840
    844841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Transparency, effective public management and the fight against  corruption are essential</P>
    845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     842
    846843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must respect an overall development plan put forward by an  international aid organisation</P>
    847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     844
    848845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78.3%  plan  put  forward</P>
    849846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by an  internati onal  aid  organisa tion</P>
    850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     847
    851848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must be used to fund action by local NGOs</P>
    852849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must have a democratic system of government</P>
    853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     850
    854851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59.3%</P>
    855852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56.0%</P>
    856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     853
    857854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention expires at the turn of the century. Professor Pinheiro indicated that a first draft (green paper) on the possible shape of the ACP-KU relationship after 2000 will be published by the Commission by the end of the year. This, however, is likely to offer more questions than answers about future cooperation. 'I am not sure if we should keep the Lom&eacute; structure for every country, in the third millennium,' the Commissioner told the assembled journalists, highlighting the different levels of development now apparent between Lom&eacute; nations. Mauritius, now well on the way to becoming the 'Singapore' of Africa, was a case in point. He also pointed out the small island states of the Caribbean are at a very different stage of development from countries such as the Central African Republic or Burundi. He added that, in deciding what to do in future it would also be necessary to take stock of regional developments.</P>
    858 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     855
    859856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions about Lom&eacute; answered</P>
    860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     857
    861858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, efforts are under way to boost the image of Community aid. With this in mind, the Information Unit of the Development Directorate-General has just published a brochure entitled 20 Questions and Answers about the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
    862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     859
    863860<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides explaining in a nutshell what the Convention is, it answers some of the questions most frequently asked by sceptics about the benefits of development aid and trade preferences, highlighting the positive aspects for developing and developed economies alike. It points out, for example, that for every ECU 100 spent on aid, the Community recovers ECU 48 in the form of projects, supplies and technical assistance purchased from European companies!</P>
    864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     861
    865862<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure provides a succinct explanation of how the Commission monitors aid to stop embezzlement and corruption. It highlights the right of the European Court of Auditors to check accounts of projects and fund transfers - and to investigate documents in the Lom&eacute; states, without the permission of the country concerned. Another precaution is that once a project is under way, financing is by banker's transfer. This involves a paper specifying that the holder of contract X, whose bank account number is Y. should be credited with Z amount of money.</P>
    866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     863
    867864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An explanation is given as to why the European Commission is involved in development aid when the Member States have their own bilateral development policies.</P>
    868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     865
    869866<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure explains the advantages of EC assistance over bilateral arrangements and details how the Lom&eacute; system has been evolving in line with the increasing globalisation of the economy, in particular since the fall of the Berlin Wall.</P>
    870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     867
    871868<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It also contains some pocket statistics on official development assistance (ODA) flows which help to underline the message that the European Union (Community plus Member States) digs deeper into its pocket than its industrialised competitors in providing development aid. In 1994, the Community and its then 12 member states (excluding Austria, Sweden and Finland), contributed an average of 0.40% of their gross national product in ODA. The individual percentages varied from 1.03% in the case of Denmark to 0.20% in Italy. This compared with figures of 0.29% and 0.15% for Japan and the United States respectively.</P>
    872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     869
    873870<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, total ODA from the Twelve reached $26.59 billion. Of this, $4.83 billion came from the European Community in its own right. </P>
    874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     871
    875872<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
    876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     873
    877874<B><P></P>
    878875<!--
    … …  
    883880  </Description>
    884881-->
    885 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     882</B>
    886883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months of heated debate in the EU over the maximum allowable content of vegetable fats in chocolate have culminated in a Commission proposal for a revised Directive which, claim officials, should be to the taste of most interested parties.</P>
    887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     884
    888885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has proposed that the 'subsidiatity' principle should apply to the content of chocolate. This means leaving it to individual Member States to decide whether they will allow the use of vegetable oil - up to a maximum of 5% by weight - in their chocolate-making. The eight EU countries where this practice is currently prohibited  are free to modify their laws to take account of this 5% rule. The other cocoa butter and dry cocoa contents specified in the Directive - 18% and 35% respectively - may not be reduced.</P>
    889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     886
    890887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The addition of up to 5% vegetable fats was authorised under Directive 73/241 for the UK, Ireland and Denmark when they first joined the EC. Other Member States who acceded later - Austria, Finland, Portugal and Sweden - also use these oils in chocolate production. The remaining EU countries have continued to prohibit the use of vegetable fats - and the sale of chocolate containing such fats. The result has been a partitioning of the EU market, in direct conflict with the Single Market principle.</P>
    891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     888
    892889<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the proposal is approved by the Council and the Parliament, all 15 Member States will be free to decide whether vegetable oil can be used in making chocolate. Whatever their individual decisions, however, the barriers will come down, thus opening up the 'pure' chocolate markets to competition from less expensive varieties containing vegetable oil. Stricter labelling rules will also be introduced, with the precise nature of any substitute oils being clearly indicated. The simple mention 'vegetable oil' will no longer suffice. Martin Bangemann, the Commissioner responsible for industry, stressed the significance of revising the Directive in allowing  chocolate products to circulate freely throughout the KU. This, he argued, would be in the interests of consumers.</P>
    893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     890
    894891<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winners and losers</P>
    895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     892
    896893<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional cocoa producers such as Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are fearful that the proposal may prompt some of Europe's 'pure' chocolate countries to change their laws - and that they will lose trade as a result. On the other hand, sheanut exporters in Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Togo and Benin are hoping for higher sales if the 5% rule is adopted by more EU countries. Sheanuts account for 20% of Burkinabe exports and 98% of these are used to make vegetable oil substitute for chocolate products. The sheanut price is just 10% of the cocoa bean price. The Commission calculates that the maximum saving a manufacturer could expect by substituting vegetable fat for cocoa butter is around 1.5% of the ax-factory price.</P>
    897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     894
    898895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In weighing up what to do, the Commission also considered the objectives of the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO). These include taking 'all practical measures to increase the cocoa consumption in their countries by eliminating or reducing all obstacles to the growth of consumption in cocoa.' The ICCO estimates that if the 5% rule is applied in the remaining eight states - Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain - it will lead to a reduction in cocoa butter usage of 36 000-50 000 tonnes, which amounts to a drop in demand for cocoa beans of between 88000 and 125000 tonnes. This represents between 9-12% of current consumption.</P>
    899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     896
    900897<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some producers suggest that these estimates are too high since they assume that manufacturers will go for  almost full substitution, which is not necessarily seen as inevitable. In addition, there is a belief that overall demand for chocolate products may grow as a result of the legal change.</P>
    901 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     898
    902899<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was not the view taken by NGOs who reacted promptly - and critically - to the Commission text. The Brussels NGO Liaison Committee issued a statement claiming that it would lead to a drop of between 6.25% and 12.5% in the main exporting countries' cocoa receipts - and an additional burden on the European Community's Stabex fund. But chocolate producers and others argue that this is speculative. The impact, they say, will depend on the legal response of the eight Member States, as well as on the reaction of manufacturers. There are signs that the latter may well stick to their traditional and distinctive methods. A spokesperson for the Belgian-based Cote d'Or/ Suchard, pointed out that the proposal had a long way to go before it was approved, and stressed that his company had no intention of changing their 'winning recipes which had served them well since 1883. At the same time, he admitted, vegetable oil could be useful in a more diversified range of chocolate products.</P>
    903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     900
    904901<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The vegetable oil 'lobby' argues that the addition of vegetable fat makes chocolate easier to mould and less likely to melt in warm climates. And for those who fear the elimination of 'pure' chocolate from the market, they point to manufacturers in Britain, where vegetable oil has traditionally been used, who still exclude such fats from some of their brands.</P>
    905 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     902
    906903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal must now be debated by the Council and it is clear that the arguing is not over yet. But it is beginning to look as if the consumers may be the final arbiters. Through their purchasing habits, they are likely to be the ones who finally determine the winners and losers in the great chocolate debate. </P>
    907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     904
    908905<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
    909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     906
    910907<B><P></P>
    911908<!--
    … …  
    916913  </Description>
    917914-->
    918 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915</B>
    919916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In no country in Europe are ethnic minorities more organised than in the United Kingdom - though they are still not adequately organised, in the opinion of many, to pool their considerable resources together and overcome stereotypes, racism and unenployment. But this may  change if the morale engendered by a recent exhibition of minority businesses in the UK is anything to go by.</P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    921918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The statistics speak for themselves. There are 3.3 million Asians, Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in Britain, about 5% of the population (and the figure is projected to double in the next 25 years). They have six elected Members of Parliament - five Labour and one Conservative - as well as numerous personalities in the world of sports and the media. According to the 1994 Labour Force Survey, 48% of ethnic minorities are graduates or are in full time studies and 55% earn salaries well over &amp;15 000 (ECU 18 000) annually. They have a combined gross annual income estimated at f42 billion and an annual spending power of at least f26 ten.</P>
    922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     919
    923920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past 15 years, ethnic minority-owned businesses have grown considerably. In the last two years alone, they were responsible for more than 30 000 new business concerns throughout the country, according to the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). Although many are in the retail trade, the 10% or so involved in production or manufacturing are extremely dynamic,  particularly those connected with the clothing industry or operating franchises.</P>
    924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     921
    925922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are considerable differences between Asians on the one hand and Africans and Afro-Caribbeans on the other. The former are more business oriented and account for well over 80% of all ethnic enterprises. This success in business is often attributed to Asians' industriousness, but there is another crucial and often neglected factor: Asians have a stronger sense of group solidarity and patronage than Africans and Afro-Caribbeans. Whereas the former spend virtually all their earnings within their community, the latter (who are mainly Christians and are known to make greater efforts at integration into the British society) spend theirs in the society at large.</P>
    926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     923
    927924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unemployment among the black population in general is 19% compared to 8% for whites (in London it is three times higher). They are much more likely to be turned down by employers even when they have better qualifications than their white counterparts. Often self-employment is the only way out. This explains why there has been a boom in business start-ups by ethnic minorities over the past two years.</P>
    928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     925
    929926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although several black profffsional associations have come into being in recent years, it has been clear for some time to black leaders that the community's energies are dispersed and that these needed to be harnessed for the benefit of ethnic minorities as a whole. Blacks clearly have political and business clout to be exploited.</P>
    930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     927
    931928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for an exhibition of black businesses in the United Kingdom was mooted by a black business couple who, were influenced by a similar event  held annually in the United States called 'Black Expo USA'. But the impetus came from the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' launched in October last year by the Conservative Government through the Department of Trade and Industry. The campaign has so far seen more than 20 big British companies pledge to do business with ethnic minority enterprises. These include British Airways, British Gas, British Telecom, British Aerospace and several high-street banks and finance houses.</P>
    932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     929
    933930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Held at the Barbican Centre in London on 4 and 5 May, the exhibition was aimed at creating awareness among ethnic minorities of their potentialities, showing the opportunities available to them not only in the UK but also in Europe, and at promoting networking amongst their businessmen and women. </P>
    934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     931
    935932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cross-party support</P>
    936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     933
    937934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibition, which had a cross-party support, could not have come at a more favourable time. Both the Tory government and opposition Labour Party have expressed support for policies favourable to small and medium-sized enterprises, which means that there should be continuity in this area if Labour comes to power in the next general election.</P>
    938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     935
    939936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was borne out by the enthusiasm with which the shadow minister for small business, Mrs Barbara Roche greeted the exhibition. To her, the event should be seen in the context of Labour's overall policy on small businesses. Speaking at one of the seminars which was run alongside the exhibition to discuss various aspects of minority business problems, Mrs Roche explained that there were three important reasons why her party was promoting small enterprises, especially those involved in exports.</P>
    940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     937
    941938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first was that large companies were downsizing, and job-creation towards the end of this century and into the next would be largely by small and medium-sized enterprises. The second was that small businesses were efficient distributors of wealth and the third was that they were good at innovation and using new technologies.</P>
    942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     939
    943940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because a large number of small businesses are folding, or are struggling to survive in the UK today (often as a result of late payment of bills by large companies), Mrs Roche said a Labour government would introduce a statutory limit of 30 days for the settlement of bills by large companies. The latter would then have to pay interest to small businesses for any late payments. Ethnic minority businesses, she also said, were part and parcel of Labour's strategy for economic growth and jobs in Britain.</P>
    944 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     941
    945942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Barbican exhibition attracted more than 80 exhibitors mainly in retailing, finance, telecommunications, consultancy, arts and crafts, publishing, electronics and education. There were  very few exhibitors from the manufacturing sector (a disappointment considering the number of Asians in the clothing industry) and virtually none in engineering. Some of the big companies connected with the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' like British Airways and British Gas, as well as the newly created government-backed Business Link, the Customs and Excise department, the Inland Revenue, the Army and the Metropolitan Police were there. Also present was Louis Farrakan's 'Nations of Islam', (not necessarily on a recruitment drive, though that must have been part of the game), but as a reminder of its campaign for greater self-reliance by the black community which culminated late last year in the 'Million-Man' march on Washington DC. Video tapes of the march and speeches by Farrakan and other black leaders in the United States were on sale.</P>
    946 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     943
    947944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulties</P>
    948 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     945
    949946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar run concurrently with the exhibition attracted many notable speakers, among them Members of Parliament, Keith Vaz, Bernie Grant and Barbara Roche and Commissioner Dr Zaka Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality. Jessie Boseman, vice-president of 'Black Expo USA, who was also scheduled to speak, did not turn up.</P>
    950 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     947
    951948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement on the main factors inhibiting the growth of ethnic minority businesses, the most obvious being racism and  discimination. Ethnic businesspeople not only have difficulties obtaining public contracts, but they are often denied access to finance, market and even premises. Furthermore, they suffer from lack of management skills, networks and feedback. Dr Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality highlighted mounting racist attacks, mostly against Asianowned shops, which have claimed a number of lives in recent years.</P>
    952 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     949
    953950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integration into mainstream economy</P>
    954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     951
    955952<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is no longer a hidden fact that banks discriminate against black businesses. Surveys carried out by the NatWest and Midland banks have confirmed that fact. The latter though, it must be acknowledged, has a laudable Fellowship Programme, designed to encourage ethnic minority university students to take up careers in the Midland Bank on graduation. Lack of access to the market has effectively meant that black businesses have been left out of the mainstream of the British economy. Everyone agreed that it makes good economic sense to see them integrated into it. This was particularly   the position of both Barbara Roche and Zaka Khan. The question was: would it be possible ?</P>
    956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     953
    957954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the issues raised on the floor by businesspeople revealed that many were sceptical that racism and discrimination could be overcome in multiracial Britain. The Commission for Racial Equality symbolises the fight against these two evils and Dr Khan had a hard time defending its role. The CRE was criticised for constantly quoting statistics on improvements in the living conditions of ethnic minorities which, it was argued, were totally removed from reality. Despite this, Dr Khan remained upbeat. To him the future promises great things for ethnic minorities. He promised to look into the grievances aired by some businespeopie during the seminar. Barbara Roche, for her part, promised that a Labour government would encourage the banks to offer packages of assistance to small enterprises, in particular, black-owned ones. They would also ensure that local councils offered minority enterprises a share of local government contracts.</P>
    958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     955
    959956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater self-reliance and global trade</P>
    960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     957
    961958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In view of the problems black businesspeople have had to contend with over the years, Bernie Grant, the Member of Parliament for Tottenham in North London, did not devote much time to the idea of integrating them into mainstream British economy. He felt that racism and discrimination were so prevalent that there was little chance of that happening. For him, the future for black businesspeople in Britain lay in greater self-reliance and entry into international trade.</P>
    962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     959
    963960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a speech entitled 'political responsibility, and black import and export business', the M.P. set the Barbican exhibition in the context of the global economic situation - one where he said, 'the countries of the North are exploiting those of the South, in particular African countries.' Africa's heavy debts to the West should in fact be the other way round. He argued that the new world trade agreement, which  opens up the developing countries to competition, was unfair. 'This means that countries where minorities in the UK came from are going to have problems, and it is the duty of thee minorities to ensure that their countries have a fair deal,' he said. Mr Grant cited, by way of example, the EU's banana protocol under the Lom&eacute; Convention which gives preferential treatment to small Caribbean island producers and which is currently being 'unfairly' challenged by South American producers under the WTO rules. The role of multinationals, which are effectively acting es 'middleman', was, he believed, pernicious for developing countries. There was a need for black businessmen to step in.</P>
    964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     961
    965962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minority enterprises in the UK do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world, he elaborated. They should seek to engage in international trade and take advantage of their connection with their countries of origin. To facilitate this, Mr Grant said that a group under his chairmanship had set up a Global Trade Centre in his constituency in North London with the aim of helping black and minority enterprises establish direct trade links with Africa, the Caribbean and black America. The Centre was already in contact with a number of African countries which have expressed interest in the idea. Such a link would not only ensure a better deal for African producers but also favour the growth of minority businesses across the world. This was, he confessed, 'a political agenda' designed to reduce the excessive profits of multinationals, if not put an end to their 'outright exploitation' of Africa and the Caribbean. Mrs Roche expressed support for the Centre for the role it could play in boosting British exports.</P>
    966 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     963
    967964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UK minorities and the</P>
    968965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Union</P>
    969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     966
    970967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A self-confessed Eurosceptic, who would have preferred the UK to strengthen economic ties with the Commonwealth rather than with Europe, Mr Grant displayed an extraordinary understanding of the European</P>
    971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     968
    972969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Union's affairs. What worried him most about greater European integration, he said, was racism and the fact the UK job market, where black and ethnic minorities are already heavily disadvantaged, will be exposed to further competition from other Europeans most of whom speak several languages. However, he had no alternative but to support the Labour Party's line on Europe and work to secure the best advantage of British membership for ethnic minorities. He contrasted Tory 'divisions' on Europe with Labour's 'united' policy and condemned the British Government's attitude generally towards the Union.</P>
    973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     970
    974971<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the Union, Mr Grant said, was of great significance to black people. He was sure the Government's Immigration and Asylum bill, which had come up against strong opposition in the House of Lords, was aimed at harmonising immigration laws with other countries in the Union. The bill, if passed, will change the UK's visa regime and have serious implications for ethnic minorities and their businesses in Britain. He revealed that, with the support of ethnic minority members of the British Parliament, Bill Morris, the black General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union (the second biggest trade union in the UK) and other European trade union leaders, the Intergovernmental Conference was being lobbied for the inclusion of a stronger clause against racism in the Treaty of Rome. The aim, ultimately, is to see measures in line with the UK's laws against racism and discrimination enacted at the Union level. This would include the establishment of a European equivalent of the Commission for Racial Equality - with similar powers - so as to establish a level-playing field for ethnic minorities in competition for jobs and in business throughout Europe. </P>
    975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     972
    976973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
    977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    978 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     974
     975<B>
    979976<!--
    980977</Section>
    … …  
    985982  </Description>
    986983-->
    987 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     984</B>
    988985<B><P></P>
    989986<!--
    … …  
    993990  </Description>
    994991-->
    995 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     992</B>
    996993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival)</P>
    997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     994
    998995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of democracy with a clamp-down anywhere in the world frequently interpreted as a sign of government repression. The rash of multi-party elections in African nations at the beginning of the</P>
    999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     996
    1000997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990s brought new publications to news-stands. Many of these have since folded - often because of a lack of funds and sometimes because of government censorship.</P>
    1001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     998
    1002999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many organisations are campaigning vigorously in the public eye for a free press in developing nations. These include Reporters Sans Frontieres, Article 19 and the International Federation of Joumalists - all of which are featured in this Dossier. The US-based Freedom House has also been monitoring the state of press freedom worldwide since 1979. In its recently published 1996 survey, it says that even today, only 22% of the world's population live in countries with a free press. 38% have a press sector that is 'partly free' while the description 'not free' is applied to the remaining 40%.</P>
    1003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1000
    10041001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also regional organisations such as The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), which are playing a part in keeping media issues to the fore. David Nthengwe, a researcher with MISA, highlights the fact that democratisation does not necessarily guarantee a free media or free expression more generally. He also draws attention to the difficulties faced by private and community organisations in obtaining adequate finance. These are  typical of the problems facing the media in many countries, both in the ACP group and elsewhere in the developing world.</P>
    1005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1002
    10061003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seeking to tackle these issues, donors are showing increasing interest in backing media programmes with development finance (linked to democratisation and human rights). The European Union, UNESCO and a number of bilateral donors have expanded their activities in this area with a variety of projects.</P>
    1007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1004
    10081005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big change has been the rapid growth of the 'Information Superhighway'. This has prompted fears that the developing countries may fall further behind, although donors have indicated a willingness to help ensure this does not happen. One NGO closely monitoring the development of the Internet for the South is the PANOS Institute. Meanwhile, multilateral donors (notably the World Bank, through its INFODEV programme) are also becoming involved. A number of EU personalities lent their support to the development of the information society in the developing world, at a major conference staged in South Africa in May on the initiative of the country's Vice President, Thabo Mbeki. A work programme of projects was drawn up with the aim of making sure, in the words of European Commissioner, Martin Bangemann, that there is no divide between the 'information-poor' end the 'information-rich'.</P>
    1009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1006
    10111007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, although the world is undergoing an information revolution, the more traditional media (the press and above all, radio) will, for the foreseeable future, continue to have a central part in informing, educating and entertaining people in many developing  countries. It is important that those of us who increasingly communicate via our computer screens do not lose sight of this essential fact.</P>
    1012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1008
    10131009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Dossier, we examine a number of the key issues affecting the media and highlight some innovative projects in this area - with the help of a series of experts. The subject has clearly moved higher up the development agenda, but there is still a long way to go, as the figures cited above show. </P>
    1014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1010
    10151011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
    1016 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1012
    10171013<I><P></P>
    10181014<!--
    … …  
    10221018  </Description>
    10231019-->
    1024 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1020</I>
    10251021<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronting the age-old problem</P>
    1026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1022
    10271023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the chance, 'governments would like to run and manipulate the media'. This is the view of Aidan White, General Secretary of the Brusselsbased International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), who says it is an 'ageold problem'. And the Federation, which has member organizations in 93 countries, works to prevent it from happening. It also provides a range of services to journalists throughout the world. We recently spoke to Mr White, who used to write for the British daily, The Guardian. </P>
    1028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1024
    10291025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He began by outlining to us the Federation's key areas  of activity which include, in particular, the professional conditions in which journalists work and the defence of human rights. On the first of these, Mr White focused on the problem of economic pressures and difficult social conditions. 'We take a strong view that you can't have press freedom if journalists work in conditions of poverty or technical deprivation. It is a nonsense,' he stressed, 'to talk about a free press in a situation where journalists aren't paid, or if they are unable to function properly.' In seeking to tackle this, he spoke, in particular, of the 'need for independent organisations of journalists defending professional and social interests.'</P>
    1030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1026
    10311027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards human rights, the IFJ is active in the international community, working with bodies such as UNESCO and the UN Human Rights Commission. 'We are very interested in issues such as the legal environment in which journalists and the media operate, and are extremely active in the defence of physical safety.'</P>
    1032 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1028
    10331029<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr White went on to give more detailed information about the IFJ's work in Algeria, where many journalists have been killed in recent years. This country clearly has a bad international reputation and the General Secretary was anxious to offer a more balanced picture of the situation. 'In my view, there is a real malformation of Alaeria's  image in Europe and elsewhere. The view we get is of a paralysed society where nothing can function properly - a kind of international basket case. It is not like that. In Algeria, life continues. There is a form of democracy. There are a dozen newspapers which appear every day. The streets are full of traffic and people walking about. The reality is that there is a particularly horrifying and barbaric form of terrorism which is targeted against intellectuals including journalists. This means that the media has a terrible problem.'</P>
    1034 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1030
    10351031<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aidan White explained the strategy of the IFJ in seeking to confront this. 'We began by going to Algeria to investigate what was going on. Then we established an international office on the spot. This is a direct contact point of solidarity for local journalists and the local media. So we don't report Algeria through Paris. We don't see the need to go through some sort of middleman in order to find out what's going on in the country or have contact with Algerian journalists.'</P>
    1036 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1032
    10371033<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'And then we have two specific programmes which are very important', he continued. One involves providing humanitarian assistance to journalists and their families. The other is a series of practical activities in Algeria. Thus, for example, we are organising a round table on terrorism and information.' He pointed out that the Algerian government had resorted to the traditional method of press censorship in the face of ,the terrorist threat and stressed the 'need to counter this. 'We are also organising a practical seminar on personal safety, as well as one on professional social rights, the need for ethical standards and better social conditions.'</P>
    1038 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1034
    10391035<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point, he emphasised was that events were being organised on the spot. Algeria may pose terrible difficulties 'but it doesn't mean we walk away from it.' The IFJ's emphasis was firmly on being a 'functional organisation working directly with the people who need help.'</P>
    1040 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1036
    10411037<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding and the EU link</P>
    1042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1038
    10431039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuming to the issue of the IFJ's funding, Mr White explained how the core activities - his own salary and administrative costs - are paid for by the subscriptions of member organisations, which amount to roughly $1 million. On top of that, the Federation carries out projects with the EU and other donors. They also distribute funds, offering their expertise as a representative body to help other organisations that want to undertake work.</P>
    1044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1040
    10451041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asked in what way the EU could do more, the General Secretary stressed the political dimension. 'It should intervene,' he argued, 'to establish certain standards in international relations. We say, for instance, that political, economic and military cooperation with any state outside the Union should be based on a commitment to and respect for freedom of expression and opinion.' He underlined the 'responsibility' of the EU to take a stand against countries that locked up journalists, implicitly criticising those who argued that freedom of expression was very important but who then shelved the issue when economic relations were involved.</P>
    1046 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1042
    10471043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also urged a more proactive approach 'moving away from the strategy of counting bodies, complaining, and making reports about how bad the situation is' towards one based on comprehensive programmes of assistance. He described the IFJ's Media for Democracy programme in Africa as a 'first attempt' in that direction. Mr </P>
    1048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1044
    10491045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White highlighted what he saw as a difficulty with existing projects. 'The problem is that the EU is confronted by all sorts of different NGOs who come and say: 'we have got this good project - give us support for it'. This is fine but it inevitably means that resources are spread very diffusely and often to no effect.' A lot of activities, he suggested, such as one-off seminars and conferences, were 'like fireworks in the night sky: they glow bright for a brief period and then they disappear.'</P>
    1050 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1046
    10511047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He went on to plead for an integrated, comprehensive strategy. 'Until that exists, you will not be able to solve the fundamental problems facing journalists.'</P>
    1052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1048
    10531049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training and status</P>
    1054 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1050
    10551051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The discussion moved on to the subject of training. Perhaps surprisingly, Aidan White did not see this as an important priority in itself. As he explained: 'It's no use training journalists to be very high quality if they go off to work in a country where the legal environment does not allow them to function properly. And it's no use training them to be ethical if they go somewhere that is steeped in political or financial corruption, and where there is no culture which appreciates the media's role in democratic society.'</P>
    1056 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1052
    10571053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, he believes that training should be directly related to the strategic approach he referred to earlier. 'Yes, we need professional, well trained journalists, but it should be part of a range of programmes. And professional training is not just important for journalists. It should also be provided for managers, editors, advertisers... and perhaps even for politicians!'</P>
    1058 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1054
    10591055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Secretary noted that the status of journalists in most countries was quite high. They are seen as a filter for information 'coming from the government to the governed'. This was important, he thought, but 'tine real question is how the filter functions. On the one hand journalists have a relatively high status, and what they do is extremely important, but they work close to the political elites, which means they  are subject to pressure. They must retain their independent role, scrutinising and investigating what governments are doing.'</P>
    1060 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    10611057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of access to information in developing countries, Aidan White observed that the situation is now better than it was ten years ago but pointed to the 'age-old problem of people in power wanting to control the media.' He gave the example of journalists in Indonesia, 'who really want to speak independently of the government, but who are being killed because they represent independent strands of opinion.' Overall, however, he believes the situation has been improving. 'This is partly due to changes in information technology. A government can no longer simply take a journalist out and beat him up. There are half a dozen press freedom organisations around the world watching for and reporting on such events.'</P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1058
    10631059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a tendency in Europe to assume that 'everything in the garden is rosy' in terms of press freedom, and we were interested to hear what the Secretary General thought of this proposition. He was quick to offer a less complacent view. 'We have just issued a very strong statement against the EU about their secrecy policy,' he pointed out. 'You cannot claim the moral high ground for democracy in Africa or elsewhere if you have a system of secrecy in Europe which operates at the highest political level and which denies citizens access to information.'</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1060
    10651061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was also concerned about the concentration of the media in enormous congLom&eacute;rates. This trend, he argued, 'is actually profoundly damaging to the culture of information.' He cited, in this context, the action of the Murdoch organisation 'in banning all news from his cable channels going into China.' Mr White continued: 'They banned the BBC and they banned news coverage in the Chinese language in order to make a business arrangement with the Beijing government. That sort of activity, in our view, is direct censorship from the heart of western democracy.'</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1062
    10671063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Aidan White gave some more detailed information about the Media for Democracy programme in Africa which he described as 'ground-breaking.' The Federation has used it to develop key themes, including the coverage of elections. 'The real test of press freedom,' he continued, 'is at an election, because that is when the political pressure is toughest and the professional quality of journalism is exposed. For Africa, we developed a manual on election reporting and, interestingly, it has become the source document worldwide for election reporting.' He explained how it formed the basis for developing a text which is universal. This has been translated into various European languages, and Arabic, and has been employed in Poland, Romania, Albania and Latin America.</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1064
    10691065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first phase of the Media for Democracy programme, the Federation held a serf. of seminars and conferences on how the media covered elections. As Mr White stressed, this was a crucial time in Africa. Political change was taking place, multi-party democracy was being introduced and there was a need to clarify how elections operated and how they should be reported. 'People didn't have the experience. They wanted the information, and to discuss how things should be done.' The seminars covered aspects such as financial corruption, the organisation of journalists and the role of ethics. And what the IFJ found was that the same kind of things happen in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa - and indeed across the world. In the words of the Secretary General, 'they have an echo everywhere because, at its root, the problem is the same - those in power want to manipulate the media and use whatever pressures they can.' The lesson learnt from the IFJ's experience in Africa is that common solutions are also valid. Or as Aidan White put it, 'there is no part of the world that can't teach the rest of the world something.</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1066
    10711067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. &amp; S.H.</P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1068
    10731069<I><P></P>
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    1081 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1077</I>
    10821078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Frances d'Souza</P>
    1083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1079
    10841080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frances d'Souza who is Executive Director of AROSE 19, a nom governmental organization which campaigns against censorship globally, explains why Freedom of Expression is for her the most important human right</P>
    1085 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1081
    10861082<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the absence of freedom of expression, it is almost impossible to protect other rights, including the right to life. Once governments can draw a cloak of secrecy round their actions and remain unaccountable, massive human rights violations can, and do, take place. For this reason alone, the right to free expression, specifically protected in international human rights treaties, must be considered a primary right. It is significant that one of the first indications of a government's intention to depart from democratic principles is when it increases its control over information, usually by gagging the media. At the one end of the spectrum, supposedly minor infringements of this fundamental right occur daily in western democracies; for example the abuse of national security laws to prevent publication of information which might embarrass the authorities. At the other end of the scale are regimes of terror which brutally suppress opposition, information and even the freedom to exercise religious beliefs. Without free speech and an independent media, it is easier for governments to employ propaganda to promote ethnic conflict, war and genocide.</P>
    1087 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1083
    10881084<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to freedom of expression is formally protected in major international treaties including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and</P>
    1089 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1085
    10901086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This text is an abridged version of a submission made by the author to a public hearing hosted by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defence and the Sub-Committee on Human Rights and the Committee on Culture, Youth, Education and the Media, April 25, 1996.</P>
    1091 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1087
    10921088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political Rights (Article 19), and the European Convention on Human Rights (Article 10). It is also enshrined in many national constitutions, although this does not always guarantee its protection. Freedom of expression is something which applies even in countries which have not ratified the relevant international treaties. This is because the Universal Declaration is so widely accepted that its provisions now form part of customary international law.</P>
    1093 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1089
    10941090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While it is generally agreed that freedom of expression is the cornerstone of democracy, international treaties permit certain restrictions. Unlike the American First Amendment rights which allow few, if any, checks on free speech, the international treaties aim for a balance between competing rights. Thus, for example, free speech may be limited where it impinges on the individual's right to privacy, or where it involves incitement to violence or hatred. Given that the permitted restrictions are necessarily broad, the limits of free speech are constantly being tested in national courts and in regional tribunals such as the European Commission and Court of Human Rights. In recent years, several landmark cases have helped define what restrictions may be imposed by governments and under what circumstances. In particular, it has been emphasised by the European Court that any restriction should 'pass' a threepart test; it should be prescribed by law (and thus not be arbitrarily imposed), it should be proportionate to the legitimate aims pursued, and it should be demonstrably necessary in a democratic society in order to protect the individual and/or the state.</P>
    1095 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1091
    10961092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who censors what?</P>
    1097 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1093
    10981094<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the rules governing restrictions on free speech, many justifications are still invoked by governments in suppressing information which may be inimical to their policies or interests. These include arguments in defence of national security or the 'public interest'. The mechanisms used to restrict the free flow of information range from subtle economic pressures, and devious methods of undermining political opponents and the independent media, to the enactment of restrictive press laws and rules for licensing journalists. In extreme cases, they may involve the illegal detention, torture and disappearance of journalists and others associated with the expression of independent views.</P>
    1099 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1095
    11001096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right of free speech may appear less important than, for example, freedom from torture or extrajudicial killing. It is also sometimes difficult to persuade the public that censorship, generally associated with banning obscene materials, is a bad thing! It requires a recognition of some of the fundamental principles of democracy to understand why censorship is so dangerous. Democracy implies that people can make choices about the issues that affect their lives, including what they wish to see, read, hear or discuss. While this may seem a luxurious freedom, mainly preoccupying the wealthy West, it is a comparatively short distance between state censorship of an offensive book to the silencing of political dissidents. And the distance between this and the use of violence to suppress opposition is even shorter. Censorship tends to grow rapidly from small beginnings. Allowing a government the power to deny people information, however trivial, not only leads to laws and procedures which can and will be used by those in authority against those with less authority. It also denies people the information they need to render their governments accountable.</P>
    1101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1097
    11021098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been some terrible examples of the role of censorship in recent years. We have seen it in the republics of the former Yugoslavia   where the media were manipulated for propaganda purposes. We have seen it in Rwanda where the government associated radio incited citizens to kill each other in the name of ethnic supremacy. And we have seen it in Iran which maintains the threat of murder against a citizen of another country because he wrote a book which displeased the authorities.</P>
    1103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1099
    11041100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are clear links between access to information (or rather the lack of it), and war. Democracy empowers people by increasing participation in decision-making at all levels. The poor, who are denied access to information on decisions which deeply affect their lives, are powerless and have no voice. They cannot influence the ruling elites whose interest in consolidating their own power and position may be served by initiating conflict.</P>
    1105 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1101
    11061102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is significant that of the 126 developing countries listed in the 1993 Human Development Report, wars were being waged in 30 and a further 33 were suffering severe civil conflicts. 55 of these 63 countries were to be found at the lower end of the Human Development Index which is an indicator of poverty. It is reasonably safe to assume that most people never welcome war. They may be coerced into supporting 'their' side in a conflict by their governments, using propaganda designed to whip up fear and extreme nationalist sentiment. If the majority had a democratic voice, they would undoubtedly object to war. But voices are silenced. Thus, the freedom to express one's views, to challenge government decisions and to insist upon political rather than violent solutions, are necessary aspects of democracy which can, and do, avert war.</P>
    1107 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1103
    11081104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State-sponsored propaganda in Rwanda, as in the former Yugoslavia, succeeded because there were no ways of challenging it. One can conclude that it is impossible for a country to wage war in the absence of a compliant media willing to indulge in government propaganda. Governments needs civilians to fight wars for them and the media is needed to reinforce government policies and intentions at every turn. In a  totalitarian state where the expression of political views, let alone the possibility of political organisation is suppressed, one has to ask what other possibilities are open to a genuine political movement intent on introducing justice. All too often, terrorism and violence are the only perceived options available to communicate the need for change.</P>
    1109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1105
    11101106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What NGOs can do</P>
    1111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1107
    11121108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work of human rights organizations has to become much more proactive and should be concerned with providing early warning and preventive action. Monitoring freedom of exprmsion, especially freedom of the press, offers an excellent context because it is widely recognised that would-be dictators always seek to silence people's voices through banning newspapers or other methods of censorship. One has to assume that when censorship begins in earnest, worse human rights abuses will follow and this should be the point for action. Had there been a greater international lobby for an independent media, for access to information and for participation in decision-making in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Burma and many other countries, some of the gross violations which continue to occur, could have been prevented.</P>
    1113 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1109
    11141110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Censorship is the first instrument of a government intent on departing from democratic procedures. In this sense it is an early warning signal and at ARTICLE 19, we believe we have a special responsibility to understand better how democracy is destroyed through censorship and how we can alert the international community to act to prevent it.</P>
    1115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1111
    11161112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By way of conclusion, anything which can build strong and sound media infrastructures, at the earliest to pportunity, in transitional democracies, is both a gift and a great investment. A crusading press, prepared to separate fact from opinion and to verify its sources, can create a level playing field in which all sectors of society have a voice. This would preclude political control and manipulation for nationalistic power purposes. There is also a need to strengthen local monitoring groups which have the capacity to verify information. International organisations should amplify the voices of local organisations and bring them to the attention of the international community. It is only where there is a strong human rights culture in a given country, whether it has achieved democracy or not, that political changes can be seized upon and shaped into the democratic process.</P>
    1117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1113
    11181114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve these objectives, NGOS need to work with governments which are obliged by international law to uphold fundamental rights. We need organisations such as the KU, the UN, ASEAN, and others, to insist on respect for human rights in their dealings with third countries. We also need the general public to be aware of what fundamental rights are, what are the consequences of infringement, and how they can, as individuals, successfully challenge restrictionss imposed on them by their governments. Above all, NGOS need to work with multilateral organisations to determine where slender resources can most fruitfully be targeted.</P>
    1119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1115
    11201116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.d'S.</P>
    1121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1117
    11221118<I><P></P>
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    1130 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1126</I>
    11311127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mark Leysen</P>
    1132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1128
    11331129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amongst the many cooperation activities in which it is involved, the Lom&eacute; Convention covers cultural cooperation, which includes information and communication, yet European Development Fund support for the media in ACP countries is negligible. Although considerable and increasing amounts of aid are granted for the cinema in such countries, EU support for TV, radio and the printed media is small.</P>
    1134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1130
    11351131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, for some years now, the Commission has provided considerable aid to the printed media and radio in ACP countries under its 'Support for democratisation and respect for human rights' budget, which heralds a new approach to media questions. The EDF does not participate in the vast majority of big communications projects in Africa, namely PANA (Panafrican News Agency), URTNA (African National Television and Radio Union, the African equivalent of the European Broadcasting Union), the Programme Exchange Centre, Afrovision, Cierro, etc. The reluctance of EU and ACP partners to embark on such media projects can be explained both by EDF procedures and by the worldwide political context including the situation in most African countries.</P>
    1136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1132
    11371133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, the media was a matter for the State in Africa. The 'New World Information and Communications Order', announced in the 1 970s, foresaw the participation of not only African citizens, but also of their governments in the world information highway. However, the democratic credentials of such governments were open to question - they controlled the printed media, radio, television and press agencies and any support for such media amounted to a strengthening of the State monopoly and this is why the EDF did not take part.</P>
    1138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1134
    11391135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, aid to the independent media was impossible because such entities did not exist in most African countries and the authorities were not prepared to back a request for aid to the press which they regarded as contrary to their country's interests. If support for the media did exist, it was indirect and restricted to backing of means of communication servicing development projects: literacy campaigns, the fight against AIDS, increasing awareness of ecological problems, etc.</P>
    1140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1136
    11411137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not until the advent of the democratisation movement and the support that Europe decided to grant to it that a media-aid strategy was to take root. As a kind of 'Fourth Estate', the media monitor executive power and report any abuse of it. In parallel, they play a key role in strengthening civil society by providing information (if not objective information, then at least information from many sources) on current political, social, economic and cultural issues and by providing a medium which offers an opportunity to speak out on matters of importance to society.</P>
    1142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1138
    11431139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Commission focuses its media support in five areas in agreement with representatives of African press and specialist European . organisations in this area. </P>
    1144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1140
    11451141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom of expression It provides direct aid to national, regional and international organizations to defend freedom of expression, specifically financing monitoring, surveys and the reporting of any violation of press freedom (censorship, intimidation, arrests and arbitrary trials, etc.), and direct assistance to the media and any journalists who are victims of such attacks on press freedom. This direct aid is channelled to, inter alia, the activities of Reporters sans frontieres (see 'Interview with Mr Robert Menard', in this issue), 'Article XIX' and Index on Censorship, all organisations which operate like an Amnesty International for the press.</P>
    1146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1142
    11471143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training</P>
    1148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1144
    11491145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new independent press is often run by journalists who have had no journalistic training and the former State media often require being updated after many years of professional 'distortion' responding to 'his master's voice'. The Commission hence finances programmes offering training in basic journalistic techniques, election coverage; professional codes of ethics, etc. In this area, it is working with a number of European and African organizations, giving priority to long-term actions which are likely to spawn others and to programmes aimed at achieving a higher level of professionalism.</P>
    1150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1146
    11511147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid for vocational organizations</P>
    1152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1148
    11531149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vocational organizations for journalists have a role to play in improving the profession's social standing, in strengthening its cohesion in the face of political division, in defending its interests and in coming to the aid of journalists who have been victims of repression. The Commission finances a vast 'Media for Democracy' programme conducted by the International Federation of Journalists and its affiliated regional and national organisations (see interview with Aidan White, in this issue). The programme aims to strengthen or create national and regional associations of journalists, but is also involved in more general actions to   increase the professional standing of the media.</P>
    1154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1150
    11551151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to sources of information</P>
    1156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1152
    11571153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A credible and responsible press requires sources of information which the new and financially precarious press cannot allow itself. The Commission supports the creation or updating of documentation centres, North/South  and South/South exchanges between publications and radio stations, access to international press agencies or photographic libraries, etc., being shared between several media bodies. </P>
    1158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1154
    11591155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative framework and code of ethics</P>
    1160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1156
    11611157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not enough merely to guarantee freedom of expression in the   constitution. This principle must be embodied in all legislative and regulatory texts to prevent a journalist being prosecuted arbitrarily for 'defamation' or 'a breach of State security'. Moreover, to appear credible, the profession must observe a code of ethics. The Commission backs the drafting of press codes, codes of ethics and regulations to govern the air waves. It also backs the creation of press and air wave regulatory bodies as well as the provision of training in journalistic ethics.</P>
    1162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1158
    11631159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that the 'Democracy and Human Rights' budget cannot alone meet the needs of Africa's multi-faceted media scene. Moreover, although the media are a key element in any democratisation process, they are also much more than that - as a means of information and recreation, they have a role to play in the human development of society; as an instrument to create greater awareness, they can contribute to the strengthening of a civil society which is gradually taking charge; and as an economic sector in the full throes of development, they can make a contribution to the GDP and create jobs. All the more reason for national sponsors and the EDF to take more of an interest. </P>
    1164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1160
    11651161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National television, victim of  democracy </P>
    1166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1162
    11671163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than the other media, television in Africa is controlled by the State and serves, first and   fore most, to disse minat e news about the leade r and his govern ment. The state of equip ment depen ds on when it was suppl ied by a friend ly count ry from the North, and as it was almos t certai nly offere d to the count ry's leade rs 'as a perso nal gift', it usual ly consi sts of oversi zed equip ment which the nation al televis ion statio n canno t maint ain correc tly owing to a lack of resou rces. Whils t Europ e is movin g over to digita l Betac am and 1619 forma t, many Africa n TV statio ns are still opera ting with Umat ic and with mach ines that are impos sible to maint ain. </P>
    1168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1164
    11691165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With such deriso ry mean s, nation al TV statio ns have to conte nd with unfair comp etition from the intern ationa l statio ns which, from their satell ites, are inund ating the contin ent with their broad casts . The worldbroad castin g chann els of Europ ean statio ns are receiv ed clearl y (CFI, TV5 Afriqu e, BBC World Telev ision, Deut sche Welle, etc.). The numb er of religio us statio ns (gene rally Islam ic) contin ues to increa se and comm ercial televi sion is develo ping apace - CN N, MTV, Cana l Horizo ns, M-Ne t and others can be picke d up just about every where and can thus cream off the best of a comm ercial mark et which is still virtual ly non-e xisten t and awaiti ng better days . </P>
    1170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1166
    11711167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The URTN A is unabl e to defen d the intere sts of its memb ers, prope rly and its initiat ives (which are, nevert heles s, lauda ble) are stagn ating: the -progr amme rexch ange centre in Nairob i does not excha nge very much at all and Afrovi sion, . the syste m for excha nging news betw een   nation al TV statio ns via satell ite, is strugg ling to Get off the aroun d. </P>
    1172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1168
    11731169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never theles s, Africa n TV statio ns do not lack talent or motiva tion and many of them are capab le of produ dng more qualit y progra mmes . What can be done to help them ? Firstly, a decis ion has to be made regar ding who is to be helpe d. Certa inly not intern ationa l TV statio ns' be they private or public, which have their own strate gy (comm ercial or politic al and produ ce televis ion progra mmes for impor t which make only a very margi nal contri bution to the expre ssion of Africa n talent . It would also be wrong to rely or, privati sation and comm ercial statio ns in order to obtain quali ty televis ion - t his much has been demo nstrat ed by the Europ ean exper ience . As for direct aid to nation al televis ion, this would mere ly reinfo rce the State mono poly over inform ation. Wha t is requir ed is greate r suppo rt for the transi tion of State televi sion into a genui ne public servic e. with the benef it of an indep enden t statut e and also true editor ial indep enden ce. Conse quent ly, as things curre ntly stand, aid for trainin g teievis ion' profes siona ls, suppo rt for qualit y progra mme produ ction and any aid aimed at draftin g a public -servic e televis ion Statu te, are usefu l forms of suppo rt which are neutra l with regard to State -medi a contro l. Any direct aid to nation al </P>
    1174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1170
    11751171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> televis ion statio ns in the form of   hardw are and equip ment shoul d be </P>
    1176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1172
    11771173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> subje ct to their conve rsion into an auton omou s public servic e. </P>
    1178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1174
    11791175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. </P>
    1180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1176
    11811177<I><P></P>
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    1189 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1185</I>
    11901186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Geoff Mungham</P>
    1191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1187
    11921188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems difficult to find an African leader or African journalist who has not, at some time, been either fiercely critical or quietly despairing of the way in which the continent is depicted by the western media. Their grievances have come to form part of a now familiar litany. Claims are made that the reporting of Africa is now almost entirely in terms of what has been called a'coup, crisis and famine syndrome', and that the western media focus only on 'bad news' out of Africa and ignore the 'positive' achievements of many African countries. These criticisms go hand-in-hand with accusations that Africa cannot ' tell its own story, in its own way', because the global news market is dominated by powerful, westerr-owned corporations, who have their own agenda for reporting Africa. For many Africans, their continent is becoming increasingly invisible in the trade in global news. For them, Rupert Murdoch's cynical remark that 'the Third World sells no newspapers' would appear to have been uttered with Africa specifically in mind. Finally there are those Africans who are concerned about 'western cultural imperialism' undermining traditional African values and culture.</P>
    1193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1189
    11941190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How true are these claims? Is Africa becoming once again a dark continent; one largely excluded from the glare of western media coverage? Are some of the correctives suggested by different African leaders worse than the problems they are complaining about? And if Africa is in danger of becoming a 'disappearing world' for news, to what extent are many African countries themselves to blame?</P>
    1195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1191
    11961192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To begin with, there is no doubt that African critics have a case. First and most obvious, is the undeniable brute fact that global news and information flows are dominated by a small number of multinational operators, nearly all of whom - especially since the end of the Cold War - are western owned and controlled. This is true of the great international news agencies, whether the traditional wire services like Reuters or Agence France-Press, or the newer global television news services represented by WTN and CNN, among others. The major clients for their output are western news organizations.</P>
    1197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1193
    11981194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, most African countries are in no position to mount a challenge to this world news order. The continent has recently been described as one of the 'least dynamic regions in the global economy, where buying power of consumers is low' and in which many countries are burdened with crippling debt payments. In the same vein, a 1991 World Bank report not only pointed to the increasing 'communications gap' between Africa and the developed world, but went on to suggest that most of the continent offered poor prospects for those wanting to invest in telecommunications projects. These are among the reasons why Africa scores so poorly in terms of putting in place viable national communications infrastructures, let alone being able to take on the global market leaders in securing a higher profile for Africa in the world's news rooms. The same factors also help explain why most African countries remain so dependent on western-controlled news sources.</P>
    1199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1195
    12001196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This dependency is not simply a question of the easy availability of copy or other material from the western news agencies. Puri (a Tanzanian journalist and Managing Editor of Newslink Africa)  presents other reasons why African editors are interested in what's happening in the West. These include the links between many African countries and their former colonial rulers, the realities of global and economic relations and his claim that African editors often have little interest in other parts of the continent. As he puts it, '...a newspaper reader in Botswana, for example, is not much interested in reading detailed reports from Morocco.'</P>
    1201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1197
    12021198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there is plenty of evidence to support the criticisms of the 'coup, crisis, famine' coverage. Examples are too numerous to cite here, but the following small selection is fairly representative of the broader picture.</P>
    1203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1199
    12041200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introducing the findings of a 'Global News Agenda Survey', Malik and Anderson noted: 'For the rest of the world, Africa means coupe, and largescale killings (covered usually only in the first few days), almost ritualistic famine relief... and the occasional travelogues in the guise of saving something or other'. Similar claims were made by Okigho when he wrote that while CNN and other satellite organisations have 'revolutionised international news coverage', the most common images of Africa still depict internecine warfare (in Angola, Liberia, Somalia), pogroms in Rwanda, political violence in Sierra Leone and ethnic conflicts in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. In contrast, says Okigho, the 'many positive developments' are routinely ignored.</P>
    1205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1201
    12061202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A limited review that I made of wire service copy from the main international news agencies during the week of 13-20 May 1996, produced findings that seemed to echo some of these complaints. In this period, hard news stories were concentrated on a handful of the 50 plus countries of Africa; Burundi, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.), Egypt, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan and South Africa - together with stories of alleged financial irregularities in the World Health Organisation in Africa.</P>
    1207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1203
    12081204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copy about Burundi dealt with ethnic violence and attacks inside Zaire   on Burundi by Hutu 'rebels'. Reports from the C.A.R. focused on an army mutiny, street battles and looting, but were angled on the mediating role of French troops (the C.A.R is a former French colony) and the fate of 100 Americans trapped in the capital, Bangui. Egypt was featured after its government accused Sudan of harbouring a 'vipers' nest of terrorists'. Out of Liberia came a torrent of wire copy about fighting in Monrovia along with assorted atrocity stories, but pinning the emphasis on the plight of foreign nationals (especially Britons and Americans) and the role being played by the USS Guam in air-lifting them to safety. Somalia rated a mention because of the release of two foreign aid workers (British and German) held by an unidentified 'rebel faction'. On South Africa, the wire services were fixed on further violence and killings in KwaZuluNatal, the result of ongoing struggles between rival supporters of the A.N.C and the Inkatha Freedom Party.</P>
    1209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1205
    12101206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'agenda for Africa' sent out by the wire agencies, was replicated by  the menu offered by Reuters TV and APTV. For instance, on one day during the study period, the former was offering ten picture feeds; only one was from Africa (on the C.A.R.) while the rest included such compelling visuals as the British Queen's visit to the Chelsea Flower Show. For the fifteen picture feeds being touted by the APTV on a single day, one featured Africa ('news pictures to offer on the airlift by US marines'), which competed for the attention of western news rooms alongside visuals of a US woman who collected hubcaps (140 000 of them, no less!), Hugh Grant arriving by boat at the Cannes Film Festival, footage of the Monaco Grand Prix and a 'fun run' in Sarajevo (whether or not pictures are available, the idea of a 'fun-run' in Bosnia still seems a difficult concept to grasp) But what these studies show is not the whole picture about Africa which circulates in the West. Nor should they necessarily be used to support the usual criticisms about the performance of the western media in relation to the continent. In the first place, not all news  out of Africa fits into the syndrome the critics complain about. For example, a great deal of the coverage of South Africa has been 'positive' (if we trace the reporting of that country's transition to majority rule). So, too, have the moves towards multi-party politics in African states like Zimbabwe. Similarly, there is plenty of reporting of Africa's sporting successes (such as South Africa's Rugby World Cup triumph). Nor is the West unaware of the work of certain African musicians and film makers - indeed, it has been influenced by them.</P>
    1211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1207
    12121208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And even if 'positive' coverage is sometimes hard to find, the critics may still be missing some key points. The first is to do with western 'news values' or rather a failure to appreciate how they work - whether in relation to Africa or anywhere else. The staple diet of much of the global news flow is about 'bad news' and, in this respect, Africa prob  ably fares no worse or better than other parts of the developing world.</P>
    1213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1209
    12141210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, a more 'systematic' reporting of much of Africa is still difficult. My point here is about a lack of efficient and developed communication infrastructures, but also a reluctance by many African leaders to tolerate - let alone actively encourage - free and honest open reporting. Too many African journalists have been, and are being, harassed, imprisoned or killed by their own governments. Much of the media in Africa - especially the broadcast media - remains under state control. Newspapers that show a 'lack respect' for the ruling party are frequently shut down. These realities help explain why some of the maligned western media are turned to by those Africans who want something more than state propaganda from their newspapers or broadcasters. This is why the BBC World Service has come to enjoy such a high reputation in many parts of Africa.</P>
    1215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1211
    12161212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, the attempts made by the African states to try and take on western dominance of global news and information flows, have been misjudged. Two failed initiatives in particular are worth mentioning in this context; the launch in 1983 of the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the long-time obsession with setting up a 'New World Information Order' (NWIO).</P>
    1217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1213
    12181214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the start, PANA has been dogged by financial and management problems. African governments owe $18 million, journalists have gone unpaid, lines have been disconnected and in 1992 a UNESCO-funded audit found evidence of financial mismanagement. The main source of information PANA traded in was material from the domestic news agencies of OAU member states. Since most of these are state-controlled, the 'news' they were offering was never likely to attract many western users. To try and give PANA a new lease of life, UNESCO are backing a rescue package, which would allow for private investors to be shareholders along with state-owned African national news agencies. But the pro  posed partnership funding is unlikely to work, especially in one-party states where the ruling groups have always been suspicious of any media not under their direct ownership.</P>
    1219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1215
    12201216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NWIO project has chased even more impossible dreams. Any attempt fundamentally to change the global news order was always going to be beyond countries with severe national communication 'deficits'. Most African countries, with weak and undercapitalised information infrastructures were never in a position to take on the market leaders in the global news business. In pursuit of the NWIO idea, endless international conferences were held, declarations passed and ritual attacks made on ' western media dominance'. Nothing came of it all. If the sense of frustration which kept the concept alive was understandable, less easy to grasp was why African leaders focused on the NWIO idea, while their own grassroots communication systems remained impoverished and under-resourced.</P>
    1221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1217
    12221218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent attempt to develop 'top-down' communications facilities in parts of Africa comes with the attempts to push satellite-delivered payTV on the continent. Among the 'players' here are Multi-Choice (which will be offered to subscribers in over 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa), Canal Horizons (targeted on North Africa and Francophone West Africa) and Panafnet (also aimed at buyers in Francophone West Africa). Because these enterprises are subscription-based there will be a clear bias in take-up towards upperincome groups; and - certainly in the case of Multi-Choice - the output will have a 'strong UK/USA programming flavour'. It is hard to see how these initiatives will ever meet the real news and information needs of the vast majority of African consumers, who have limited spending power and are often deprived of the most basic communication tools.</P>
    1223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1219
    12241220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Hans Dieter Klee (former Head of the Africa Service of Deutsche Welle) has rightly argued, what Africa urgently needs is large-scale international media aid to help strengthen its own media. This aid should not be targeted at projects designed somehow to allow Africa to 'compete' with Western media congLom&eacute;rates. It should, instead, be aimed at building up diverse, viable and professional local and national media enterprises in African countries themselves. In this, the EU can play a leading role, working through the links established under the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
    1225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1221
    12261222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robust national communication structures in Africa will not, of course, alter the balance of global media power. They will be able to do little to stop the international news agencies reporting Africa in the way they have done in the past. And it will be a long time before most Africans becomes travellers on the 'information superhighway', since this, in essence, is an extension of existing computer and telephonic communications, which the continent lacks. But a vigorous local and national media, Africa-wide, would be good for Africa and the best barrier for resisting outside media influences. </P>
    1227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1223
    12281224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.M.</P>
    1229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1225
    12301226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
    1231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1227
    12321228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okigho: 'National Images in the Age of the Information Super Highway </P>
    1233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1229
    12341230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Perspectives', African Media Review, vol. 9,1995.</P>
    1235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1231
    12361232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Malik and K. Anderson: 'TV: The Global New Agenda Survey', intermedia, January-February 1992. </P>
    1237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1233
    12381234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hicks 'North of the Limpopo', Cable and Satellite Europe, April 1996. </P>
    1239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1235
    12401236<I><P></P>
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    1248 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1244</I>
    12491245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Parliament may seem an unlikely launch pad for a radio station, but two members of this elected body, who are committed to a free and fair press as one of the cornerstones of democracy, have set up Radio Espoir (Radio Hope) in Burundi with backing of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO).</P>
    1250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1246
    12511247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parliamentarians, Pierre Pradier (ERA-F) and Bernard Kouchner (PSE-F) are co-founders of Radio Espoir (Radio Umwizero, in Kirundi) which brings together a French association and a local Burundi radio station. Three expatriates are working on the Bujumbura-based project; an editor, a radio technician and an administrator. They have teamed up with local journalists who, for the moment, are providing their services free of charge.</P>
    1252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1248
    12531249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The station, which broadcasts in Kirundi, is targeted at an audience in the 15-25 age group. In a country with an 80% illiteracy rate, radio is the only way of reaching the population. 'The idea came to us in 1994, with Rwanda and Radio Libre des Mille Collines' says Pierre Pradier. 'If so much harm could be done with radio, then why equally could good not be achieved.' RLMC was the radio set up in July 1993 on the eve of the genocide in Rwanda. It became a mouthpiece  for the Akazu, a clan of Hutu extremists grouped around the then President's wife, Agathe Habyarimana, and it undermined the Arusha agreements by whipping up ethnic conflict in Rwanda.</P>
    1254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    12551251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Pradier explains that Radio Hope journalists intentionally avoid speaking about Hutus and Tutsis. He also highlights the problems encountered in providing news coverage when local conditions are so difficult. As he points out; 'When you speak about the situation of a woman who has lost her husband in Burundi, you are talking politics.' Security considerations are important too while the MEP stresses that a proper analysis of events can only come with time: 'At the moment we are limited to reporting the facts. And it is only when the facts are verified that one can begin to interpret them.' The news items broadcast by the station rely on agency dispatches confirmed by a network of local people who call in.</P>
    1256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    12571253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of such sensitivities and in an effort to find as much common ground as possible, the radio station gives music top billing. This has the added advantage of helping to attract listeners. It also offers general programmes on African roots, sport, culture and educational themes, in addition to its news items. It is currently broadcasting for six hours a day.</P>
    1258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1254
    12591255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pradier says he would like to see an end to the 'navel gazing' of Burundi's population. 'We want to show that peace is possible, by showing how it is progressing elsewhere: in Haiti, for example, where there is a legitimate President now, and amongst the Chiapas in Mexico.'</P>
    1260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1256
    12611257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, like many fledgling stations, finding enough funds from donors to guarantee its future is a worry. The station's current ECHO grant runs out in September 1996. Indeed, the project, classified under emergency aid, was atypical for the humanitarian aid office. But Mr Pradier is hoping that continued support will come from one of the EU's budget lines. He believes that the Union is a particularly suitable donor because it tends to be less 'colonialistic' than some others. He also raises the possibility of seeking funds from private donors such as the Fondation de France. </P>
    1262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1258
    12631259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking to the future of the station, Pierre Pradier argues that they cannot let the project 'drop' and hopes eventually to see it being handed over to local broadcasters, assuming 'they are people we can depend on'. The signs so far are encouraging. He would also like to see Radio Hope's programme content broadened to include game shows, with radios offered as prizes for the winners. As far as he is concerned, the more people who tune in, the better! _</P>
    1264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1260
    12651261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
    1266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1262
    12671263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joint Assembly resolution</P>
    1268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1264
    12691265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACP/Ku Joint Assembly is pushing for EC institutions and Lom&eacute; signatories to be more supportive of media issues. A resolution on the role of communications media in the development and consolidation of democracy in ACP states. passed by the Assembly in March, contained the following points:</P>
    1270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1266
    12711267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - freedom of expression and free communications and media are vital to the development of a democratic society;</P>
    1272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1268
    12731269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - more ACP countries should give opposition parties access to the media' notably where this is controlled by the state;</P>
    1274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1270
    12751271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - all candidates and political parties should be given access to the media in a 'balanced and fair manner'; </P>
    1276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1272
    12771273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - laws which restrict press freedom and the electoral process should be repealed;</P>
    1278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1274
    12791275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - any threat of physical attack against media organisations or their employees should be investigated by the authorities, with those responsible being brought to justice;</P>
    1280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1276
    12811277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the media should be impartial, providing accurate information during elections, helping to educate the electorate, explaining the importance of elections, giving information on where, when and how to vote, and explaining the secret ballot;</P>
    1282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1278
    12831279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - EU assistance for free and a fair elections - and a free media sector in ACP countries - should be increased. </P>
    1284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1280
    12851281<I><P></P>
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    1293 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1289</I>
    12941290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Antonio Pacheco</P>
    1295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1291
    12961292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this abridged article, the author, who is a Portuguese journalist, gives details of two church-supported local radio projects in Southern Africa.</P>
    1297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1293
    12981294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the 1980s, the Social Communication Department of IMBISA, the conference of Catholic bishops in Southern Africa (a kind of SADC for Roman Catholics) embarked on a local radio project. It had a two-pronged approach. First, it involved setting up a network of small community radio stations. The local population were involved, sharing responsibility for making programmes and broadcasting information and news about everyday life in the remotest places. In some cases, the programme content was retransmitted at a provincial or even national level. The second aspect was that it was supplemented by the creation of flexible and independent associations of journalists/presenters. They formed information agencies operating as a network to link up local radio stations.</P>
    1299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1295
    13001296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At that time, the main concern in Southern Africa was to rid South Africa of apartheid. There was also a desire to promote freedom of expression in Angola and Mozambique. Given that radio was (and still is) the most important means of communication in the region, the idea was to set up a regional network capable of overcoming all the constraints ranging from legal bans and restrictions on broadcasting to widespread illiteracy. The ultimate objective was to set up a Catholic radio station based in Swaziland. This project did not go ahead, however, because it was too expensive to finance and, above all, because it was dependent on the regional Catholic hierarchy. It proved difficult to reconcile the various ideological views and sensitivities of bishops in the various countries of the region. There was also a growing feeling amongst the Christian communities that the underlying need was not for a radio station which would be a vehicle for bishops' views, but rather a media system that served the people, offering recreation, training and information.</P>
    1301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1297
    13021298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax</P>
    1303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1299
    13041300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another local radio project of interest, which is now up and running, involved reviving Radio Pax, the private Catholic radio station which made a significant contribution during the 1 960s to the struggle for a free Mozambique. The operation closed down in 1977 but the experience was not forgotten and 16 years later, the decision was made to bring the station back on air. Those behind the new project took advantage of the trend towards greater political openness in the country. Their aim was to offer a credible and informative alternative, which, they hoped, would be up and running in time for the elections scheduled for October 1994. A course was run between July and September 1994 which brought together young presenters chosen by small communities on the outskirts of Beira, Chimoio, Nampula, Quelimane and Maputo. The course involved honing the participants' presentation skills and providing practical training in technical subjects, and programme and information preparation. This was how the first association of young independent Christian journalists came into being.</P>
    1305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1301
    13061302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For various reasons, including red-tape and customs regulations, the  new Radio Pax was unable to broadcast in the run-up to the general election. However, the young journalists, who received their training at various locations, were able to act as important independent sources of information. This was channelled to Maputo and used as backup for a number of international press officials and observers. The information relayed by the young presenters in the provinces made it possible to publish a newsletter which was circulated throughout the country, using fax, religious channels and a variety of other means.</P>
    1307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1303
    13081304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is now in operation, although it faces major technical problems. It is based in a community centre in Inhamizua, 20 km from Beira. The station has already done important work in gathering information about local traditions, and has broadcast programmes aimed particularly at women and young people in suburban areas. The network also incorporates Mozambique's Radio Encontro, which broadcasts from Nampula in conjunction with the Anchilo training centre. There are plans for further local radio stations in Maputo in the south, Quelimane and Chimolo in the centre and Pemba in the north.</P>
    1309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1305
    13101306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is managed entirely by the Association of Independent Young Christian Journalists in Beira. In terms of training, the current preoccupation is to teach the young people involved how to manage the small radio stations which have been made available to them, and to set up local self financing systems. Although equipment is important, what really counts in this project is the training of the presenters. Working in close collaboration with the community, it is they who are in the front line—promoting the inalienable right of free expression.</P>
    13111307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.P.</P>
    1312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1308
    13141309<I><P></P>
    13151310<!--
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    1322 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1317</I>
    13231318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Mand Rya&iuml;ra Ngarara</P>
    1324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1319
    13251320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Support Group for the Disabled in Chad (AEHPT) was set up in 1987 with the assistance of the International Christian Service for Peace (EIRENE), which has its headquarters in Germany. By coming together to form a group, disabled people hoped to take charge of their lives and break down the wall of silence that surrounds them. However, despite setting up various workshops (welding workshops, small printing works, musical groups) and publishing an information newsletter, entitled 'Perspectives'. the AEHPT has been unable to improve the image of disabled people within Chad society and has failed to  raise awareness that the work done by the disabled is not only of value, but deserves due recognition. From this status quo sprang the idea of broadcasting a national weekly radio programme called 'The Voice of the Disabled'. </P>
    1326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1321
    13271322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two reasons why radio was chosen as the communication medium: firstly, the very strong oral tradition of the country, together with the population's weak purchasing power, which make access to newspapers difficult, means that radio remains the most appropriate medium for reaching a wide audience; and secondly, radio programmes are not difficult to produce, since they do not require vast technical, financial or human resources.</P>
    1328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1323
    13291324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Letting the disabled have their say</P>
    1330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1325
    13311326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially launched by the AEHPT, The Voice of the Disabled is now jointly produced and broadcast by four associations actively involved in defending the interests of those with disabilities. It is broadcast nationwide every Monday at peak listening times.</P>
    1332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1327
    13331328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme is not, however, aimed solely at those with disabilities but, on the contrary, seeks to increase awareness in Chad society as a whole. It also acts as a platform from which to urge the authorities to take concrete measures to help this section of the population.</P>
    1334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1329
    13351330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, more than a year after its launch, The Voice of the Disabled is enjoying tremendous success, with ever larger numbers of people, from all walks of life, tuning in. For the disabled themselves it provides a vast source of information, explaining the facts behind the causes of their disabilities and giving advice on how to prevent such disabilities and what can be done to treat them, and it keeps people informed about  what is happening within the various associations for the disabled, giving information about the activities, projects and special events that are taking place. As far as the rest of the population is concerned, The Voice of the Disabled has helped to raise the profile of disabled people in Chad. Slowly but surely, people's preconceptions are beginning to change and one of the programme's greatest achievements has been to eradicate gradually the negative image which people used to have of disabilities.</P>
    1336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1331
    13371332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, the lamentable fact remains that this programme is broadcast solely in French, and this is why plans are now in the pipeline to broadcast The Voice of the Disabled in both Arabic and Sara - Chad's two national languages.</P>
    1338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1333
    13391334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R.N. </P>
    1340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1335
    13421336<I><P></P>
    13431337<!--
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    1350 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1344</I>
    13511345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Africa Express experiment</P>
    1352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1346
    13531347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Richard Synge</P>
    1354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1348
    13551349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'Africa Express' documentory series mounted by Channel4, an independent British TV station, has done more than just put a new slant on news provided by state-run African channels. it has also created jobs for African producers and reporters.</P>
    1356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1350
    13571351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Television viewers in Africa will soon get the chance to see documentaries on African current affairs and development topics which have hitherto only been seen on British TV sets.</P>
    1358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1352
    13591353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four's Africa Express programme has recently concluded its third series to much critical acclaim in Britain. it included items on a surprisingly diverse range of topics. One film showed how a cash-strapped Congolese prison saves money by sending its prisoners home one day in every month, and included lively interviews with the governor and the prisoners themselves as well as footage of the grim prison conditions. Others focused on the flourishing free currency market in Zaire, the spread of South Africa's 'shebeen' culture into the country's upmarket suburbs, political battles in Namibia over the rights to manage historic tourist sites and the Nigerian military government's blatant attempts to censor television reporting.</P>
    1360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1354
    13611355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series supplemented the work of British film crews by incorporating several documentaries that were made entirely by African production teams. Special funding for this element of the Africa Express project came from the environmental television distribution agency TVE. As a result, Africa Express hired four African directors and used African-based crews to film half of the 24 films in the series.</P>
    1362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1356
    13631357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other innovative part of the project was that the programmes are now becoming available to viewers in Africa at the lowest possible cost. To promote this concept of 'media feedback', TVE has been actively marketing the series to non-governmental organisations and facilitating arrangements for the distribution of the cassettes to African broadcasting stations, both state-owned and private.</P>
    1364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1358
    13651359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'It is a way forward for us, because nothing like this has been done before,' says Raphael Tuju, a Kenyan film producer who runs a video resource centre in Nairobi, marketing documentaries to local broadcasting stations and the educational sector. 'There are too few opportunities for producers in African countries to break into the international networks. The subjects we cover are rarely of interest to the distribution companies, the differences in technology are too wide and getting wider, and there are not enough African producers who have reached the professional level to compete with their counterparts abroad.'</P>
    1366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1360
    13671361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gill, who edited Africa Express for Channel Four, welcomed the opportunity to help promote the independent film industry in Africa. 'It was thoroughly stimulating,' he says, adding that one of the constant challenges was 'finding ways to bridge the gap between what is technically possible in Africa and the standards required for a European television production.' The four African directors hired for the series were two South Africans, Eddie Mbalo and Teddy Mattera, a Zimbabwean, </P>
    1368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1362
    13691363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albert Chimedza, and a Namibian, Bridget Pickering. They all worked directly under Peter Gill's management and in contact with a producer in the field. Gill was impressed with the level of journalistic and technical expertise available in Africa and the dedication of the teams working in difficult situations. </P>
    1370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1364
    13711365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even where the production teams were British, all the 24 films in the latest Africa Express series used African journalists and presenters. They researched and organised most of the films in advance of the actual shoot by the visiting film crews. Cameroonian journalist, Emmanual Wotany, played a prominent role in the films on Congo and Zaire. Kenyan reporter Joseph Warungu proposed and presented a film on the hazards of skin-bleaching in The Gambia. The presenter of the programme on Nigeria, Toyin Fane-Kayode, bravely challenged the censorship of the country's military regime.</P>
    1372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1366
    13731367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An all-African camera and sound team led by Lawrence Mbada and Mandla Mlambo was responsible for the four films in the series that were shot by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). In the extremely difficult conditions of Angola and Namibia, an experienced SABC cameraman was used. Here there was a need to ensure that the less experienced directors were not further challenged by having to work with an inexperienced crew.</P>
    1374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1368
    13751369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For TVE's Robert Lamb, one of the main breakthroughs made by Africa Express was in the agreement of Channel Four to collaborate both with the SABC and with TVE itself, which insisted on the involvement and participation of African journalists, film-makers and technicians. He was impressed by the results and hopes that thee could be 'an even greater African involvement in another series, if one is commissioned.'</P>
    1376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1370
    13771371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series was a success, being regularly watched by up to two million viewers.</P>
    1378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1372
    13791373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four granted broadcasting rights for the series in lowincome countries to TVE and Worldview International Foundation as well as the non-broadcast rights to TVE and its partners in the third world. These   agreements allow TVE to provide the tapes at nominal cost to a network of video resource centres, similar to that run by Raphael Tuju in Nairobi. Such centres seek to get development-oriented documentary films shown by the local broadcasting stations but survive by supplying the needs of schools, colleges, non-governmental organisations and other categories of 'multipliers'.</P>
    1380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1374
    13811375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful documentary centres is the Film Resource Unit (FRU) in Johannesburg. From its origins as a way of sharing bootlegged foreign films and TV programmes during the political repression of the 1980s, FRU is now a major distributor of educational and documentary films.</P>
    1382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1376
    13831377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome the inexperience of state-owned African broadcasting networks in showing programmes of developmental relevance to their societies, video resource centres have to provide their own sponsorship. 'It is difficult for us to compete with the likes of Coca Cola, which will sponsor programmes like soap operas,' says Raphael Tuju, 'but one way round this obstacle is to sponsor a programme and at the same time advertise our services. The business we generate this way usually means that we can at least break even.'</P>
    1384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1378
    13851379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Film-making capacity in Africa has been severely limited by most governments' domination of the broadcasting media and a deep and institutional reluctance to encourage independent local productions. The mainly government-owned television stations rarely have a policy to buy in locallymade programmes and tend to look to Britain, France or the US for outside material, which is often dumped on the market at low prices, making it an even harder challenge for local producers to generate the funds to make their own programmes.</P>
    1386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1380
    13871381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decline of the once-active film industry in Nigeria, in particular, means that in English-speaking Africa, the field is now dominated by South Africa and Zimbabwe. In French-speaking Africa, the continuation of subsidies  has kept an 'art house' tradition alive, especially in Senegal and Burkina Faso. In most of the continent, however, the only development-oriented programmes shown to the public tend to be made by the governments' own propaganda departments rather than by independent film-makers.</P>
    1388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1382
    13891383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is a lack of access  to local broadcasting media, African film-makers continue to experiment with making their own dramas and documentaries, showing their work on video in village halls and schools. 'At the grassroots, African film-making can be stimulated simply by consumer demand,' says Russel Honeyman, who publishes the African Film and TV Yearbook in Harare. 'But local products do not usually translate into international products. Film and television is a global industry and film-makers should not insist on being too parochial. There is room for greater international collaboration.'</P>
    1390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1384
    13911385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the experience of the latest Africa Express series, TVE now plans to build on its achievements. In May 1996, it exhibited the series to the directors of African television stations at a conference in Windhoek, Namibia, and discussed arrangements for distribution of the cassettes. It is also planning to  participate in a workshop for French speaking West African nations in Senegal under a grant from the European Union's human rights division. The consultative process will continue with a meeting of the African video resource centre network at the end of 1996.</P>
    1392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1386
    13931387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TVE's Robert Lamb hopes that the success of Africa Express might encourage international funding agencies in Europe to take up the challenge of funding films made in Africa for African consumption. He doubts that Channel Four on its own would take such a risk. Constraints are, perhaps inevitably, imposed on TVE's concept by the fact that programmes produced for European audiences use a production and editorial structure that requires 'post production' in European capitals. 'Although we came out owning the rights to the programmes in Africa, Channel Four still had 80% of the control over the production and editorial decisions,' he acknowledges.</P>
    1394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1388
    13951389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Lamb is fully aware of the challenges that lie ahead. 'National broadcasters are in a parlous financial position and are still, for the most part, stifled by government controls,' he notes. 'Africans who have received formal training rarely find the funds to apply their newly-acquired skills.' But Mr Lamb and his TVE organisation are convinced that there will be increasing demand for more programmes like Africa Express, as much from Africa itself as from European audiences. </P>
    13961390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. </P>
    1397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1391
    13981392<I><P></P>
    13991393<!--
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    14041398  </Description>
    14051399-->
    1406 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1400</I>
    14071401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Renaud de la Brosse</P>
    1408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1402
    14091403<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who works at the Panos Institute in Paris, reflects on the pros and cons of new information technology for countries in the South and on their chances of success.</P>
    1410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1404
    14111405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet has become such a craze amongst users in Third-World countries (researchers, teachers, businesses,, liberal professions, etc.) that it amply demonstrates that a real and genuine need is being met, despite adverse comments from its detractors. The rapid increase in the number of connections to the network in the North is mirrored by an exponential growth in the South. Africa is a good example of the possibilities offered by access to the global network whilst at the same time revealing the technical and financial restrictions facing countries in the South.</P>
    1412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1406
    14131407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost all of Africa's 55 countries are today connected to the network, from South Africa, which has over 800.000 computers, to Uganda, which has just a few thousand. The importance of the Internet in Africa must be viewed less in terms of the number of computers (means of access to the Internet) and more in terms of the constant increase it represents in numbers of subscribers to the network. In the last six months alone, the number of subscribers increased by over 50%, whilst the increase in France, for example, was only 20%. Another telling figure is the number of host computers per 1.000 inhabitants, which rose by 147% in South Africa between 1994 and 1995 whereas the increase for Taiwan and Australia was 83% and 50%, respectively!</P>
    1414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1408
    14151409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because it is under-supplied in communications equipment, Africa is starting out with a disadvantage compared with other continents. However, the recent G7 Conference on Information and Development, which took place in mid-May in Midrand in South Africa, brought together 40 countries and 18 intergovernmental organizations and made it possible 'to build a bridge between developed countries and developing countries' so that the latter are not excluded from the world of new information technologies. The benefit to be gained from the Net for the Black Continent lies in the fact that African surfers are anxious to break free  from their scientific, cultural or economic isolation which comes not only from relationships between Africa and the rest of the world, but often from relationships between regions and countries on the African continent itself.</P>
    1416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1410
    14171411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precursors</P>
    1418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1412
    14191413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in Europe and the United States, scientists and researchers in Africa are the first to have understood the importance of the Net and there are now - in French speaking Africa - networks such as the Intertropical Computer Network, which groups together approximately 3000 surfers in 11 countries. The importance of the Internet for these researchers is manifold; in most countries, the education system is in grave crisis, essentially because of diminishing budget resources which for years, on account of structural adjustment measures, have been melting away. This explains the absence of libraries or documentation centres. The Internet is therefore becoming a stopgap measure, offering access to all current scientific production and giving African researchers the chance to publicise and gain recognition for their work outside their own continent.</P>
    1420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1414
    14211415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting experiments in North/South cooperation are also being set up, with the French-speaking Agency for Higher Education and Research currently establishing what it calls a 'virtual French-speaking campus', a kind of vast library to which affiliated universities will be connected. The project is also justified in economic terms since, through the medium of electronic mail (e-mail), which goes hand in hand with the Internet, exchanges of information will be cheaper than by fax, for example, which costs at least five times as much for the same amount of information transmitted. </P>
    1422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1416
    14231417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the academic community, heads of African businesses are also launching themselves into cyberspace, particularly in the case of several hundred of them who have grouped together within a West-African Business Network. Internet's financial viability in the South is dependent on membership of African businesses and multinational companies established in Africa. The cost of subscription is still beyond the means of private individuals and only 'institutional' subscribers are currently able to guarantee payment in the short term.</P>
    1424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1418
    14251419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A useful tool</P>
    1426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1420
    14271421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the possibilities on offer remain to be explored, so the Internet can therefore be an important medium for promoting African culture - Niger has set up a Web via which it is possible to visit its archaeological sites and Benin has just set up a server dedicated to voodoo. In general terms, there is the challenge of mastering content, in other words the African suffers should not restrict themselves to a  passive use (sleeking information from the North) but should, on the contrary, move progressively as players providing content and information. For the countries of the South, it is a matter of mastering information and preserving their culture.</P>
    1428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1422
    14291423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of possibilities offered by the Net is limitless. Its development in Africa or in the South in general does, however, run up against a number of obstacles, including those of both a technical and financial nature. The importance of the Internet lies in being able to transmit greater quantities of information more cheaply than by using other communications techniques. However, the required technology is expensive and therein lies the principal difference between the North and the South.</P>
    1430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1424
    14311425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure which would permit rapid, longterm expansion of the Internet is nowhere near being installed in Africa, just as in the other developing countries. The continent is still under-equipped in terms of telephone lines; according to a survey by the BDT (Telecommunications Development Office), the number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants is less than 0.5 in sub-Saharan Africa, and in terms of equipment providing access to the Net (computer, modem, etc.). In real terms, this makes access to the network much more expensive for a user in the South than for one in the North. All these imported electronic goods are much more expensive than in the West, and this is without taking account of the additional cost, in most African countries, imposed by tariff barriers on IT goods, which are regarded with great suspicion by the authorities who perceive them as a potential danger more than as essential development tools.</P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1426
    14331427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that the remote transmission of data might pose a threat to less than democratic regimes. Under the pretext of 'the control of information-based wealth', a State may decide to interfere with the 'consent' or even 'suppress' a site for producing and exchanging information deemed contrary to its interests. Once more, the question of freedom of expression arises in different terms in the South and North. </P>
    1434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1428
    14351429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute</P>
    1436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1430
    14371431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute is a non-profit-making association set up in 1988. Together with its counterparts in London and Washington, the Paris Panos Institute founded Panos International The Institute's aim is to strengthen, particularly in Africa, local expression and information capabilities. Within the context of sustainable and  better-shared development, it aims to promote the emergence of a more democratic culture and of more democratic debate. To this end, the Panos Institute runs two main programmes in west Africa from Paris and its branch offices (Senegal, Mali, Chad and Ghana).</P>
    1438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1432
    14391433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme to support pluralism in matters of information, which has four major objectives: - to expand and consolidate the legal, institutional and statutory framework of pluralist-type information - to increase professionalism in the media - to give institutional support to authors in west Africa who promote pluralism in information - to contribute to the production and circulation of more diversified and more qualified information on certain priority topics such as the environment, human rights, management and prevention of conflict, etc.</P>
    1440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1434
    14411435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration and cooperation programme seeks to enhance the value of the contribution made by citizens from Third World countries residing in the rich nations to development in their countries of origin. </P>
    1442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1436
    14431437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union, UNESCO and the ACCT, American foundations (Ford, Rockefeller) or German foundations, and bilateral cooperation agreements (Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Germany, France) support the actions of the Panos Institute. </P>
    1444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1438
    14451439<I><P></P>
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    14521446-->
    1453 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1447</I>
    14541448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Florence Win&eacute;ry</P>
    1455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1449
    14561450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although radio is 'king of the media' in Africa, the press is increasingly becoming an active player in the democratic process.</P>
    1457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1451
    14581452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been seen particularly over the last six years in the French-speaking African states where a burgeoning of political parties has been matched by the appearance of an unusually large number of  newspapers. In these countries, the press still requires rudimentary political stability - in contrast to English-speaking countries, where it has a much longer tradition and can nowadays be generally regarded as the 'Fourth Estate'.</P>
    1459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1453
    14601454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria is a good illustration of this. One need only cite the press campaigns mounted there to protest against the Federation's membership of the Islamic Conference Organisation in 1986, and more recently, the support given to Moshood Abiola. The vitality of the Nigerian press is something that deserves to be emphasised. Despite a series of measures over the years aimed at suppressing it (not exclusively by the military authorities) it is still much in evidence. There are demonstrations to support it, and it has 'gone underground' at times, continuing to publish clandestinely. The journalists' struggle intensified in June 1993, when it was recommended that they should exercise 'discretion and self-regulation'. In spite of the problems, the Nigerian press endeavours to remain a source of pressure in Nigeria's political and social arena.</P>
    1461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1455
    14621456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the French-speaking media, we see that the pace of expansion varies considerably from one country to another. In Benin, for example, current discussions are centred  strongly on opening up the country's airwaves.</P>
    1463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1457
    14641458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is a private press a partisan press?</P>
    1465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1459
    14661460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is debatable whether the private press is truly independent. In the political sphere, it is often highly partisan while 'economic' independence - in the sense of access to the materials needed to produce a newspaper - is not always possible. Printing and distribution are often subject to monopolies which may constitute a form of disguised censorship for the publishers.</P>
    1467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1461
    14681462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiatives aimed at setting up press associations in one form or another have been launched in an attempt to overcome these problems. This helps explain why the SEP (publishers' Society) was established. This group, which hopes to extend its activities throughout the region, is based in Benin where the democratisation process (and the proliferation of press titles) first begun. In many countries, media associations have already been formed covering specific areas such as radio, the press and publishing. There are plans for similar organisations in the field of television. Sometimes, they have printing facilities which are available to other private publications.</P>
    1469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1463
    14701464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principal challenge facing a general information-based newspaper is that it should appear regularly and on time. The next stage, ideally, is for it to be able to increase its distribution. Initially, a number of newspapers only came out monthly or even every two months. After appearing regularly for several months - and thereby achieving  relative financial stability - they then moved to weekly publication.</P>
    1471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1465
    14721466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, a new legal framework was also adopted, although the application of the legislation has often proved laborious. This is particularly true of the setting up of regulatory authorities. In Senegal, where the media was previously governed by a law passed in 1979 (and amended in 1986), new legislation was enacted at the beginning of 1996. The measure was prompted by concerns over ethical standards, a demand for a more 'responsible' approach, a desire to prevent monopolies developing, and fears of excessive foreign involvement. This year has also seen the implementation of media law amendments in Cote d'lvoire.</P>
    1473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1467
    14741468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus of the work of many newly-formed organisations has been the drawing up of a professional code of ethics, with a view to defining the basis of the journalist's profession. In Cote d'lvoire, the OLPED (Press Freedom and Professional Ethics Monitor) was created in September 1995 in Yamoussoukro at a seminar on journalists' responsibilities during elections. The OLPED is made up of 13 members representing publishers, civil society and the nation's journalists. Although the 'Monitor' has only moral authority, it has had considerable influence on journalists' professional consciences.</P>
    1475 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1469
    14761470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The OLPED held weekly working sessions up to March 1996 and now meets every two months. One of its main achievements has been to define the criteria whereby a responsible attitude can be guaranteed.</P>
    1477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1471
    14781472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vigilance</P>
    1479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1473
    14801474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The press can expect to be subject to rigorous supervision during an election campaign - as happened recently in Benin. Indeed, Benin's press has attracted special attention from various national institutions including, most notably, the NGO community. This interest resulted In the organisation of seminars on journalism during an election period, designed to avoid incitements to violence. The HAAC (Audi  ovisual and Communications High Authority), responsible for statutory control of the media in the run-up to and during the campaign, took part in these meetings which were aimed at increasing awareness and highlighting the heavy responsibility carried by the media.</P>
    1481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1475
    14821476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite a number of incidents during the campaign (which were immediately reported) and although the situation threatened to get out of hand while the country was obliged to wait for the publication of the results of the second round, the press conducted itself in a fairly moderate manner. It should be recalled that there was a great deal of apprehension in Benin before the results were announced with a widespread fear that violence might break out. These fears were given extensive coverage by the media.</P>
    1483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1477
    14841478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The HAAC proved to be central to the electoral process and, ultimately, the press was congratulated by most political leaders in Benin, and by those from abroad who were involved in organising and observing the poll, for the role that it played in the process. By and large, it concentrated on portraying popular expectations.</P>
    1485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1479
    14861480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During an election period, the print media is an essential vehicle of opinion and power, justifying the creation of special titles.</P>
    1487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1481
    14881482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the private press is playing an increasingly important role in the democratic process and the question of its survival appears to have attracted more serious attention from the authorities. In Senegal, a subsidy has been granted to a number of newspapers, subject to certain conditions, and Mali set an example this year by establishing a private press aid fund, with Cote d'lvoire about to follow suit.</P>
    1489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1483
    14901484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political context which has favoured this flourishing of the private press has had a marked influence on the way it has developed and on the editorial content of most journals - which is strongly focused on politics and 'national' issues. The press has barely had a chance to find its feet on the media scene and in the political process, and it has had to contend with huge  economic constraints. Low circulation figures are one key reason for its precarious position - newspapers are read only by an educated, urban minority. However, the press is now embarking on a new course, attempting to establish a loyal readership with a view to guaranteeing its long-term survival.</P>
    1491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1485
    14921486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independence and integrity ought, of course, to be the hallmark of journalism, although currently it is not  possible to say that the profession is dissociated entirely from political militancy. In the past, the press has played  a part in undermining the national consensus by promoting division and, on occasion, fomenting exclusion and confrontation. The issue today is whether the sector can now take its place in states governed by the rule of law, representing public opinion and helping to bring about a rapprochement of ideas. </P>
    1493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1487
    14941488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.M. </P>
    1495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1489
    14961490<I><P></P>
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    … …  
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    1504 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1498</I>
    15051499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Richard Lawson T&egrave;vi</P>
    1506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1500
    15071501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When President Mathieu K&eacute;rekou of Benin granted permission to set up private newspapers in his country, the result was an upsurge of new titles. The following article is written by a journalist who works on  one of these publications ('Tam-Tam Express'). He offers an assessment of the way the private press has developed in Benin, and in particular of the ethical and economic challenges it needs to overcome in the new democratic order.</P>
    1508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1502
    15091503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, President K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's revolutionary regime authorised the setting-up of private newspapers in Benin. At the beginning, only a limited degree of freedom was granted to new publications but things have evolved quickly. 'La Gazette du Golfe' and 'Tam-Tam Express', the first independent weeklies to be set up (two years prior to the 1990 national conference), went beyond what the Marxist regime had in mind and effectively achieved press freedom in the face of opposition from the Ministry of Information and Propaganda.</P>
    1510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1504
    15111505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalists took advantage of their initial limited freedom to publish reports about political and financial scandals and this, not surprisingly, gave a new lease of life to the media more generally in Benin. In particular, journalists from the national radio and television  channels were quick to switch their style of reporting, dispensing with the stereotyped formal language which had previously characterised the public-service media.</P>
    1512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1506
    15131507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, several politically oriented publications came into being ('L'Opinion', 'La Recade', 'Le Canard du Golfe'). This development gave newfound dynamism to the emergence of a free and independent press in the crucial period prior to Benin's national conference, which was held in February 1990.</P>
    1514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1508
    15151509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To date, 170 titles have been registered with the Ministry of the Interior, although barely half of these have been published more than five times. Some appeared only once and many have existed in name only. Publications which have had only a sporadic existence are legion and, in the years between 1991 and 1996, when political power alternated between Presidents Soglo and Kerekou, independent privatepress titles flourished. Unfortunately, they faced a number of problems - such as prohibitive paper and printing costs and poor distribution networks. The result was that many operators were financially ruined as a result of their decision to venture into this area of publication.</P>
    1516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1510
    15171511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, the Benin market has only 20 or so titles which appear on a   reasonably regular basis. For the most part, these are two-weekly and monthly publications which concentrate their activities in Cotonou. The audiovisual media are conspicuous by their absence, despite the provisions of the Constitution adopted in December 1990, which gave special powers to the HAAC (Audiovisual and Communications High Authority), particularly as regards guaranteeing 'press freedom' and 'opening up the audiovisual sector'. No one knows when this law will actually be implemented, but it does appear that the Benin Parliament, which sits in Porto Novo, has been giving more attention to this issue since General K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's accession to power.</P>
    1518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1512
    15191513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relationship between the press and the state</P>
    1520 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1514
    15211515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governmen/press relationships are not particularly healthy at the moment. The usual reflex of authorities in any country is to control or manipulate the press wherever possible. At the ORTB (Benin Broadcasting and Television Office), a branch of the public sector, journalists often complain of the pressures they face in processing information. The same is said at the national daily, 'La Nation'. Fortunately, such pressures have not always shaken the resolve of the professional journalists.</P>
    1522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1516
    15231517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private press has a different problem. In this case, it is the newspaper proprietors who look to collaborate with the political parties. As one publishing editor has said, 'Our problem is more one of allegiance than of harassment'. Virtually all publications are political vehicles for one or other group - which makes nonsense of the code of ethics that is supposed to govern the profession. This phenomenon was most marked during the election period. All the titles that had been in 'hibernation' came to life again and new titles were born, only to disappear once the poll was over. This is also a reflection of the very meagre resources available to most private publishers. Those who do have sufficient means are usually quick to offer allegiance - for example to particular businesses - in order to position themselves more favourably from an economic  standpoint. Thus, some of the press rather overtly promotes particular economic interests. Others assiduously woo politicians and, in some cases, use blatant blackmailing techniques. In the latter situation, the 'market' operates on the basis that a file (sometimes assembled from a number of documents) will not be published if an endorsement is given or - what is worse - in return for hard cash. The justification for this shameful practice is that the market is highly restricted, sales of newspapers bring in very little income and advertising is non-existent but the newspaper has to keep going nonetheless. This situation also explains why defamation actions are frequently settled 'out of court' by the parties to the dispute.</P>
    1524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518
    15251519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A profession fraught with difficulties</P>
    1526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1520
    15271521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another explanation for the existence of blackmail is the lack of training. The majority of journalists working for private publications come into the profession for want of something better to do, after they have finished their university courses. One experienced journalist refers to these people as mere 'hirelings'. It is only once they have entered the profession that they learn the basics through joining journalists' associations and by receiving support from some of the bilateral-cooperation missions and foundations that are operating in Benin. The country does not, itself, have any colleges of journalism to speak of. Only recently, the national daily newspaper inaugurated a course for young journalists receiving their training on the country's various publications. This course will be spread over one year.</P>
    1528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1522
    15291523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young journalists working at the national agency, the Benin Press Agency, are trained by WANAD (the West-African National Agencies Development) centre, under the auspices of UNESCO, which is subregional in vocation. The 20 or so trainees have no clear idea of what awaits them when they finish their course - whether all, or just some of them, will be taken on full-time by the agency. Those who are not kept on at the end of their training period are likely to  swell the ranks of the 'hirelings' - who seem fated to remain at that level.</P>
    1530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1524
    15311525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new administration will have to tackle the more general question of aid to the press in order to give a fresh boost to the private sector. This has been facing a real struggle since the devaluation of the CFA franc. The effect of the devaluation was to increase the cost of all the inputs needed for publishing newspapers. A new initiative of the part of the authorities would make it possible to offer more work to journalists and to improve considerably the quality of work they produce. To quote the publisher of a private newspaper: 'The influence of money must be curbed. To do this, the state must grant genuine aid to the press so that the profession can be genuinely free and objective and thereby fulfil the important role it has to play in the consolidation of democracy'. R.L.T. </P>
    1532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1526
    15331527<I><P></P>
    15341528<!--
    … …  
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    1541 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1535</I>
    15421536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Dr Marjan de Bruin</P>
    1543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1537
    15441538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this abridged article, who leaches et the Caribbean institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) at the Mona (Jamaica) Campus of the University of the West Indies, focuses on some of the peculiarities of press and media development in small island Caribbean states.</P>
    1545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1539
    15461540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English-speaking</P>
    1547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1541
    15481542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean comprises thirteen independent nations that are members of Caricom (the Caribbean Community) and a few  remaining small dependent territories. The total population is about six million. In most of these countries, the majority of the population is of African descent although in Trinidad and Guyana, about half the people are of Asian (Indian) origin.</P>
    1549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1543
    15501544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sea, whose name unites the islands, is a serious barrier to communication and social interchange between them. it takes as long to go by plane from Barbados to Jamaica (1200 miles direct, but 2000 miles via Miami) as it takes to cross the Atlantic from Paris to New York (3600 miles) - and the latter journey is usually cheaper! And until fairly recently, telephone calls from neighbouring Caribbean countries without a common language were routed through London, Paris or Miami.</P>
    1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1545
    15521546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distances make communications difficult. Mail can take weeks, telephone circuits are often overloaded and, in some countries, unscheduled power cuts often disrupt computer systems at the most inopportune moments.</P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1547
    15541548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
    1555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1549
    15561550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean has a strong oral tradition. This, together with poverty and an estimated general literacy rate of about 80%, makes radio the most popular medium. Recent studies show,  for instance, that 99% of Jamaican households reported having at least one radio at home. In Jamaica alone, three large national radio stations between them broadcast nine hours of prime time call-in radio.</P>
    1557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1551
    15581552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all Caribbean countries, alongside the mass media, 'alternative' medias play an important role in communication for social change. In some countries, the term simply connotes non mainstream operations. In others it refers to alternative formats which are found in the mainstream media. The term also represents the use of other communication behaviour - popular theatre, dance, music, oral history, story telling. It has been suggested that the increased use of alternative media and alternative uses of mainstream media are an indication of the audience's dissatisfaction with the mainstream mass media.</P>
    1559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1553
    15601554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most English-speaking Caribbean countries, the government owns some of the major mass media, especially electronic. Only recently has the private sector developed its own strongholds in radio and television. Print has always been an area of mainly private ownership. Only the larger countries have daily newspapers; morning or evening papers - although usually not more than two or three. In the smaller countries the press consists of weeklies, or bi-weeklies.</P>
    1561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1555
    15621556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership</P>
    1563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1557
    15641558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ownership or control of media houses by governments is recognised as  a serious obstacle to true investigative journalism.The economies of all Caribbean countries are heavily dependent on tourism. Stories on environmental hazards and crises which might affect this essential source of income are subject to explicit or implicit (selfl censorship.</P>
    1565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1559
    15661560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership in some instances means policy discontinuity over time; each new regime imports its own set of administrators and sometimes even entire newsroom staffs. In other instances, where the same party has ruled for a long time, positions within the media are very stable because they are tied to political loyalty.</P>
    1567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1561
    15681562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private ownership, however, does not mean an absence of potential pressure or political influences. In Trinidad &amp; Tobago, the country's oldest daily - The Trinidad Guardian - recently lost its Managing Director, its editor and six of its top editorial executives, after the owners - a supermarket chain - pressurised the editor to moderate criticisms of the country's new administration. The owners also tried to convince the managing director and editor to dismiss a columnist who was a disaffected and now hostile former member of the new ruling party. In apparent justification, the owners produced a document which suggested that it was the policy of the Guardian not to endanger the commercial prospects of its owners by injudicious criticism of the powers that be. Caribbean journalists attacked the Guardian ownership for what some saw as an attempt to turn a respected newspaper into the public relations arm of a commercial congLom&eacute;rate. Despite the protests, the Guardian's new editor, a veteran of forty years in journalism, argued that the proprietors had good reason to interfere with his predecessors.</P>
    1569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1563
    15701564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The region's oldest daily, The Jamaica Gleaner (established in 1834) went even further. In an editorial it said: 'In our view the owners have a right to oppose the way in which the judgment of the Editor and others is exercised. The right of the Guardian Board to query content cannot be questioned. It is impossible for a newspaper to be run   without the input of the Board of Governors.'</P>
    1571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1565
    15721566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small markets</P>
    1573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1567
    15741568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most English-speaking Caribbean countries are relatively small in population as well as area. The number of media organizations is limited. The limited size of the market has important implications for the financial basis of the media, especially the part that is privately-owned. It limits the horizontal mobility of media workers - there are simply not that many options - and it makes the relationship between media and sources extremely vulnerable. There are not that many sources either. It also means that most Caribbean media houses have very limited resources. Many reporters have to cover a wide range of topics. Specialised reporting for instance on the environment, or health, is usually not feasible.</P>
    1575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1569
    15761570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major problems in the Caribbean media is the high proportion of imported television programming. The region is geographically close to the United States and satellite broad  casting makes access to the Northern networks even easier. In the ten years from 1976 to 1986, the imported content of four large television stations in the region moved from an average of 78.5% to 87%. When the amount of imported content carried by the smaller stations was included, the average increased to 90% of all material televised.</P>
    1577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1571
    15781572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation and new technologies</P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1573
    15801574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the larger Caribbean countries have seen an explosive growth in the electronic media. Jamaica, which has a population of about 2.5 million living in some 620 000 households, and per capita GDP of $1563, has seen the number of radio stations grow from three to nine and TV stations from one two, in a period of just five years.</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1575
    15821576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad &amp; Tobago, with 1.2 million inhabitants in 300 000 households, and per capita GDP of $4049, went through a similar process, with seven new radio stations and two new, privately-owned TV stations being set up over the last five years.</P>
    1583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1577
    15841578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, with a population of 260000 living in about 50000 households has long supported two daily newspapers. There are also two TV stations on the island, while viewers can receive television signals from neighbouring islands. This country has the highest per capita GDP in the region ($5562) after The Bahamas ($10,308).</P>
    1585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1579
    15861580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One positive effect of this intensive growth is certainly to be found in the increased employment opportunities for broadcasters. In the past, journalists risked their careers if they disagreed with their employers. Now people have more options. However, increased competition in a relatively small market also enlarges the risk of commercialisation and a lowering of standards. One does not need to undertake in-depth research to discover that locally-produced television is scarce and not always of the highest standard. It is cheaper to buy foreign programming than to produce original content. Some   of the graduates of the Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication, who performed above average during their training and education in print journalism, can be seen sliding down the standards scale once they enter the mass media as working journalists. Similarly, the standards of newsrooms are not always high. In fairness to the professionals, it must be said that the decline in standards is partly due to the lack of resources in editorial departments. The major newsrooms in radio and television in Jamaica, still depend on typewriters.</P>
    1587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1581
    15881582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development of new technologies has contributed to two almost opposite movements. On the one hand, greater access to worldwide networks has widened horizons. On the other, the introduction of cable TV offers, at least in principle, the possibility for small-scale communication initiatives, such as community radio stations either for geographical communities or communities of interest (for example, people or groups interested in the environment).</P>
    1589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1583
    15901584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satellite dishes, VCRs and computers are breaking down traditional communication borders. In the Jamaican capital, Kingston, 28% of households have a dish and 21% a computer. The picture is very different just 20 miles away, in the neighbouring but rural parish of St Thomas, where the figures are just 1% and 2% respectively. New technologies are affordable for the happy few and are increasing the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' of information.</P>
    1591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1585
    15921586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these societies, computers sit uneasily in otherwise nondigital environments. The information that one works with is usually not computerised. Many records are still handwritten, with data kept on index cards. Computerisation is a costly process for which there is rarely a budget.</P>
    1593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1587
    15941588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the hardware is available, it is easy to retrieve data from non Caribbean sources. At the same time, it is barely possible - at least at the moment - to tap into Caribbean data sources. There is no commercial Caribbean software. Page make-up and layout programmes, for instance, rely on  non-Caribbean electronic clip-art-images and symbols. It may simply be a matter of time before local products develop, but currently, the main constraints are to do with lack of funds.</P>
    1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1589
    15961590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalism</P>
    1597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1591
    15981592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is journalism faring in this environment ? The Caribbean context gives journalism a special professional profile. The small size of Caribbean societies has implications for the use of sources. Access is easier, but it also creates sharper dilemmas where loyalty is concerned: most sources are people you know personally and who know you. Anonymity is almost impossible.</P>
    1599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1593
    16001594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the societies are so small, you will meet many of the same people in different roles on different occasions. The small scale of the market makes all enterprises in media and journalism very vulnerable to market forces: the withdrawal of one or two major advertisers would endanger the chances of survival of some media houses.</P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1595
    16021596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation of the press is most marginal in the smaller countries. In Antigua (population 66000), radio and television are controlled either by the Government or by people with close links to those in power. One opposition paper, a trade union publication, has survived several legal assaults by the authorities over the years. The other, little more than a newsletter, has managed to survive into its second year.</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1597
    16041598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Grenada (population 91000), journalists complain about police harassment of reporters on duty, and in most of the smaller countries, journalists are uneasily aware of the continuing hostility of long-ruling political parties.</P>
    1605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1599
    16061600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The working environment of journalists in Caribbean media organisations is usually more modest compared to that of journalists in rich countries. There is less technology, smaller staffs and lower salaries. In the smaller Caribbean countries, it is not unusual for journalists to have to combine two jobs. Journalism alone cannot pay the bills.</P>
    1607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1601
    16081602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sharp difference between rich and poor in most developing countries. For large sections of the population, the big decisions will have nothing to do with buying a second or a third television set.</P>
    1609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1603
    16101604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more likely to be a simple matter of whether there is food on the table tonight. These different priorities obviously influence a journalist's agenda.</P>
    1611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1605
    16121606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing economies, this can create serious dilemmas for the journalists: if you know your story is likely to hurt the tourist industry - which happens to be the main national income earner of your country - will pursuing it be a waste of valuable time ? And how do you decide on the relevance of a scoop when people - some of whom are your friends - could lose their jobs ? </P>
    1613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1607
    16141608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.d.B.</P>
    1615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1609
    16161610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sources</P>
    1617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1611
    16181612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hilary Brown (1995): American Media Impact on Jamaican Youth: The Cultural Dependency Thesis in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean identity', Edited by Hopeton S. Dunn, Kingston, Jamaica, lan Randle Publishers. </P>
    1619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1613
    16201614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown and Roderick Sanatan !1987). Talking With Whom ? A Report a the State of the Media in the Caribbean. Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (Carimac), Kingston, Jamaica. </P>
    1621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1615
    16221616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown (1995). Caribbean Cultures and Mass Communication Technology: Re-examining the Cultural/ Dependency Thesis, in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity'. </P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1617
    16241618<I><P></P>
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    1632 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1626</I>
    16331627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With modern computer technology, it is now very easy for publishers (and film-makers) to dabble with reality. Whereas in the past, you could be reasonably sure that what you saw was a fair representation of what actually happened, today there is no such guarantee.</P>
    1634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1628
    16351629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently in the United Kingdom, one of the country's regional newspapers came in for criticism when it published a 'doctored' photograph of a well-known opposition politician. He was captured on  film at a social function sitting at a table with a glass of beer in front of him. By the time the paper's computer experts had finished with the photo, it looked as if he was drinking champagne ! When the story broke, the journal thought it expedient to issue an immediate apology. For while  this kind of misrepresentation may appear trivial, in the modern age, image is crucial for those who are involved in public life. Put simply, voters' are more likely to look kindly on beer-drinking politicians than on those whose favourite tipple is champagne.</P>
    1636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1630
    16371631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a similar case involving an advertisement issued by a well-known car manufacturer. For their publicity in Britain, the company used a landscape photo portraying a selection of their employees. In Poland, the same picture was used but black and Asian workers were no longer to be seen. Their places in the line-up were miraculously taken by people of Caucasian appearance. The advertisers' rather surprising explanation was that this had been a 'mistake'!</P>
    1638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1632
    16391633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other recent victims of 'doctored' pictures or socalled 'photo collages' have included members of the European Parliament and a senior EC official, although these particular misrepresentations received very little publicity.</P>
    1640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1634
    16411635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should consumers of printed or broadcast material be entitled to assume that images are never tampered with ? And if some doctoring is acceptable, where do you draw the line ? The answer to the first question is clearly no. There are certain situations where photo or film enhancement techniques are unobjectionable. We sometimes use them on The Courier cover pages to remove blemishes or fill in gaps which may detract from the main image. In fashion  advertising, it is common for the 'look' of the model to be altered. The aim here is to draw the reader's eye to the page so that their attention can then be focused on the product. More dramatic alterations may even be acceptable if it is evident to the reader that a change has been made. Satirical articles, for example, can sometimes be amusingly illustrated with obviously altered images.</P>
    1642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1636
    16431637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the practice is reprehensible is where the picture has been changed in a way that leads the reader to draw false conclusions about what he or she is observing. The  classic example of this is where the image of a person captured in one setting is placed against a different backdrop, without the reader being informed. This may be done to give either a more positive or a more negative impression (the latter approach is more usual) but in either case, it is dishonest. If a politician allows himself to be photographed on a Caribbean beach while on mission at the taxpayers' expense, even if he was only there during the lunch break for a quick dip, then he can't really complain. But if the picture was actually taken when he was on holiday in Majorca, and superimposed against a more exotic back  ground, then both the 'victim' and the reader are being cheated.</P>
    1644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1638
    16451639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will always be borderline cases, but in principle, it ought to be possible to draw a reasonably clear distinction between 'right' and 'wrong' in this area.</P>
    1646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1640
    16471641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, it is likely that distorted images will continue to be presented to us in the future. In pluralist societies, newspapers and broadcasters operate in a fiercely competitive environment and in theory, this should provide a deterrent. If one media organisation is found to have doctored images in a dishonest way, there will always be plenty of others willing to expose the misbehaviour.</P>
    1648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1642
    16491643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, however, the only real deterrent is the likelihood of a drop in circulation, or lower viewing figures. And while consumers may say they disapprove of journalistic dishonesty (whether in photographs or the written word), there is little evidence to suggest that they react by taking their custom elsewhere. Indeed, in some developed countries, the closer a journal sails to the wind, the more likely it is to enjoy a high circulation!</P>
    1650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1644
    16511645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It used to be said that 'the camera never lies'.</P>
    1652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1646
    16531647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, we can't be so certain.</P>
    1654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1648
    16551649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
    1656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1657 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1650
     1651<B>
    16581652<!--
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    1667 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1661</B>
    16681662<B><P></P>
    16691663<!--
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    1675 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1669</B>
    16761670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue 156 of The Courier, we announced the launch of a programme by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the future of KU-ACP relations beyond Lom&eacute; IV. Here, we publish an abridged text supplied by the ECDPM reporting on progress.</P>
    1677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1671
    16781672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 20 years, the Lom&eacute; Convention is thought by some not to have lived up to expectations and now that East West rivalry is no longer an issue, many doubt its continued relevance. Questioning, as such, is no bad thing, provided it takes place in a fair and unbiased manner and is not used as a pretext to abandon the acquis  of more than 20 years of cooperation. This is the rationale behind a number of private and official initiatives to redefine KU-ACP cooperation.</P>
    1679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1673
    16801674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consultations</P>
    1681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1675
    16821676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ECDPM's post-tome IV exercise has now been up and running for more than a year. Consultations have been held in more than 20 ACP countries, involving representatives from the private and non-governmental sectors, officials in the National Authorising Offices, EC delegations, regional organisations and research centres. A number of strong impressions have emerged from these interviews. In the first place, the initial comment of many NGOs and private sector representativ  was essentially 'what is in it for us ?'. This points to a lack of knowledge of the Convention in non-governmental circles and suggests that this complicated instrument is not entirely 'user-friendly'. Its government to government character was also criticised. There were calls for ACP-KU relations to be opened up to the private sector and civil society. In this context, experience with decentralised cooperation was seen as encouraging.</P>
    1683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1677
    16841678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the benefits of the Lom&eacute; trade provisions were highlighted with fears being expressed about what would happen after the year 2000. It was felt that at a time when many ACPs  are undergoing structural adjustment, and the private sector is getting its act together, a clearer European commitment in this area would benefit both sides.</P>
    1685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1679
    16861680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various actors from the private, NGO and research communities indicated a willingness to engage in debate on redefining mutual ACP-KU interests and on the design of a new cooperation contract. Some of them had an opportunity to present their views at an ECDPM conference on the future of KU-ACP relations held on 12-14 June.</P>
    1687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1681
    16881682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that the process of reflection is now firmly under way. At the institutional level, the Joint Assembly began as far back as February 1995, when it launched an action plan to revitalise KU-ACP cooperation. This year, it asked Senator Jean-Louis Firmin of Haiti to draw up a report on the future of the Lom&eacute; Convention. It also requested the Social Partners to tackle the issue at their next annual meeting in November 1996. On the European side, the Commission will present a Green Paper later this year while the ACPs are also studying the question. Last November, the ACP Council resolved that Heads of State should meet before the end of 1997 to agree on a joint position.</P>
    1689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1683
    16901684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles</P>
    1691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1685
    16921686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this activity suggests a real awareness of what is at stake. Many obstacles have to be overcome, however, if a new type of partnership is to emerge. The main pillars of Europe's commitment to the ACP countries - aid and trade - both appear under threat. It will be necessary to redefine mutual interests - beyond the negative interdependencies - so that they can serve as a basis for a more modern and effective partnership. Greater creativity  will also be required to find new forms of EU support on ACP trade issues that are compatible with World Trade Organisation obligations.</P>
    1693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1687
    16941688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An in-depth rethink of ACP-KU cooperation will significantly benefit from inputs by actors traditionally excluded from the discussions - who are anxious to participate in redefining cooperation ties. For instance, in Namibia, NGOs called for formal consultation mechanisms for non-governmental actors. Similarly, economic operators meeting in Trinidad in November called for a new Europe-Caribbean partnership. There should also be a role for applied research conducted in ACP centres. There is already a joint research project on the future of West Africa Europe relations and similar initiatives are being formulated elsewhere.</P>
    1695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1689
    16961690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plea for a debate that is open to the key ACP actors should be taken on board by decision-makers and negotiators - and thus far, they have proved receptive. However, two conditions are needed to maintain this fruitful exchange. First, ACP stakeholders need to be able to base their views on full knowledge of the facts and issues. It is essential that the Convention's authors make a major effort to provide more and better information. The ECDPM is willing to play a part in this. Initiatives already under way include the development of EUFORIC - a Forum on the Internet for specialised information on European development cooperation - and the preparation of practical guides to the Lom&eacute; Convention. Enhanced access to information can help all partners move towards a real dialogue. Second, forms and channels for dialogue. need to be devised to ensure that an open debate is sustained beyond the initial reflections taking place within the EU and ACP groups.</P>
    1697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1691
    16981692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECDPM</P>
    1699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1693
    17001694<B><P></P>
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    1708 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1702</B>
    17091703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jos Jonckers</P>
    1710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1704
    17111705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article offers an academy critique of *e challenges facing the global system of development cooperation in the post-cold War era. He argues that the old compromises that have shaped development assistance since the Second World War have broken down and pleads for a radical re-think of the strategy in order to 'enable' fess affluent societies to gain from the advent of global 'free market democracy'</P>
    1712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1706
    17131707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us face it. International development early 50 years, the developed world has taken aid for granted. It no longer does. In real terms, it has started to give less. The expected 'peace dividend' has not materialised and scepticism is rising. Aid and solidarity are considered old-fashioned concepts. Progress and development, it is increasingly argued, must come from cooperation based on mutual interest and a businesslike approach.</P>
    1714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1708
    17151709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid scepticism is at its highest in the USA. A conservative majority in Congress promotes radical 'winner' recipes and aid has been slashed. Slowly but surely, America is getting out of the development business. Lacking domestic support, the Clinton administration seeks to 'rescue' the country's aid programme by seeking more cooperation with other donors - particularly the KU, whose solidarity horizons do not yet stop at its own borders. But even here, horizons are shrinking. European aid to its immediate neighbours in the East and the southern Mediterranean basin has risen. Happy and prosperous neighbours suddenly seem more important than distant friends in need.</P>
    1716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1710
    17171711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Has the end of the cold war marked the beginning of a cold world - where international solidarity is being dismantled together with the nuclear warheads ? Or could we be experiencing the beginning of a fundamental reshaping of international solidarity and aid between nations?</P>
    1718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1712
    17191713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond altruism - self interest</P>
    1720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1714
    17211715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid has always involved a compromise within affluent society. People and nations are not normally disposed to give something away unless they receive something in return. Any attempt at understanding and reshaping the future of development aid must therefore start from the premise that those providing development aid do so as a result of a complex and evolving compromise between altruism and self-interest.</P>
    1722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1716
    17231717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Affluent countries are usually only interested in assisting poorer ones when the effect is to strengthen their international leadership, and in some way to enhance their security and material wellbeing. Looked at in this context, we must recognise that development aid, whatever its altruistic aims, will only exist if it also serves the legitimate, albeit more selfish agenda of the donor. It also means that the compromise which gives aid its rationale in affluent society changes over time: aid is regularly 'recompromised'. In secure and prosperous times, donors are  more inclined to forego self-interest and to cooperate in the interest of less affluent countries. In times of insecurity, the altruistic dimension is likely to diminish in importance.</P>
    1724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1718
    17251719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In colonial times, systematic aid flows first emerged as a result of a compromise between expansionist Northern governments and Christian society with its own 'colonizing' clergy. Decolonisation had the effect of increasing insecurity in most former colonial powers. In an attempt to safeguard the capital they had 'invested' in their overseas territories, following the latter's independence, they increasingly shaped aid with a view to 'buying' goodwill from the new rulers. This process, which 'recompromised' aid from a colonial into a neocolonial form, resulted in the secular, institutionalised arrangement now known as 'bilateral aid'. In addition, during the Cold War, Western aid was used increasingly as a device to stop the Third World joining the Second World (the communist bloc). The result was an aid system which was both more internationalised and more politicised.</P>
    1726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1720
    17271721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next stage came with the end of the Cold War. Communism had joined colonialism and fascism in the dustbin of history. Affluent Western society had emerged as the winner. With it came the Western vision for stability, peace and progress: a world of sovereign nations, organised on the basis of democratic and capitalist market principles and committed to respect for each other's territory and for basic human rights. Today, capitalism has become the norm in most nation states. Long-time sceptics such as India, and even convinced opponents such as China and Vietnam, have embraced it. Democracy has not yet achieved the same coverage, but it is sailing forward under favourable conditions. Political pluralism is steadily being consolidated in much of East and Central Europe, while dictatorial regimes in Africa, Asia and Latin America are now the exception.</P>
    1728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1722
    17291723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of all of this has been a speedy erosion of the terms of the compromise on which development aid thrived for so long. In a rapidly globalis  ing,multi-polar world, the old approaches appear increasingly redundant. From this perspective, the current aid crisis is not surprising and is not necesarily a bad thing. Western affluent society is essentially trying to come to terms with the demystification of its development aid, as part of a process of reshaping it for the future.</P>
    1730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1724
    17311725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three 'recompromising' strategies</P>
    1732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1726
    17331727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in the past, the recompromising process is influenced by both self-interest and altruism in affluent society. Three trends can be identified.. The first, which is the most idealistic, involves restoring altruism. This approach seeks to 'purge' aid of the perverse political and economic compromises and contradictions caused by decades of neocolonial and Cold-War self-interest. It has impacted on aid in several ways. First, it has given a significant boost to humanitarian aid - the most altruistic form - at the expense of development assistance. Second, it has led to a 'decentralisation' of aid - with more assistance being channelled through organisations such as NGOs, that have an 'uncompromised' altruistic profile. Third, it has led to a 'deconstruction' of development aid along idealistic-altruistic lines. 'Women in development', 'child health', 'environment'and 'poverty alleviation' are all examples of deconstructed labels around which aid is increasingly being structured and justified. Finally, it has prompted an 'intellectualisation' of development aid with the particular purpose of tightening its altruistic aims. For example, the Logical Framework Approach, the concept of 'sustainable development', the UNDP's Human Development Index and various experiments with more 'accountable' project management systems, have all essentially been devised as ways of encapsulating and supporting the altruistic intentions that lie behind aid.</P>
    1734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1728
    17351729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second recompromising strategy, which may be summed up in the expression be businesslike, approaches development cooperation  much more skeptically. Aid, it is argued, only makes sense if it leads to real progress and development - and the prevailing view is that this is not happening. The approach is fueled by the obsession of trying to measure progress with the help of business tools such as 'output', 'impact', 'efficiency', 'rates of return' and so on. This has led to burgeoning aid 'evaluation'. It has also probably contributed to the discovery of aid failures which, in turn, has prompted growing criticism of aid agencies and operators. The businesslike strategy has gained further ground because of the failure of many countries to achieve any real progress in recent decades. Its advocates argue that the compromises which undermined aid's development impact in the past are inherently linked with its altruistic nature. The conclusion is that altruistic aid will seldom or never work. The strategy has impacted on aid in a number of ways being, for example, the major cause of so-called 'aid fatigue'. It has also prompted a search for ways to enhance cooperation for mutual benefit, indeed transforming the narrow, pre Cold War trade cooperation link with developing countries into a much broader and rapidly growing economic cooperation approach. Finally, it has sought to enhance aid's impact on the economic conditions and growth prospects of developing countries through more ambitious, structural-oriented forms of aid.</P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1730
    17371731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regionalism, the third major strategy, is linked to globalisation. Rooted in human survival psychology, this approach prompts nations in close proximity to form 'strategic' coalitions. In the post-Cold War era, development aid is one of the instruments used by affluent regions to strengthen their position in a 'globalising' environment. The strategy entails promoting 'open' regionalism elsewhere in the world and capitalising on this to create linkages and interactions which enhance their own influence or hegemony. From the point of view of the international political economy, this makes perfect sense. Having succeeded in making the 'world of nations' accept capitalism and democracy, it is through the consolidation   process of free market democracy in other countries and regions that powerful affluent nations will seek to gain maximum advantage.</P>
    1738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1732
    17391733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Need for a vision</P>
    1740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1734
    17411735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this improved insight into the dynamics that have been reshaping development aid, is it now possible to go further and develop a more political vision of relations between affluent and less affluent nations in future ?</P>
    1742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1736
    17431737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free market democracy, having endured the 'crises' of decolonisation, fascism and communism, has succeeded in promoting stability and peace within and between nations. Its main strength has probably been its crucial enabling function, with an increasing number of people and nations now in a position to 'earn' a better future. It appears that the model has the capacity to generate fairly equitable growth and progress, which is presumably why more and more countries are turning to it. As is so often the case, however, the strength of the system also contains the seeds of its weakness. Conceived as an 'enabling' mechanism, it results in the categorisation of those who fail to 'be enabled' as 'unable'. Marginalised because they cannot participate and perform in the   system, the excluded (whether individuals or states) are dubbed 'losers'. </P>
    1744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1738
    17451739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are seen as a burden and a threat by the 'winners'. </P>
    1746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1740
    17471741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result is disparity in society.</P>
    1748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1742
    17491743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience in most affluent nations suggests that despite the enabling environment created by free market democracy, up to a quarter of the population finds itself unable to perform effectively, and is marginalised as a result. Moreover, there seems to be an upward trend in the numbers affected by unemployment, underemployment and poverty. Disparity never occurs without some cost to society, which is a good reason why it ought to be minimised. The costs come mainly in the form of internal transfers earned (but foregone) by the active, 'winning' section of society. In more sociallyinspired, free market democracies, it is accepted that marginalisation resulting from the model's shortcomings must be minimised and/or adequately compensated for. In more conservative free market democracies, exclusion is seen more as a weakness of individuals than of the system. Compensatory transfers are generally kept to a minimum to induce people to 'break out' of their situation. But while such societies may save on 'empathetic' transfers, they will generally need to spend much more of their wealth defending against threats posed by growing disparity, such as crime, drug-trafficking and political extremism.</P>
    1750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1744
    17511745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of disparity are political as well as financial. Genuine democracy is based on the participation of a representative majority of citizens. In affluent societies, however, a growing minority no longer participates. The real danger stems from the fact that this is highly skewed. It is the same, growing, marginalised minority that is 'unable' to participate which is also withdrawing from democratic involvement. The result is alienation from the political system and an erosion of democracy to the extent that its very survival may be threatened.</P>
    1752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1746
    17531747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is really at stake </P>
    1754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1748
    17551749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having conquered most of the world's nations, free market capitalism is now set to conquer the world of nations, helped by technological advances in communications, transport and computer technology. Economists have amply shown that the interdependence resulting from free international competition need not be detrimental. Indeed, because global capitalism ensures that ideas, initiatives and resources can be 'put to work' anywhere in the world - wherever they generate most profit - interdependence is usually seen as mutually beneficial. In essence, it confirms what might be called the global enabling effect of free-market capitalism. The basic thesis is that the adoption by less affluent nations of free market democracy should 'enable' many more of them to improve the lives of their people in the coming decades. The boost engendered by this 'enabling effect' will, in turn, help to sustain progress in the more affluent countries.</P>
    1756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1750
    17571751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the aim, then a new vision should progressively inspire future cooperation between the affluent and less affluent countries. The first concern should be to define 'purpose' and 'interest' much more in terms of system and process, than of output. What really matters is the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy in the specific context of the less affluent countries. How something is achieved and by whom should take precedence over what is achieved. The ultimate aim must be to ensure that free-market democracy 'takes root' in less affluent nations and is able to determine who does what and how.</P>
    1758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1752
    17591753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second major concern should be to maximise the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy for the most vulnerable sections of individual populations. As mentioned earlier, up to a quarter of the people in affluent societies are excluded. In poorer countries, the figure is much higher. If free market democracy fails to enable a significant proportion of this marginalised group, then it will not take root. And if the poor cannot be mobilised, the  growth that does occur will be highly skewed, leading to growing disparity.</P>
    1760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1754
    17611755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third point is to ensure that the 'global enabling' effect of free market capitalism does not become the exclusive preserve of deregulated capital and the 'winners' who control it, leading to new forms of exploitation and disparity. The concern must be to find a way of directing the combined forces of 'capitalism without borders' and 'democracy within borders' in such a way that it leads to a genuinely better world in which the number of 'losers' is dropping and disparities are diminishing.</P>
    1762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1756
    17631757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A historic perspective</P>
    1764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1758
    17651759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is useful at this stage to take a look at the history of capitalism. Freemarket democracy delivered affluence to about a third of the global population over the last century mainly because of the 'accommodation' between labour and capital in an enabling environment created by 'Fordist' mass-production and consumption. A similar accommodation is now needed to enable global free market democracy to extend material wellbeing to the remaining two thirds of the (continually growing) world population, while at the same time sustaining it among the existing affluent third. It is no longer an accommodation between capitalists and workers that is required, however, but one between the affluent and the less affluent.</P>
    1766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1760
    17671761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordism basically transformed the 'interdependent' stake of capital and labour in the economic pie, into a 'joint stake' - leading to the production of a larger pie. By analogy, what is needed today is to ensure that affluent and less affluent societies develop a joint stake in the production of a larger 'global pie' as a result of new technologies and more efficient, globalised modes of production. Attracting and sustaining capitalist investment in such modes will increasingly depend on demand and consumption structures which guarantee that poorer societies share with affluent ones the benefits of such global production systems. In the same way that a larger 'mess-produced pie' was dependent on higher and more   equitable mass consumption, so will a larger 'globally-produced pie' depend increasingly on higher and more equitable global consumption. In this context, the principal policy aim of development cooperation should be to ensure that growth resulting from globalisationis both enabling and disparity-reducing.</P>
    1768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1762
    17691763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disabling effect of</P>
    17701764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'poor' competition</P>
    1771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1765
    17721766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Driven by the powerful motive of capital accumulation, globalisation has the tendency to promote competition. In principle, this should be a good thing, but left unchanneled, it can have negative effects. One might draw an analogy between the conquering of the global market and the spread of water during a flood. The water always takes the easiest route, entering the most vulnerable areas first where it causes the most damage. Likewise, globalization, fueled by 'deregulated' capital, often tends to promote competition where it is easiest, but where it is not necessarily beneficial. This is the case, for example, in less affluent countries, where poverty is exploited to achieve what might be dubbed a 'poor' competitive advantage - in the sense that it is based on disparity, but also in that, far from 'enabling', it may actually have the opposite effect. Child labour, sex tourism, environmentally destructive tourism, tropical forms logging, the export of industrial pollution and misuse of intellectual property are all examples of 'disabling' competition resulting from global disparity. In a rapidly globalising world this is ultimately damaging to all concerned, which is why both affluent and less affluent nations have an interest in reducing the gap.</P>
    1773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1767
    17741768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of this points to the need for a major redefinition of society's role in general and of aid in particular. During the colonial and Cold War periods, development cooperation was progressively uprooted and alienated from society. Serving an increasingly complex and non-transparent agenda, it became more and more a 'cockpit' affair, piloted by a small specialised crew - and it  found itself flying higher and higher above society. In short, affluent society lost touch with development cooperation and aid. Occasionally, the media intervened to 're-establish contact' but the result was that development aid usually only attracted mainstream public attention when things had gone terribly wrong.</P>
    1775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1769
    17761770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning vision into action</P>
    1777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1771
    17781772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the aim is to have affluent and less affluent society working together to ensure that the latter adopts 'free market democracy'- and can adapt it in a way which benefits both - it is vital that the former be reconnected to the business of development cooperation. The affluent must be challenged to help transform their less affluent partners, in the interested and creative manner of a minority stakeholder. They must be ready to share the wealth of knowledge and experience generated in their own process of development. Representatives of all walks of affluent life should therefore be provided with greater opportunity for dialogue and cooperation with their less affluent counterparts. Increasingly easy and cheap communications and transport should facilitate this. This new form of stakeholdership will not happen, however, unless affluent society can be imbued with the new vision.</P>
    1779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1773
    17801774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors should actively support the process. Instead of spending most of their time and resources determining the scope and content of development cooperation, they should step down from their cockpit. Their new role should be as brokers and facilitators of cooperation. An initial priority must be to extol the vision itself. As this gathers momentum, they should then turn to 'brokering' it in practice - acting as a catalyst between the affluent and less affluent in order to facilitate 'enabling' cooperation between them. The development of an effective brokerage profile and methodology will probably entail important changes in the way that donors work. They need to move much closer to their  constituency, and to be made democratically accountable again.</P>
    1781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1775
    17821776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned earlier, the concept of enabling cooperation concentrates on who does what, and how. Essentially, therefore, it should be seeking to mobilise democratic and free market forces in less affluent societies. The advantage of working this way is that change and progress will be determined primarily from within the society in question - with cooperation as a source of encouragement. Such an approach also entails acceptance of the fact that the pace of progrms must be left much more to the enabling forces of the maturing democracies and free markets, however weak and imperfect these may still appear. Indeed, the central purpose of cooperation should be to help these fore" become stronger. To achieve this, cooperation will need to move away from an emphasis on engineering outputs to one which involves 'messaging' the system and process. And it is not just methodologies that need to be altered; there must also be a radical change in cooperation mentality. Thus, for example, donors should attempt to broker cooperation which is 'small but smart'. Advancing 'best practice' might be another creative way to pursue cooperation which is enabling. And while some output-related decision techniques can still be used, these must be creatively reshaped to support a more 'enabling' approach.</P>
    1783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1777
    17841778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, this enabling vision entails an awareness of the imperfections of free-market democracy, combined with a conviction that it offers enormous potential for the less affluent countries of the world. 'Recompromising' development aid for the future will mean reshaping it to support a process of adoption and adaptation of free market democracy in less affluent countries which is highly 'enabling'. The result should be a system of international solidarity which is working for free-market democracy, rather than as a substitute for it.</P>
    1785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1779
    17861780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J.</P>
    1787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1781
    17881782<B><P></P>
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    1796 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1790</B>
    17971791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Dieter Frisch</P>
    1798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1792
    17991793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption - defined as 'the abuse of public power for personal ends' - has always existed. During recent decades, however, it has grown both in terms of geographic extent and intensity. Since the mid 1970s, it has infiltrated virtually every country in the world.</P>
    1800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1794
    18011795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was hoped that the easing of political and economic restrictions that characterised the 1990s after the end of the Cold War would have gone some way to reducing this phenomenon. Through increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, the process of democratisation should, under normal circumstances, mobilise efforts to overcome corruption. However, emergent democracies are still fragile and seem to find the task of tackling established self interests a formidable one.</P>
    1802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1796
    18031797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By reducing state intervention and therefore the opportunities for corruption, economic liberalisation should improve matters. In the short term, however, the opposite would appear to be true. Weakened state structures, a lack of appropriate legislation, powerlessness on the part of the judicial system to combat corruption, the pursuit of easy money - mistakenly perceived by some as being equivalent to a market economy - all these factors together contribute to aggravating the phenomenon, at least in the transitional stages. Such a state of affairs cannot fail to have some effect on those who are involved in and concerned by development issues.</P>
    1804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1798
    18051799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needless to say, corruption and its effects can be seen from a multitude of viewpoints. There is always the ethical angle - but how can we possibly presume to preach to countries of the South and East when bribery is just as rife in the North and when, as far as corruption within international economic relations is concerned, it is in fact, virtually by definition, the North who is the corrupter and the South and East who are the corrupted ? The only possible reply to such an argument - and one which is morally disputable even though economically valid - would be that the rich North can afford the luxury of wasting some of its wealth whereas in the case of developing countries, their sparse financial resources need to be used in the best way possible! Other lines of reasoning emphasise the distortions that corruption causes in the fair application of conditions of competition by penalising successful, yet honest, undertakings.</P>
    1806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1800
    18071801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major obstacle in the path of development</P>
    1808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1802
    18091803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In my opinion, corruption should be approached from the point of view of the effects it has on development. I say this because long professional experience has taught me that corruption is one of the major obstacles to progress, and that its effects on development are disastrous.</P>
    1810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1804
    18111805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people would no doubt counter this assertion with the 'cultural' argument whereby they would have us believe that, in certain cultures, corruption is quite normal and morally acceptable. Well I do not know of a single place on earth where growing rich through taking bribes is considered lawful or morally acceptable! I should like to quote Olusegun Obansanjo,  former President of Nigeria, on the subject: 'In the African concept of appreciation and hospitality, a gift is a token. It is not demanded. The value is in the spirit of the giving, not the material worth. The gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where the gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned. If anything, corruption has perverted the positive aspects of this age-old tradition'.</P>
    1812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1806
    18131807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are the cynics - including renowned professors - who claim that corruption oils the wheels of progress and enables development to take place. In this respect again, and putting all ethical aspects aside, it would be worthwhile distinguishing between the small baksheesh which 'helps' certain administrative procedures along ('acceleration fees') and large-scale corruption which perverts the course of de  velopment. This does not of course mean that we should underestimate the destructive effects that even small-scale corruption can have on society!</P>
    1814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1808
    18151809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet others have simply resigned themselves to the situation. For them, corruption is intrinsically linked to underdevelopment. As long as a person's normal income does not provide him with a decent living, the door will always be open to bribes. It is, therefore, through development that we should be attempting to eradicate corruption. Yet this argument is reminiscent of the debate on the population explosion. It is only through development, some say, that the problems of population growth will be resolved. But by then, the planet will be inexorably overpopulated! In my opinion, the same argument is just as valid as far as corruption is concerned. We simply cannot wait for it to be stamped out through development. (In any case, development is hardly a miracle cure: true, we have the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong where corruption is extremely uncommon, but we could also mention Italy, where it was precisely at the height of the country's development that corruption became the norm). We must act therefore, and without delay, focusing our efforts on eradicating large-scale corruption.</P>
    1816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1810
    18171811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we analyse some of the effects that corruption has on development, the first thing we notice is that it increases the cost of goods and services, and not insignificantly either. Although a 5% reduction in the profit margin might, at a pinch, be absorbed by the supplier, corruption levels of 10% to 20%, which have become commonplace, will inevitably be reflected in the price and will, consequently, be paid for through the national or foreign (in the case of foreign aid) resources of a country. It is therefore the national economy that ultimately suffers the consequences of an unjustified surcharge on the goods or services, with the difference being pocketed by some government official or politician who has abused his power for his own personal gain. Given that such operations are generally financed by bank  loans or, in the case of foreign aid, by concessional loans, these surcharges inevitably bring about a proportionate increase in that country's debts. In fact it is now assumed that the exchange value of sums paid out in backhanders makes up a considerable proportion of the foreign debts of developing countries.</P>
    1818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1812
    18191813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the damaging effects of such practices do not stop there. The corrupt decision-maker may well be tempted to accept a substandard quality of service which will make his personal profit all the greater. Thus, with a road building project for example, complicity between government departments and contractors may result in corner-cutting with regard to agreed standards of quality so that the savings made may be shared out between the two parties.</P>
    1820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1814
    18211815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At their very worst, the disastrous effects of corruption mean that the conception of a project, and ultimately its very choice, are determined by corruption. As far as conception is concerned, a good example would be the purchase of a technology which is wholly unsuited to the particular needs of a country or the choice of a capital intensive project - more lucrative in terms of corruption - rather than a labour-intensive one which would nevertheless be far more beneficial to that nation's development.</P>
    1822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1816
    18231817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The absolute peak of perversion, however, is when the very choice of priorities - and therefore of projects - is determined by corruption. What we are referring to here are those situations in which the real development priorities of a country are neglected in favour of operations which generate the greatest personal gain for the decision-makers. At this point I would like to quote R&eacute;mi Godeau, writing in Jeune Afrique: 'These currency-guzzling abortive projects have become a graveyard of white elephants. Africa is littered with vast deserted motorways which are being eroded by the Savannah, with fully functional but empty factories which have been left to fall into ruin only a few years after they were opened, with railway lines which are now impassable  through a lack of maintenance, and with hydroelectric dams abandoned because they cost too much to run'. Let us pick up on the point about empty factories. These 'follies of development' are to be found in many developing countries and in Africa in particular. Some have never produced, others have failed to reach full production capacity while others still face such prohibitive costs that big state subsidies are needed to keep them going. If we follow the thread right back to the beginning we find, more often than not, that factories have been sold without ensuring real competition between suppliers. Admittedly, such projects usually have only private-sector backing (they are rarely financed through official aid), but the funding is nonetheless backed by state-controlled bodies. The existence of corruption in such cases must be more than mere presumption - what other reason could there be for making decisions which run so counter to the interests of development ? In his work 'Grand Corruption in Third World Development', George Moody-Stuart identified those areas which are especially vulnerable to corruption. These are most notably, the procurement of military and other   technically sophisticated equipment, and large-scale works (in other words, any major, capital-intensive project and any scheme where objective valuation and comparison is hampered because of the technical sophistication involved).</P>
    1824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1818
    18251819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worthwhile mentioning at this point that a country which borrows money to finance projects that do not satisfy its real needs, and which may indeed be considered economically futile or absurd, will see its debt burden increase - and not simply by the 10% to 20% that is used to fund 'backhanders'. The loss will ultimately be 100% if one views it in terms of the cost of the unproductive investment to the national economy. Discussions about the debts of developing countries rarely focus on the mechanisms which have produced these debts. Yet in most cases, they have become unserviceable on account of the ineffective use of overseas aid - the sort of bad management to which corruption contributes considerably.</P>
    1826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1820
    18271821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is more, by deflecting the sparse resources which do exist towards non-priority or low-priority areas, corruption contributes to a large extent to ensuring that fundamental needs such as food, health and education, are not met. It is therefore one of the causes of under development and of poverty in general. Needless to say, official aid is often called upon to make good the deficit left by the irresponsible management of otherwise available resources. Is it any surprise if, in the long run, public opinion in the countries of the North begins to grow weary of bridging gaps which efficient management of resources should never have allowed to appear in the first place ? How are we to convince European taxpayers that it is they who need to provide the money to fund bush clinics in countries which put their funds in prestige projects, if not directly into Swiss bank accounts?</P>
    1828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1822
    18291823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vicious circle that must be broken</P>
    1830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1824
    18311825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effectively, we find ourselves in a 'catch-22'situation. Corruption is one of the causes of under development and poverty, yet poverty is in part responsible for its continuation. If a person cannot earn an honest living for himself and his family, then he is more or less forced into earning it by less honest means. Hence corruption is both the cause and the consequence of under development. In order to break the pattern we must therefore combat large-scale corruption inasmuch as it is a significant cause of underdevelopment and we must work gradually to eradicate the reasons for its propagation in society, and in particular to remedy the notorious lack of adequate income to ensure a decent standard of living.</P>
    1832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1826
    18331827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general terms, we can say that corruption also kills off the spirit of development. Nothing is more destructive to a society than the pursuit of 'a fast and easy buck' which makes honest people who work hard appear naive or foolish. That is why, in the context of economic reforms under the heading of 'structural adjustment', it is vital that the model advocated be one of a market economy based on a sound framework of legislation and on an efficient state. It should not allow free rein to the sort of ruthless capitalism which is aimed at immediate profit at all costs. The example of certain transition countries in the East, where a market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the Mafia and corruption, really should make us stop and think.</P>
    1834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1828
    18351829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the final analysis, an economy undermined by corruption has the effect of discouraging potential foreign investors and public donors. Yet if development is to succeed, countries have to be able to attract a flow of capital. As Serge Michailof put it: 'Success attracts money. Waste, failure and chaos drive it away'. And although investors are very keen to do business, with the exception of a few opportunists, they all look for host countries that have a stable and predictable climate. Entrepreneurs have been known to withdraw from certain African countries - which are nevertheless rich in resources - because of the constraints imposed on them by corruption on a scale which they considered to be unacceptable. As for public donors, they are increasingly reluctant to offer financial aid to those countries that manage their own resources poorly. It is precisely this failing which is one of the causes of what we now refer to as 'aid fatigue'. Financial aid institutions should go as far as suspending their cooperation in blatant cases of corruption and bad management, just as they do in cases of serious violation of human rights. Conversely, 'good governance' should be the determining factor when allocating aid, and it would appear that Article 5 of the revised Lom&eacute; IV Convention does in fact foresee such an approach.</P>
    1836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1830
    18371831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, far from reserving the foregoing criticisms for countries of the South, I believe that the partners of the North have their part to play in the ravages wrought by corruption, be it only as a result of the inconsistencies between their development cooperation policies and their export promotion policies. Basing our assumptions on the principle that cooperation efforts are genuinely motivated by concerns for development - and I can attest that this is precisely the motivation behind the policies of the European Union, which I have served for a great many years - we should not forget that Western countries have a tendency to promote exports, by other means, without any consideration for the effects this has in terms of development. They thus contribute to the dishonest practices which we have been discussing. The fact that they tolerate, or even go as far as to encourage corruption as a means of promoting exports - restricting the application of the criminal law to acts committed on their own territory and allowing corruption to be taxdeductible under the heading of 'necessary expenses' - seems to me to be absolutely scandalous. In the AlortR too, the battle against the canker of international corruption is a formidable one. But it is a fight to which we are committed in the context of 'Transparency International' This NGO, which was created in 1993, makes its services available to any country which genuinely wishes to eradicate the scourge of corruption. </P>
    1838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1832
    18391833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> D.F. </P>
    1840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1841 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1834
     1835<B>
    18421836<!--
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    1850 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1844</B>
    18511845<B><P></P>
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    1858 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1852</B>
    18591853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Phllippe Dejace</P>
    1860 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1854
    18611855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terms like 'democracy' and 'sustainable development' are increasingly used to keep donors happy, and to present new development projects in the most favourable possible light. With this in mind, it is interesting to look at an example from 'the field' to see how genuine the commitment actually is. Adherence to these concepts has undoubtedly made a positive contribution to environmental protection, but there is also a negative side</P>
    1862 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1856
    18631857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1989, the Zakouma National Park in south-east Chad has been undergoing restoration in a   programme supported by the KU. Devastated by a decade of conflict, this wildlife sanctuary of nearly 3000 square kiLom&eacute;tres was little more than a huge graveyard in 1986 when Pierre Pfeffer of the Paris Natural History Museum visited it and decided to campaign for its restoration. Today, this is recognised to have been a sensible decision. It is acknowledged that wildlife are better off when they have a reasonably large area in which to live, away from human activity. Aerial counts made in 1986, 1991 and 1995 confirm that animal numbers are on the increase in the park and that irreversible destruction has been averted. Currently, Zakouma is the only area effectively being protected in Chad. The other designated sites (one park and seven reservations) remain impoverished and in a state of near devastation.</P>
    1864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1858
    18651859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognising the challenge</P>
    1866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1860
    18671861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One should not be lulled into complacency. Even when a process involving local village communities is initiated, the low standard of living of the inhabitants, their educational level, and the progressive deterioration of vegetation around protected areas in  variably make the latter a tempting 'target'. In these circumstances, it is very hard to preserve their integrity. At Zakouma, a busy time lies ahead. The local people must be educated and informed as quickly as possible. This presents us with the first hurdle given the inadequacy of the education sector. The Ministry of Education is underfunded and with growing numbers of pupils in the system, it is virtually impossible to plan special programmes aimed at increasing awareness of this particular problem.</P>
    1868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1862
    18691863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other reasons why there should be short-term investment in this sector. There are good arguments for preserving a few control sites while the awareness programme is under way, since these will one day serve to illustrate what can be achieved. It is also much less difficult to preserve an area than to try to reconstitute it, once desertification has set in. The site is part of the national heritage whose value can only increase. Moreover, in most cases, the protected areas ensure the survival of fish stocks in lakes and rivers downstream and act as a reservoir for game: many of the animals which breed there provide food for the people living at the zone's edges. Even frequent wholesale slaughter of wildlife, as happens during a war, is reversible if the vegetation remains intact.</P>
    1870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1864
    18711865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the park is cut off from human activity (the area is flooded and therefore closed, to all intents and purpose, for four months of the year), it has an uncertain future. It faces pressure  from itinerant herdsmen and poachers, the latter tracking giraffe right up to the outskirts of Zakouma village, which is in the middle of the park. Although located in a wildlife reserve of 20 000 km2 - which is supposed to be a buffer zone - the park is not truly protected because human activity inside the reserve is not controlled. In the dry season, the park teems with wildlife. A clear density gradient has been identified with the animal population dropping as you move from the centre to the periphery. Indeed, only about a third of the 3000 km2 is intensively exploited by the wildlife which lives there - and even this area is relatively insecure.</P>
    1872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1866
    18731867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enclosure would give those who are keen to defend the park a grace period in which to set up long-term awareness strategies. Ironically, one danger results from the striking democratisation that has taken place in Chad. To win votes, some politicians have called for the bans applying to the park to be lifted. This approach has the potential to succeed because, owing to shortfalls in the education system, the electorate is insufficiently mature in political terms. Another factor is that traditional leaders, seeing their power progressively diminish, are inclined to 'revolt'. Thus, they may fail to intervene when stockmen deliberately invade the park, encouraged by demagogues in search of votes. When the grasslands are invaded by cattle, few wild animals can compete and they are forced to retreat to the central area of the park. Against this background of a need for urgent action, the Zakouma Park team is concentrating its awareness-raising efforts on traditional leaders and the administrative authorities - rather than on teaching schoolchildren about environmental protection (although such a campaign is also envisaged).</P>
    1874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1868
    18751869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation ?</P>
    1876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1870
    18771871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some argue that setting up a 'sustainable and participation-based development' strategy would make it possible to avoid the situation that now exists in Zakouma. The idea behind such a strategy - which clearly has its   attractions - is that man is perfectly capable of managing his native territory. All that is needed is for him to be granted land and to receive support for his initiatives. Many who espouse this approach continue to despatch teams to demonstrate that this is the ideal response. Unfortunately, in the particularly complicated case of managing the environment on the fringes of a national park, the local people are usually reluctant to make the investment. The more normal inclination is to reap a short-term profit from resources that are within reach. The inhabitants are also tired of the lectures they get from specialists who visit for just a few hours. The scope of the problem is such that expertise needs to be available on an ongoing basis. Considerable resources are also needed to ensure.that the effort is sustained.</P>
    1878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1872
    18791873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not easy to halt environmental destruction in a market economy which has overturned traditional values and gives priority to increasing personal wealth and consumption. A natural environment's potential for exploitation is always limited. Yet stock-rearing involves the use of animals 'selected' over thousands of years to take maximum advantage of the least scrap of vegetation. By contrast, a wild animal is much more selective and never ruins the environment it exploits. It may even be able to adapt its reproductive cycle to the available food resources! We are nowhere near this situation in domestic stockbreeding!</P>
    1880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1874
    18811875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is where 'sustainable development', which sounds highly reassuring, appears at odds with reality. Beyond a certain threshold, one cannot avoid depleting the resource. If one is to adopt an approach that involves the population actively, one must acknowledge that their response may fall short of what is needed. Indeed, they may do things which provoke migration, and are thus damaging. Thus, for example, the opening-up of a water source may attract more nomadic herdsman, thereby undermining rather than enhancing the surrounding area.</P>
    1882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1876
    18831877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Awareness programme</P>
    1884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1878
    18851879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most significant step towards protecting the park would be to ease population pressure, but progress in this area is very limited. We can only wait for the birthrate to decrease; something which invariably happens as a country develops. But what will become of the national parks in the meantime ? In Zakouma, an eco-development team is currently listening to the villagers' claims. As elsewhere, an attempt is being made to gain time. Unfortunately, the current climate of transparency in Chad, which is one of the positive aspects of democratisation and should be a major asset, has not had much impact in this area. The awareness programme suffers from a serious lack of trained workers and when meetings are held, they usually turn into interminable discussions, simply increasing the level of frustration. On the other hand, a convincing discussion-leader can advance matters considerably and discussion is surely the right approach to adopt. Furthermore, the process must lead to concrete results. Otherwise, decisions taken may end up being postponed indefinitely because they conflict with the interests of political decision-makers.</P>
    1886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1880
    18871881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the difficulties, the Zakouma team is placing heavy reliance on this desire for transparency. Although the project's initial aims have essentially been to restore infrastructures and thereby promote an increase in wildlife, the addition of an ecodevelopment aspect and ecological monitoring has made it possible to create an important 'reservoir' of knowledge. A computerized map of the vegetation has been produced with the help of a microlight equipped with a GPS (satellite positioning) system. There have also been aerial inventories tracking the seasonal density and distribution of wildlife, as well as in-depth sociological surveys in the villages most hostile to the park's existence. This major database makes it possible to organise meetings, conferences and discussions to demonstrate that the park's contribution is greater than it seems. One big frustration for local people living on the  park's fringes concerns the redistribution of the income it generates. Looking first at tourism, Chad hardly qualifies as a major holiday destination and those who do visit the park are too few to make a significant contribution (the income raised barely covers the cost of replacing their bedlinen !)</P>
    1888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1882
    18891883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One interesting conclusion has been drawn from studies of the animal distribution in the different seasons. It appears that when pressure from nomadic herdsman is at its strongest, during the dry season, the wildlife take refuge in the park and numbers multiply in safety. When the stockmen return northward, the wild animals then go beyond the park boundaries where they are hunted and eaten by villagers. This is surely a form of income redistribution! Moreover, many young fish in the park's only river (the bahr Salamat), take advantage of the flooding of the area during the rains. This releases huge volumes of nutrients back into the ecosystem. In the park, the fish are safe from the fishermen who work downstream and they can swim back to their spawning grounds. This guarantees the renewal of stocks depleted during the dry season. The level of fish stocks in Lake Iro - and probably in the River Chari as well - is thus linked to the existence of the Zakouma Park! When this version of income redistribution is explained, it often helps to convince traditional leaders who then use their influence to limit incursions by stockmen or poachers. However, a lot remains to be done because demographic pressure and standards of living both make it more difficult to get the message across.</P>
    1890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1884
    18911885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We know that excessive human activity always results in environmental deterioration. Zakouma, although under pressure, has been 'spared' to some extent, and as such, it represents an important resource. But some see it as a luxury and it faces a suspended death sentence. If people stop regarding its conservation as something that is necessary, the sentence will end up being carried out. In my opinion, the most reliable way of guaranteeing its preservation would be to enclose it completely.</P>
    1892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1886
    18931887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.H.D. </P>
    1894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1895 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1888
     1889<B>
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    1904 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1898</B>
    19051899<B><P></P>
    19061900<!--
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    1912 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1906</B>
    19131907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Agostino Ambrogetti</P>
    1914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1908
    19151909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 22nd annual General Assembly of European Development Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and a thematic conference entitled 'A Europe open to the world', were held in Brussels from 18 - 20 April. Representatives of more than 800 NGOs attended, with the Assembly adopting 14 resolutions as well as issuing specific appeals on the European Union's Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) and on Lebanon. The Assembly renewed its approval of the development NGOs' 'Strategic Priorities', adopted the Work Plan for the 1996-98 period, and looked at the overall impact of the Lom&eacute; Convention with an eye to likely future developments. The subsequent Conference focused, among other things, on the issue of coherence between the EU's development cooperation and its other policies (notably trade and agriculture). </P>
    1916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1910
    19171911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general impression that emerged from the two events was that the NGO movement was attaching increasing importance to its role as advocate for the developing countries. A fundamental aspect of this is the ongoing dialogue that NGOs have with the European institutions, and the lobbying they carry out on policy issues. Commission representatives who spoke at the Assembly indicated their understanding and appreciation of this. For example, Development Commissioner, Jao de Deus Pinheiro, referred warmly to 'the very active role played by the NGO community in the debate on the mid-term revision of the Lom&eacute; Convention,' and acknowledged that the NGOs had mounted an 'important political lobby' in favour of increased funding for the next five-year period.</P>
    1918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1912
    19191913<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner was keen to emphasise the complementarily that existed between the European Commission and the NGO movement in support of emerging societies in the South. He also urged his audience to continue in their task of challenging the general apathy towards development cooperation. This, he said, entailed appealing directly to public opinion in order to influence political leaders.</P>
    1920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1914
    19211915<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similar tone was adopted by Bernard Ryelandt, who heads the unit responsible for cofinancing NGO projects in the Commission's development directorate-general (DG VIII) He spoke of the 'decisive' action of European NGOs in balancing other lobbies such as the agricultural one. This, he believed, had the effect of improving the coherence of EU policies.</P>
    1922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1916
    19231917<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Delegates from a number of countries set out their views on the advocacy issue, and what they saw as the growing NGO role in this area. Andy Rutherford from the United Kingdom said that he saw increased lobbying as necessary, complementing the work carried out in the field through development projects. He pointed out that Southern NGOs had themselves requested their Northern partners to pressurise European governments in the hope that the latter would adopt external policies more favourable to the developing world. Mr Rutherford also raised the thorny question of structural adjustment. The view that adjustment policies were not succeeding in eradicating poverty, had, he said, been acknowledged by the EU's Development Council in its resolution adopted in June 1995. With this in mind, the NGOs would be raising the issue with the World Bank and the IMF - where the EU Member States are among the most substantial contributors.</P>
    1924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1918
    19251919<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guido Barbera, who headed the Italian delegation to the Assembly, took up this point, calling for more pressure to be exerted on the Bretton Woods institutions by European NGOs and indeed, by the European Commission itself. This was necessary, he believed, to promote coherent macroeconomic policies favouring the development of economic relationships with the less-developed countries. In more general terms, Mr Barbera applauded the growing NGO participation in the political arena, stating that this was both 'positive' and fundamental'. </P>
    1926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1920
    19271921<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Liaison</P>
    1928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1922
    19291923<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Committee's work</P>
    1930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1924
    19311925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A document was presented to the Conference by the NGDO-EU Liaison Committee containing an evaluation of its activities. The aim, in drawing up the document, was to 'review and critically assess the work and organization of the Committee, and evaluate whether it meets the expectations of its stake holders.' In order to do this, NGO members were consulted through questionnaires.</P>
    1932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1926
    19331927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The evaluation revealed that support for the Liaison Committee as the representative umbrella organization of European NGOs remains strong, although there is widespread uncertainty about the future. This is reflected in the perception that the Committee has   gradually been losing momentum. There were also some doubts expressed about its representativeness. Large NGOs, it was noted, were able to spread their efforts across different networks. The fact that small NGOs tended not to be involved in the Committee emerged as one of the critical issues for discussion.</P>
    1934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1928
    19351929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attention was also focused on the alleged weakness of many national platforms (the documents containing proposals drawn up by the various national NGO assemblies) in representing the aspirations of their member organizations. This issue, and the question of voting on resolutions without debating the documents in question gave rise to controversy. Some delegates boycotted the vote while others submitted a written protest and there is clearly some demand for reforms designed to make the Assembly's procedures more democratic.</P>
    1936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1930
    19371931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General conditions of cm  financing</P>
    1938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1932
    19391933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another highly topical subject on the Assembly's agenda was the proposed revision of the General Conditions for the Co-financing of NGO </P>
    1940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1934
    19411935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects in Developing Countries. Commission speakers who touched on this subject included Professor Pinheiro and Jacob Houtman who is a Director in DG VIII Both referred to the revision process that was currently under way, and emphasised the higher priority that would be attached to capacity building for Southern NGOs. This involves providing support to strengthen the organisational structure of the bodies in question, and to improve the skills of their staff in managing and implementing projects. Such an approach is now recognised as essential for the long-term sustainability of NGO activities. As Mr Houtman was keen to stress, the principles underpinning the KU-NGO relationship (recognition of NGO independence and specificity, freedom of initiative for European NGOs in cooperation with their Southern partners) would be safeguarded in the revised conditions. Other priorities to be set out in the conditions would include the promotion </P>
    1942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1936
    19431937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notice at the site of a non governmental organisation in</P>
    19441938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe devoted to improving agricultural productivity</P>
    19451939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Crucial to provide more institutional support for Southem</P>
    19461940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs' of democracy and human rights through reinforced structures of civil society, and a greater emphasis on the fight against poverty, income-generating activities and social development programmes. With these objectives in mind, it was all the more crucial to provide more institutional support for Southern NGOs. They, unlike their Northern partners, had a permanent presence in society in the developing countries.</P>
    1947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1941
    19481942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The revised general conditions would also reflect the new orientation which favours a long-term programme approach over the traditional project by-project method. This should lead to a reduced administrative burden, and benefit long-standing NGO partners who have demonstrated viable approaches in working with their Southern counterparts, as well as good management and accountability.</P>
    1949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1943
    19501944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'A Europe open to the world'</P>
    1951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1945
    19521946<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference which took place following the NGO General Assembly focused on assessing the coherence of different EU policies and on ways of achieving coherence where it might be lacking. As the title of the Conference suggests, the question which was never far from participants' minds was 'what sort of Europe is being created.' Is it a Europe which stands in solidarity with the South (and East), or is it one which retreats into its fortress, concerned only with its own prosperity ?</P>
    1953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1947
    19541948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, EU policy - or rather its mode of implementation - came in for criticism. It was claimed, on the bask of the experience of both European and Southern NGOs, that the principles of development cooperation set out in the Maastricht Treaty (Title XVII) were not being applied universally and consistently. These principles include the sustainable economic and social development of developing countries, their integration into the world economy, the fight against poverty, and the development and consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.</P>
    1955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1949
    19561950<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this connection, three specific discussion topics were selected: the EU's common foreign and security policy (CFSP), its common commercial and agriculture policies (CCP and CAP) and its immigration and asylum policy.</P>
    1957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1951
    19581952<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the first of these, it was suggested that the EU's definition of 'security' tended to be viewed solely in terms of common defence, and that the concept of 'human security' drawn up by the UNDP had been neglected. The latter seeks to define the concept on a broader basis including aspects such as equitable and sustainable development, as well as human rights and democracy. The view was also expressed that a more firm and coordinated CFSP was needed.</P>
    1959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1953
    19601954<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the second topic - trade and agriculture - there was a strong feeling that the policies of the EU (and the USA) were heavily weighted in favour of 'home' producers and that this had the effect of undermining local production and food security in the</P>
    1961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1955
    19621956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing countries. The Union was urged to remove the policy 'contradictions' that allowed this situation to arise bearing in mind the specificity and sensitivity of the food trade.</P>
    1963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1957
    19641958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, several speakers were highly critical of what they viewed as negative trends in the approach to immigration and asylum adopted by the EU and its Member States, with increasingly strict rules being implemented. There were also calls for measures designed to integrate resident migrants into society.</P>
    1965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1959
    19661960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, integration may well be seen as the key message to have emerged from the NGOs' gathering. The call was for the people and governments of the European Union, acting in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), to integrate the needs of the rest of the world's people into their actions and programmes. The talk was of common values of human rights and solidarity, in both internal and external polices. And it was clear from the commitment of those who attended that the NGOs are determined to maintain and strengthen their role - as active partners in the development of the South, as advocates for the developing countries and perhaps indeed as keepers of the European conscience.</P>
    1967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1961
    19681962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A.</P>
    1969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1963
    19701964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshops</P>
    1971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1965
    19721966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of the proceedings of the NGO General Assembly, three workshops were organised dealing with specific themes.</P>
    1973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1967
    19741968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop 1 was entitled Beyond Lom&eacute; IV. There was a general consensus among those taking part that the Convention's underlying philosophy helped to protect developing countries in today's global commercial environment. Without the Lom&eacute; system, it was felt that the ACP countries would have suffered even more from the deterioration in their terms of trade. With this in mind, the World Trade Organisation came in for criticism for its stance against regional preferential agreements (even if this does not apply to the least developed countries).</P>
    1975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1969
    19761970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major finding of Workshop 2, which dealt with Poverty in the North and the South, was that  poverty is the result of interactions at a global level - and is not 'nation specific'. It was therefore important to adopt a global approach in  seeking to tackle the causes of poverty, and to develop further North-South exchanges of experience for the benefit of both sides.</P>
    1977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1971
    19781972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third workshop was devoted to making the most of EU Presidencies. Here, the aim was to evaluate past experience of lobbying undertaken by the NGO community in those countries holding the EC Council Presidency, during the six-month period in question. The main recommendation to emerge was that more needed to be done in establishing contacts and exchanging information between the relevant national NGO communities. Such exchanges, it was felt, were needed before, during and after the six month Presidency period, in order to facilitate continuity of lobbying on key themes. </P>
    1979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1973
    19801974<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions </P>
    1981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1975
    19821976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Resolutions adopted by the NGO General Assembly, considerable emphasis was placed on human rights</P>
    1983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1977
    19841978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> issues, with texts being agreed on Nigeria, the peoples of the Western</P>
    1985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1979
    19861980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahara and the child sex 'industry'.</P>
    1987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1981
    19881982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade (in the widest sense of the word) also featured prominently. In addition to a general resolution on world trade, representatives passed motions on the arms trade, traffic in landmines and the production of the drug coca.</P>
    1989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1983
    19901984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also adopted were resolutions on preventive diplomacy, cooperation with Cuba, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership and the 'deterioration' of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. </P>
    1991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1985
    19921986<B><P></P>
    19931987<!--
    … …  
    19981992  </Description>
    19991993-->
    2000 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1994</B>
    20011995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Godfrey Karoro</P>
    2002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1996
    20031997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's government is under pressure to encourage greater African involvement in the predominantly white-run tourism industry, which is facing intense competition from neighbouring South Africa. 'Black participation in all sectors of tourism is a priority,' says Environment and Tourism Minister Chen Chimutengwende. 'Blacks have waited in the wings long enough,' he adds, 'and their entry on to centre stage is inevitable. The solution lies in nurturing black entrepreneurship and giving it the material and technical backup to ensure its growth.'</P>
    2004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1998
    20051999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only 38 of the country's 436 tour operators are indigenous, and most focus on provision of goods and services, particularly transport. African interest in the business was kindled last year when the government identified tourism as one of the sectors which could benefit from an international $74 million credit facility. This prompted enquiries from  about 500 potential entrepreneurs. Interest was heightened during the election campaign earlier this year, when President Mugabe's government made an issue of the continuing economic domination of the white community which constitutes  less than 1% of the country's 11 million population.</P>
    2006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2000
    20072001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Chimutengwende pledged support for greater black participation, but the government itself is under fire for not doing enough. 'We have a time-bomb and the government should do something about it quickly before it explodes,' says Colin Blythe-Wood, managing director of a tour company and chairman of the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO), referring to the black-white imbalance in the whole economy. 'We are indeed fortunate that this industry, which has perhaps the greatest potential in our economy, is still in its infancy,' he says. He argues that the government holds the trump card, through its ownership of vast tracts of land in national parks, forests and communal areas.</P>
    2008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2002
    20092003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1994 Zatso report identified more than 100 sites on state-owned land suitable for development by African tourism ventures. At least half, says Mr Blythe-Wood, were in areas of abundant wildlife, including the 'big five' - elephant, lion, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and buffalo. Other opportunities could be provided he suggests, if the National Park service got out of the accommodation business and concentrated on flora and fauna conservation. 'The government cannot be a referee and a player at the same time. It should sell off its shares in the Rainbow Tourism Group' - a wholly-owned government company which is the third largest operator in the tourism sector.</P>
    2010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2004
    20112005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the industry's problems is that South Africa, too, has found tourism to be an unexpectedly good economic performer. Arrivals there rose by 50% in 1995, and a new government discussion document suggests that tourism could double its foreign exchange earnings by the year 2000 and triple its contribution to national income. South Africa's parks and beaches are well developed, but entrepreneurs are also fostering attractions such as Boer War battle sites and 'Road to Freedom' tours in which visitors have breakfast with former freedom fighters.</P>
    2012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2006
    20132007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that South Africa will be the regional hub for visitors, siphonino off  most of the earnings, with</P>
    2014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2008
    20152009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe merely getting the overspill from short side-trips.</P>
    20162010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zatso chief executive, Elias Nyakuni, points out that South</P>
    … …  
    20192013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lovemore Chihota, who runs a booming Victoria Falls safari business, has shown the way. He admits that there is a lot of money to be made from tourism, but warns that careful preparation is needed, as well as determination, commitment and, a realisation that there are no quick returns. He also points to the need to have some equity. 'The promoter,' he stresses, 'must put his money where his mouth is.'</P>
    20202014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> G.K.</P>
    2021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
    2022 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2015
     2016<B>
    20232017<!--
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    2031 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2025</B>
    20322026<B><P></P>
    20332027<!--
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    2039 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2033</B>
    20402034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important exhibitions of African art, the Biennial Festival of Conternporary African Art, opened its doors to the public in Dakar, Senegal, on 8 May 1996. The 'Pan-African Art Exhibition', as it is still called, was being staged for the third time although it almost failed to take place at all, having been postponed several times over the last four years. All those who participated - from the artists who exhibited to the directors of art galleries and cultural  institions - were pleasantly surprised. The next edition of me Courier will include a more comprehensive account of the exhibition.</P>
    2041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2035
    20422036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Abdou Diouf of Senegal inaugurated the event at the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in the company of a number of VlPs, including BartoLom&eacute; Amat Armengol who represented the European Commission. The Commission was Dak'Art 96's main financial partner providing support to the tune of CFAF 200 million (ECU 300 000 approx). The Biennial Festival aims to be a showcase for African artists allowing them to break into the international plastic arts market. Hitherto, this has remained relatively closed to them despite the general recognition that Africa has a contribution to make to the art world in this area. Mr Ousmane Sow Huchard, chairman of the Festival's scientific board, stressed that success lay first in stimulating the art market in Africa itself. He gave the example of his own country which had voted the so-called '1 % law', which stipulated the proportion of works of art that should be used to decorate all new public buildings.</P>
    2043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2037
    20442038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival's main exhibition, at the Ifan Museum of African Arts, was devoted to major trends in African sculpture. 42 artists selected by an international panel took part and, despite some criticism, their choice was a  judicious one. The same cannot be said, unfortunately, of the second major exhibition, at the National Art Gallery. This was devoted to contemporary Senegalese art and the skill involved in producing the exhibits was not of a consistently high standard.</P>
    2045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2039
    20462040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also five individual exhibitions featuring artists chosen by internationally famous judges. These might be expected to have a dynamic effect in setting standards on the market. Zeribun Yempeta of Ethiopia offered a quite original style, working on a support of leather straps fastened to a trellis of fine strips of wood. He draws his inspiration from a combination of African design, Coptic and Greek influences, and ancient Egyptian art. Ethiopian painting was one of the major revelations of the 'Africa 95' exhibition in London last year and the Festival gave a further opportunity for such art to be displayed. Another display presented work by the Moroccan painter, Mohamed Kacimi, whose pictures have been hung in various exhibitions - although the term 'pictures' is not always appropriate to this artist's work. It is perhaps more fitting to say that he 'occupies space'. In Dakar, he covered three walls of a large room with 'rolling art'. His skill, particularly in monumental works, is to offer excitement and calm simultaneously, through the use of animated forms and soft, rhythmic harmonies. Ezrom Legae of South Africa, Moustapha Dime of Senegal and Pascale Martine Tayou of Cameroon were the three other artists granted individual exhibitions.</P>
    2047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2041
    20482042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the trends which came to the fore at Dak'Art was the use of alternative media and recycled material. The latter, in a sense, is the man in the street's legacy to art. Initially, recycling was used predominantly in the informal sector to produce utilitarian objects. The 'Biennial Festival Village' was set aside for informal sculptors, and in an open area beside the Village, both inside a marquee and outdoors, one of the most individually striking exhibitions was presented. This combined a variety of artistic forms ranging from painting to video, not to mention Adeagbo's unusual montages, including 'African artists and AIDS'. This had already been exhibited in a number of countries and was staged by the Revue Noire team in parallel with its 'AIDS' issue.</P>
    2049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2043
    20502044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival included dozens of on-site exhibitions as well as all the 'fringe' presentations. The AIDS exhibition was one of the boldest but the display entitled 'Love' offered the greatest degree of unity and uniformity of design. Dak'Art 96 also made an attempt to integrate other forms of creativity such as dance, design and fashion. The latter two, for example, were presented at the Espace Vema, a fine metal structure where the creations of the Senegalese designer Claire Kane were in perfect harmony with the highly original furnishings. The European Union's prize for creativity, one of the Festival's four major prizes, was awarded to Vincent Namien, a designer from Cote d'lvoire.</P>
    2051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2045
    20522046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hege'Goueier</P>
    2053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2047
    20542048<B><P></P>
    20552049<!--
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    2062 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2056</B>
    20632057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Alain Nicolas</P>
    2064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2058
    20652059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is head curator and director of the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Arts in Marseilles. Here he offers his thoughts on the (partially unconscious) reluctance of the 'official' art world in the West - museums, critics and art historians - to accept contemporary African artists. Even now, they tend to be relegated to the sphere of 'alternative' art. However, he believes that the abundance of creative Africans, and the pressure they are exerting on the art world and market will, sooner or later, generate a 'new revolution' in the museums. This iswhat happened in the early20th century when traditional African art first arrived in the West. This article is linked to the dossier on African creativity published in our previous issue.</P>
    2066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2060
    20672061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I was asked to make this small contribution on African creativity, I was happy to oblige since, as a non-specialist, I am able to content myself with a few generalisations. I believe that there are still barriers, sometime not very visible, but nonetheless real, which have to be broken down.</P>
    2068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2062
    20692063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, writing just a few lines on creativity is a difficult exercise given the amount of literature on the subject and so many divergent opinions. So, what line should I adopt? About 15 years ago - in the wake of hordes of specialists in the humanities from sociology, psychology, ethnology, anthropology and so on - a rational approach, known as 'the anthropology of art', was at last proposed. The term 'rational' should be seen here in the context of the distinction between exact or 'hard' sciences such as mathematics, physics and astronomy, and the humanities, which are essentially inexact or 'soft' disciplines. And in brief, the West tends to take a scientific approach, relying on empirical evidence, even when it seeks to study such subjects as human creativity.</P>
    2070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2064
    20712065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creativity obviously is to be found in many different spheres. It is needed in technology, it is fundamental to story-telling, it underpins all forms of social organisation and has a part to play in religion. Similarly, what we term 'art'  is one of the spheres of creative endeavour. The anthropology of art seeks to document artistic creativity and to analyse the conditions surrounding its expression in various cultures. This is a laudable enterprise insofar as art is regarded as another means of expression, used in one form or another by all human groups.</P>
    2072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2066
    20732067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creative function is universal</P>
    2074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2068
    20752069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic postulate is that any society - and any individual - possesses creative potential which may be expressed in any way. The first thing to examine, therefore, is the context of choice. There are various modes of artistic expression ranging from music, poetry, prose and dance to architecture, painting and fashion. Some individuals or societies may have no choice, perhaps because of socio-economic constraints. Others may favour a particular mode of expression while nonetheless dabbling in more than one area. The expression of creativity is, therefore, like an identifying mark, claimed by the group or by the individual. The concept of 'style' now comes into play. The expression of one group is different from that of another and no two can ever be the same. Fundamental elements are at work in this materialisation of creativity. Some  are due to the natural environment. Thus, for example, a society located in a place where wood is abundant may favour sculpture. Others come from the group or individual themselves. And in the final analysis, it is the groups or individuals that decide what to portray (or not) on the basis of their own social norms and what they want to express.</P>
    2076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2070
    20772071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These few limited thoughts should be supplemented by the observation that sculpture or the plastic arts more generally can also be examined from at least two angles: as a means of conveying information, and as a form of linguistic expression.</P>
    2078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2072
    20792073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards the former, some have proposed analysing any work of art, from whatever culture, as a message. Analysis of the work therefore includes an examination of the conditions surrounding the production and transmission of the message. What message is broadcast ? How does it function ? What does the addressee gain from it? This approach is fine in hypothetical terms but does not allow one to go beyond theoretical and formal data, teaching us nothing about the content of the message under study. It refers back to the originator who holds the keys to the way in which it was sent and thus to its form and meaning.</P>
    2080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2074
    20812075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linguistically speaking, we assume that all expression through sculpture is a language and that the techniques for studying language can therefore be applied to the work of art. This approach is more rewarding because it brings us closer both to the sources and to the function of communication.</P>
    2082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2076
    20832077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be that as it may, all methods involve knowledge of the group or of the individual (but also of the relationships between them) and thus of any organised knowledge. Art cannot be separated from perception. This is the position of the majority of scientists. Yet we are not completely certain of this. Briefly, we are led to imagine that art could be irreducible at a certain level. When we look at a sculpture or listen to a piece of music, aside from the emotional content which is at least   partly quantifiable, what are we able to understand about the culture which produced them ?</P>
    2084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2078
    20852079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having travelled widely throughout the world and kept my eyes open, without having become the 'observer-participant' which the ethnologist should be, I am certain that the same creative function can be seen everywhere, and it is not difficult to identify.</P>
    2086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2080
    20872081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent visits to the world's museums and, perhaps above all, to their vaults, further reinforces the impression that constants do exist and are worthy of more and better investigation. Art, and more particularly the art of others, from other continents, is still the domain of a happy few.</P>
    2088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2082
    20892083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are usually highly literate people, and are seldom activists expounding a cause.</P>
    2090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2084
    20912085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary African art must find its niche</P>
    2092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2086
    20932087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The above statements relate as much to contemporary art as to what we term 'traditional' art. How many of the world's museums really show contemporary art from Africa ? It is as if this sector were cut off from current cultural reality. This is despite the fact that each week, new artists, musicians, designers, painters, sculptors, dancers, film-makers, stylists and photographers emerge from Africa, to be 'recognised' in the West (if anyone knows what 'recognition' really means!). The museums are, in fact, confused by this burgeoning of talent because they have no idea how to manage it.</P>
    2094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2088
    20952089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been said that contemporary African art is an urban phenomenon aimed at those living in towns and cities - and that it rebels against essentially rural, traditional art.</P>
    2096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2090
    20972091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The argument is that the usual methods for analysing traditional art cannot be fully mobilised because 'urban civilisation' conforms to a set of universal norms (more or less), which are distinct from those studied by ethnologists. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to consider contemporary art in the context of sociology and aesthetics. This may be true, but it still comes down to a matter of observation. Confusion reigns.</P>
    2098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2092
    20992093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we staged an exhibition in Marseilles by the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, the first individual showing of his works came as a major shock to many people, including the specialists. I can remember the reactions of at least   two colleagues from museums of contemporary art. What they said was almost identical, and was along the following lines:</P>
    2100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2094
    21012095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What's the name of this sculptor ? I am not familiar with him...</P>
    2102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2096
    21032097<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Do you like his work ? </P>
    2104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2098
    21052099<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, I do, but what's his name ?</P>
    2106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2100
    21072101<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Ousmane Sow </P>
    2108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2102
    21092103<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I don't know him. Astonishing! Where's he from ?</P>
    2110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2104
    21112105<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Senegal - he lives in Dakar. Are you interested in his sculptures ? </P>
    2112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2106
    21132107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but..</P>
    2114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2108
    21152109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You can buy one of his works - he's not very expensive yet and it would be good for your museum. </P>
    2116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2110
    21172111<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The problem is he's African.</P>
    2118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2112
    21192113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AN. I see... </P>
    2120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2114
    21212115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· His works are more your sphere.</P>
    2122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2116
    21232117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. But they don't have anything to do with traditional art which is what I have in my museum. Ousmane Sow is a contemporary artist, isn't he ? </P>
    2124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2118
    21252119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but he's African, and your museum is a museum of African art.</P>
    2126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2120
    21272121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You're correct, I would love to buy one of his works. But it would be the only example of contemporary art in my museum and would represent a change of policy for me. You wouldn't have anything by Ousmane Sow. And we would then be rivals! </P>
    2128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2122
    21292123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics, artists and art historians have begun discussing contemporary African art, more and more good reviews of it are being published, talks are being given and some major exhibitions have been mounted. There are pioneers and supporters in France, Germany and elsewhere, and there is even a great museum - Washington's Smithsonian - which took it on board several years  ago - but we still seem to be a long way from a commitment from most institutions.</P>
    2130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2124
    21312125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I hope this statement will soon be proved wrong. Institutions do not like taking risks. Either they create 'ghettos' ('let's set up a museum of contemporary African art'), or they set up committees to consider the subject. It is up to us to set our houses in order, but we must not be too naive. This is the art market, after</P>
    2132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2126
    21332127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we tend to cling to this somewhat short-sighted administrative view that there should be different institutions depending on whether we are dealing with heritage or contemporary creativity, museums of contemporary art must integrate all the world's sculptural expression. If not, they will be in conflict with the above; postulate which claims that creative  potential is the same everywhere.</P>
    2134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2128
    21352129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for so-called museums of anthropology and also a few rare museums such as the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Art in Marseilles, the systematic exhibition of contemporary art does generate a number of problems.</P>
    2136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2130
    21372131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I have wanted to do this in the past, I have been reminded of the 'museographic landscape' and advised to consult the authorities, to organise a major debate on the topic: who, what, where ? That is the rational approach, we are told. There is no great hurry!</P>
    2138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2132
    21392133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the recent arrival of African artists comes at a moment in our history when we are questioning the existence of our museums. When I say 'we', I mean the West in general.</P>
    2140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2134
    21412135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what might happen ? Traditional African art caused an explosion in Western art and traditional art history at the very beginning of the 20th century, with the cubists and their research which led them to develop a passion for African sculpture. We are all aware of what we owe to Africa and its traditional artists.</P>
    2142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2136
    21432137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary art from Africa is knocking on the closed door of Western museums, but the arrival of contemporary African artists and the pressure they exert on the art world and  market might trigger a new revolution in the museums, which are also the archives. Certainly, all the usual followers are ready to take up the cause, and that is how it should be. Let's be optimistic.</P>
    2144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2138
    21452139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. </P>
    2146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2140
    21472141<B><P></P>
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    2155 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2149</B>
    21562150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Claude Smets</P>
    2157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2151
    21582152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood is a Trinity dadian artist based in London. me Courier had the opportunity to meet him recently when an exhibition of his works was staged at his country's embassy in Brussels. Brought up in Trinidad, he moved to London to study fine arts at the Chelsea Art School. Feeling unable to express himself fully in this discipline, he ended up taking a degree in graphic design. Mr Yearwood is still based in the UK capital where, in addition to his work as a painter, he also designs costumes for the Notting Hill Carnival, a cousin of the famous Trinidad Carnival.</P>
    2159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2153
    21602154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist is fortunate to be able to live from his work. Besides the present exhibition which is touring Europe (Manchester, Brussels, Geneva and London), he has other works currently on show at three galleries in the US. He finds that the reaction of the American public is different from the European one. Americans, he believes, are more spontaneous and openminded. 'Europeans tend to stick more to things they already know; to which they are more accustomed.' The titles he gives to his art pieces are for him 'a basis for artistic conversation' with his audience. They express his emotions, feelings, and thoughts, but do not try to impose a specific interpretation of the painting on the viewer. Ainslie Yearwood dislikes the idea of being labelled or categorised - or as he describes it, 'to  be put into a box'. As such, he rebels against people who try to make him conform.</P>
    2161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2155
    21622156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A world citizen</P>
    2163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2157
    21642158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Ainsley Yearwood recognises his African roots within Trinidadian society, he sees himself as 'a world citizen'. The influences in his paintings are many and varied - deriving from the multicultural background of Trinidad and Tobago, European art and graphic design, the memories of his own childhood and his recent experiences. 'I am like a sponge', he says. 'Everything influences me in my work... people, places and all that I see around me. They help me to view things from a different perspective.' These all then flow together to be visualised through his 'inner eye' (expressed, for example, by two blue dots in his work In the Company of Nature which represents the Grand Canyon). By paying particular attention to what he sees, his 'visual view' is transformed into an 'emotional view'. Thus, for example, his painting Evolution appears to be a landscape. A :loser look reveals that the rocks are in the shape of hands.</P>
    2165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2159
    21662160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist also uses symbols in dome of his work, as a personal means 'or him to express life. The butterfly :rapped in a jar, for example, in Love lost, is a symbol of the fragility of life. The glass of water in Soul of a Mother symbolises the way a child looks at the world as something exciting and new. he also draws strongly on the imagery of candles, inner eyes and doorways.</P>
    2167 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2161
    21682162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong colours, strong emotions</P>
    2169 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2163
    21702164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What unifies Mr. Yearwood's work, is his use of colours. As he says, they are 'strong colours to express strong emotions'. In this, he has been inspired by his childhood in Trinidad which, in his own words, 'was an environment that constantly bombarded you with colour - from crystal to aquamarine, sapphire and emerald - a perpetual rainbow of red, yellow, green and blue'. One painting where colour is used to striking effect is Carnival Bacchanal. This depicts Trinidad's Carnival and reflects both the island's multicultural society and its vividness.</P>
    2171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2165
    21722166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood has also produced more surrealist and psycho-biographical works, under the influence of artists such as Salvador Dali and Francis Bacon. Emotions are revealed through the use of darker though still vivid colours. These works (such as Evolution, </P>
    21732167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Translucent State and Suspended in Limbo) show a fragmented self, stuck between past, present and future, looking for a way forward. They come in stark contrast to the brighter mood of paintings of island scenes - which are in a more African style - or of jazz musicians (such as Soul of a City or The Musician). According to the artist, this is being realistic. If he wants to paint life, he must show the different and contrasting emotions a human being experiences. 'You get up in the morning and you are feeling a little bit happy. You come home in the evening and you are feeling a little bit down. So emotions are continuously changing. If I said that I was always happy, that wouldn't be true.' </P>
    2174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2168
    21752169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned above, a number of Ainsley Yearwood's pieces portray jazz players. He enjoys going to New Orleans to listen to jazz bands and in Soul of a City he portrays one of the musicians. The title underlaines the importance of performers in a place like New Orleans - where indeed, they form an integral part of city life. In A Musical Love affair, the painter uses techniques learned as a graphic designer to help him express his feelings. By drawing graphic lines, the cello player and the instrument flow into one another. He explains: 'The cello player was not just playing the instrument. She was actually part of it. It is as if she were making love to the cello.'</P>
    2176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2170
    21772171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the foregoing that Mr. Yearwood's art is primarily visual. The onlooker is bombarded with strong colours - which are used, together with abstraction and symbolism, to express both optimistic and pessimistic feelings. The artist uses his multicultural background to great effect, drawing on influences from Trinidad, Africa and Europe, to create different modes of expression. These are the essential factors which make his paintings interesting and refreshing to look at.  c.s. </P>
    2178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2179 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2172
     2173<B>
    21802174<!--
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    2188 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2182</B>
    21892183<B><P></P>
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    2196 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2190</B>
    21972191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Sarah Reynolds</P>
    2198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2192
    21992193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the town of Thies one of Senegal's regional capitals, there is an abattoir where nothing goes to waste. Even the horns of cattle are sold for making carvings for sale to tourists while the tips of the horns are exported to Japan. In a rural area of Chad, small-scale livestock farmers are preserving meat by the age-old process of cutting it into strips and drying it in the sun. Careful attention to hygiene and quality control has resulted in a product so consistently good that it has found an export market as far away as Gabon. Livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa are responding to market opportunities, not because they recognise the need to improve national food requirements, but in pursuit of profit. Therein lies the best chance for stimulating the livestock sector's production capacity. The challenge is to design policies that protect consumers without crushing entrepreneurial potential for producers.</P>
    2200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2194
    22012195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than half the population of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be living in a town or city within the next 30 years. These city dwellers will have neither the skill, the time nor the space to raise livestock. There are indications on present trends that their demand for food of animal origin will increase. Where will they get it from ? Imported meat is more expensive than it used to be, largely as a result of the change in policies of the European Union. These have also affected the supply of low-cost milk powder and butter oil. Imports from countries outside the continent will  undoubtedly continue but intra-African   trade and local production will become   far more significant.</P>
    2202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2196
    22032197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been estimated that the production of animal products in sub-Saharan Africa would have to increase by 4% per year to ensure an adequate supply of animal protein for the region's growing population, and to end the need for imports. This presents a major challenge to policy-makers. Already, the current pressure on land resources is causing conflict in some areas and the prospect of more people, more animals, and more strain on already inadequate resources, is perturbing.</P>
    2204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2198
    22052199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information vacuum  in developing countries.</P>
    2206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2200
    22072201<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
    2208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2202
    22092203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decisions on how to achieve sustainable and yet more productive land-use, while at the same time ensuring fair access to resources for other interested users, cannot be soundly based if made in an information vacuum. It was in recognition of the lack of information about the livestock sector that the CTA organised and sponsored a seminar on Livestock development policies in the humid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. This was held in Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire on 5-9 February 1996. It was attended by participants from 17 countries within the region and by representatives from international institutions and from Europe. The objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate on policies aimed at bringing about sustainable livestock development while respecting natural resources in developing countries.</P>
    2210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2204
    22112205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
    2212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2206
    22132207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective planning of government action on issues such as import policy, provision of inputs and services, marketing and research priorities requires quantitative information on livestock production systems. Why is this information lacking when it is estimated that livestock products contribute about 25% of total agricultural GDP in subSaharan Africa? The livestock sector is too important to ignore and yet it is consistently undervalued. The reason is that economists and statisticians like to deal with a tangible unit that can be counted. Ideally, this should be a monetary unit but, failing that, it should at least be a unit that can be easily converted to money, such as the number of animals potentially available to the market. But if animals are used to sustain a traditional way of life, for people who do not have to pay before they can eat, it is difficult to put a monetary value on the food they consume. Similarly, if a herd of animals is sustained by forage that has no other use, on land that can be used for no other purpose, the cost of feeding cannot easily be measured in financial terms. Indeed producers have little to gain from allowing government   departments to acquire information about their assets.</P>
    2214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2208
    22152209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock owners have their own objectives when deciding whether and how to increase production. Livestock provide energy in the form of draught power, and dung for fuel or biogas. Their manure restores structure and fertility to the soil. Social prestige may be measured in the quantity and quality of the animals one possesses. For some livestock owners, their animals are their 'barking' system. They represent a deposit account for accumulated wealth and a current account when an animal is sold to raise cash. Indeed it may be impossible to obtain credit from an orthodox bank. There is an added advantage in that there are no interest charges to pay when you raise cash by selling your own animals as opposed to taking out a loan from a bank. It may be difficult to measure real production when animals are treated as a capital reserve. For example, an increase in meat prices, perhaps as a response to a change in economic policy, may result in a short-term reduction rather than increase, in the number of animals being marketed. This is because producers are able to maintain their income by selling fewer animals and can simultaneously  increase their breeding herds. Alternatively, there may be little incentive to producers to sell more animals if they have no use for the extra money they earn. It is of course true that more people are joining the cash economy as they become aware of the desirability of consumer goods, or of services such as schooling. Governments may aspire to design policies which will develop the livestock sector for the economic welfare of society as a whole, but if these policies ignore the objectives of livestock owners, they will fail.</P>
    2216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2210
    22172211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fair play</P>
    2218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2212
    22192213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a football match, the referee is there to see fair play. In the livestock sector, governments have to ensure fair play between the 'demand team' and the 'supply team', in other words the -consumers and the producers. Governments often make two mistakes. Either they help one team at the expense of the other, or else they join in the game themselves. The role of the authorities should be to make the rules that protect both teams from unfair or unsafe practices. For example, health and hygiene regulations must be in place, and  enforced, but not be so onerous that illegal and totally unregulated marketing channels are established.</P>
    2220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2214
    22212215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private traders have considerable power to manipulate markets if they collude to form cartels and prevent outsiders from entering their ring. Governments should ensure that this is not allowed to happen, that markets are open and that traders are free to operate provided that they observe health and hygiene regulations.</P>
    2222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2216
    22232217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veterinary services</P>
    2224 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2218
    22252219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries are no longer able to supply even minimum standards of veterinary support to their livestock producers. The efforts that have been made in recent years have been largely in the form of donor-funded projects where continuity is rarely guaranteed. The only viable alternative seems to be to transfer activities of this kind to service providers in the private sector. </P>
    2226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2220
    22272221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work that they do under contract to the government, for example relating to the control of epidemic diseases, must be funded by government or other central agencies since cost-recovery from individual livestock owners is not feasible when participation has to be compulsory. The work that they do on behalf of individuals, or associations of livestock owners, should, however, be paid for by those who benefit directly from the increased productivity that should result - the farmers. The greatest difficulty lies in managing what will be a long and difficult transition period. The success of ventures to privatise veterinary services depends on whether the profession can deliver a decent living in the private sector, particularly in rural areas where the need is undoubtedly greatest.</P>
    2228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2222
    22292223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural development</P>
    2230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2224
    22312225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is in the rural areas that livestock production needs to be intensified. On the outskirts of Africa's major cities, intensive pig and poultry production is already being supported by commercial, joint venture capital. Dairy units, in which exotic, high performance cattle breeds are managed in a controlled environment, are producing fresh milk for cash-paying consumers in nearby towns and cities. Urban areas create the demand but it is the rural areas that need the development.</P>
    2232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2226
    22332227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal products are seasonal and prices fluctuate accordingly. However, consumers are more likely to develop the habit of using products that are consistently available at stable prices. Government intervention to stabilise  prices risks favouring the consumer at the expense of the producer. For example, if imports are used to counter temporarily high prices during periods of drought, then producers will receive less for their reduced output at the very time when they need support. The most effective policy of price stabilization is to encourage the adoption of production systems that are less vulnerable to seasonal changes. Processing achieves this to some degree and brings benefits to both producers and consumers. Furthermore, because animal products are perishable, and dangerous to human health when they deteriorate, processing extends storage life, and may even have an effect in improving food security.</P>
    2234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2228
    22352229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, the time of greatest food shortage is at the beginning of the rainy season. This is also the time when milk production soars because cattle have good feed; and yet much of that milk is wasted because there is more than required for home consumption. If that surplus milk can be fumed into cheese, potential customers in more distant markets may be reached. Provided that the product is acceptable to the consumer, cheese-making reduces wastage, diversifies the producer's source of income and may also provide employment, and therefore income, to those brought in to help with the production.</P>
    2236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2230
    22372231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A technology that has been exhaustively tested by FAO for its suitability for use in Africa is lactoperoxydase. This is an enzyme which extends by three hours the length of time before milk begins to curdle and clot. This effectively doubles the time available for milk to reach the cooling centre, and thereby extends the catchment areas for producers wishing to supply fresh milk to urban markets. The trials that have been conducted show that it is entirely safe. When milk is brought to rural collecting points, it is the responsibility of the cooling centre employee, not the farmer, to add the enzyme at the prescribed rate as the milk is transferred into cans.</P>
    2238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2232
    22392233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current trends, it seems probable that there will be more than 20 capital cities in Africa that have a population of 10 million people by the year 2010. How many other cities and towns will have developed by that time ? There are so many people migrating to the urban areas, and they are doing so because the type of activities that ought to be taking place in the countryside do not exist. If the livestock industry, both primary production and processing, can be encouraged in rural areas, and if the infrastructure is in place to ensure that animal products, in whatever form, can reach urban markets, rural dwellers will find it more comfortable to stay where they are rather than going to the cities to look for jobs that do not exist.</P>
    2240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2234
    22412235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge for policy-makers is to deal even-handedly, not only in the interests of the livestock sector, but in the interests of other farmers, consumers, the national economy and the long-term sustainability of the nation's natural resources. For this task, reliable information, which is accessible to all countries within the region, is essential. The database structure of this information should be standardised so that it can form the basis of regional cooperation on trade and the sustainable use of land resources.</P>
    2242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2236
    22432237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.R. </P>
    2244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2238
    22452239<B><P></P>
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    2253 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2247</B>
    22542248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WCL seeks a wider  expression views</P>
    2255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2249
    22562250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We refer to the article published by The Courier in issue no 156 (March-April 1996) entitled The changing face of trade unionism in Africa, which reflects the views of the ICFTU (AFRO) and OATUU.</P>
    2257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2251
    22582252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are surprised that you have not taken pains to solicit the views of the World Confederation of Labour (WCL) and its regional organisation, the Democratic Organisation of African Workers Trade Unions (DOAWTU) - which participated on the same footing as the two other trade union organisations at the ACP-KU Social Partners meeting in December last year. We strongly believe this omission on your part should be corrected in future in order to allow a wider expression of the views and stands of all representative trade unions in Africa on such important issues as structural adjustment programmes, the social clause, labour standards and working conditions.</P>
    2259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2253
    22602254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carlos L. Custer, Secretary-General, World Confederation of Labour, Brussels, Belgium</P>
    2261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2255
    22622256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked destinies</P>
    2263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2257
    22642258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing dialogue between the ACP and EC Groups has exposed many mutual concerns about world affairs and has promoted a more complete understanding of the problems of both advanced and developing  nations. I am confident that in the future, we shall see further progress in our efforts to create a favourable financial climate for the resolution of our economic problems.</P>
    2265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2259
    22662260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global political and economic events have brought home to all of us how inextricably our social and economic destinies are linked. This is true of a whole range of subjects from human rights and political reform to economic development, conservation, health education and industrial promotion. None of these subjects can be put into independent boxes. We must seek more effective integration of our social and economic policies - both internally and internationally - if we are to serve the welfare of the people.</P>
    2267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2261
    22682262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I rejoice in your initiative in publishing The Courier. </P>
    2269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2263
    22702264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teddyiniovo, International institute for Global Cooperation, Benin City, Nigeria</P>
    2271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2265
    22722266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scope for energy selfsufficiency</P>
    2273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2267
    22742268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May I congratulate you on the new layout of The Courier, which is a great deal clearer and which you have instituted as a result of comments made by a number of your readers.</P>
    2275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2269
    22762270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am surprised to discover that you have not said anything about the question of energy dependence in the Lom&eacute; Convention countries. Energy self sufficiency is an extremely important issue. ACP countries face a famine in this area which is rarely mentioned. Most are majors exporters of petroleum, which is  costly and absorbs a significant proportion of their foreign exchange earnings.</P>
    2277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2271
    22782272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practically all the Lom&eacute; countries are in a position to produce alcohol from crops such as sugar cane and manioc without any negative impact on their food resources. These crops could be distilled to produce big-ethanol which is an excellent fuel. All that is needed - and it is a major challenge admittedly - is for production to be organised in each country, and for the required national and international financing to be set up.</P>
    2279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2273
    22802274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also required is the political will in these countries to overcome the various obstacles, including those lobbies who oppose this kind of production because they want petrol imports to be maintained.</P>
    2281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2275
    22822276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Mariotte Consultant, Paris, France </P>
    2283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2277
    22842278<B><P></P>
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    2292 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2286</B>
    22932287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet - 1888-1979  </P>
    2294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2288
    22952289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eric Roussel. Published by Fayard, Paris. 1996. 1004 pages. FFR 198.</P>
    2296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2290
    22972291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was almost 91 years old when he died and, despite the fact that he had no higher education qualifications and at times did not hold any official post, his public role was legendary. From the very first page of his book, Eric Roussel stresses the fact that, from the moment Jean Monnet met the Prime Minister, Rene Viviani, in September 1914 until 9 May 1975, the day the Action Committee for a United States of Europe was dissolved, he worked constantly for the European cause.</P>
    2298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2292
    22992293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He applied the same tireless enthusiasm to all his duties, in whatever sphere of activity he was involved - and these were many and varied. Despite his provincial origins, Jean Monnet was, among other things, a cognac merchant, an advocate of the Allied coordination effort during the First World War, Deputy Secretary General of the League of Nations (for a short time), a banker in America and China during the 1930s and in charge of the Victory Program in the USA in 1941. From 1947 to 1952, he was the first Commissioner-General of the Economic Plan in France. He and Robert Schuman were the architects of the famous Declaration of 9 May 1950 which was to form the basis of European construction. He went on to become the first President of the ECSC's High Authority and, until 1975, he was the driving force behind the Action Committee for a United States of Europe. And that is just to highlight his renowned roles.</P>
    2300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2294
    23012295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Jean Monnet was both a visionary and a pragmatist, who was to become adviser to some of the greatest names of his day. General de Gaulle, another great visionary, albeit with a very different ideology, called him 'the inspiration' behind European integration, although such an accolade was not completely devoid of irony given that the two men could hardly be said to see eye to eye.</P>
    2302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2296
    23032297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was a purveyor of new ideas, but also an eternal realist who never failed to recognise the importance of the status quo. Indeed, he could have stepped right out of the pages of a Paul Morand novel. And yet, despite the fact that he was held in the highest esteem by world political heavyweights (Clemenceau, Roosevelt, Churchill, Adenauer, de Gasperi, Brandt, Pompidou, John Kennedy, Henry Kissinger, Heath and Giscard d'Estaing, to name but a few), in his private life he was a simple man, of modest disposition - in fact a bourgeois in the best sense of the word.</P>
    2304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2298
    23052299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'workaholic', like many great men, Jean Monnet defied categorization. He has recently been described as 'a man of fringe ideologies who was nevertheless always at the centre of things'. During the latter part of his life, he settled comfortably into his role as 'rather' of Europe. His fundamental thoughts on that topic could be summed up in one line from the Declaration of 9 May 1950, (now a public holiday in the European institutions). 'Europe will not be built in a day, nor as a single structure, but will come about through concrete actions which, first and foremost, create a de facto solidarity'.</P>
    2306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2300
    23072301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Monnet, nationalism meant only war and, from 1942 onwards, he set his sights on preparing for the future, surrounding himself with a team of extraordinary talent - people such as Etienne Hirsch, Herve Alphand, Rene Mayer and Robert Marjolin. These men strove to find ways to avoid war between the countries of Western Europe, to define the objectives of European unification and to establish European institutions which would be equal to such a task.</P>
    2308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2302
    23092303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eric Roussel is a journalist with an arts degree and a doctorate in law, and this is an outstanding work on the 'pragmatic visionary' that was Jean</P>
    2310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2304
    23112305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monnet. The book is comprehensive, extremely well-written and impressively documented. Most notably, the author had access, for the first time, to the famous journal kept by Jean Monnet in which he recorded his countlles conversations with the key players and set out his own thoughts. Today, his dream of 'a united Europe complemented by a partnership with the United States' is still one of the big issues. And as the arguments rage, we should perhaps recall some other famous words from Jean Monnet's Memoires: 'We do not seek to form a coalition of States, we seek to unite men . </P>
    2312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2306
    23132307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alain Lacroix </P>
    2314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2308
    23152309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le Choix de l'Europe</P>
    2316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2310
    23172311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Opting for Europe)  by Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. Pub/ished by Fayard, Paris. 225 pages. FFR 110 - BFR 748.</P>
    2318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2312
    23192313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Laurent Cohen-Tanugi successfully reminds us of the modernity of the European project; that there are aspects of it that are essential to our independence and our prosperity, to preserving our model of society and maintaining our influence on the international stage. By urging Europeans and European leaders to look to the future so as to be better able to manage the risks and seize the opportunities that it offers and, ultimately, to be in a better position to change things, he brings us all hope'.</P>
    2320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2314
    23212315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was how Jacques Delors described this book, and, basically, there you have it in a nutshell. It would, however, be worthwhile adding that 'opting for Europe' is not quite as simple as it sounds - a fact which has not escaped the attention of the author, who is a graduate of France's elite Ecole normale superieure and of the Harvard Law School. He is also a barrister and member of a renowned firm of international lawyers.</P>
    2322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2316
    23232317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Treaty of Rome, European progress has very often come about because Member States have set themselves deadlines for achieving particular objectives. 1996 sees the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, an event of major importance, which is expected to continue at least until the spring of 1997 (with parliamentary elections planned in several Member States in 1997 and 1998). Among the items on the agenda for the IGC is the need to adapt the European institutions - which in essence have hardly changed since 1958 - and to open up the way for the third phase of Economic and Monetary Union in 1999 for those States which have fulfilled the economic convergence criteria set out in the Maastricht Treaty.</P>
    2324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2318
    23252319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, besides the technical and financial problems involved, there are also differences between certain Member States about the political future of Europe. The author rightly stresses, in this respect, that the situation has become even more complex since the demise of the Soviet Union. In particular, some politicians support an expansion of the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, so as to avoid strengthening European integration. The author believes that, broadly speaking, there are two distinct positions. On the one hand, there is the United Kingdom, which would be happy with a large free trade area guided by a 'Secretariat-Commission'and with flexible and relatively loose inter-State cooperation structures at a political level. On the other hand, there is Germany, which wants expansion of the Union towards the East as well, but also wants a swift and concrete consolidation of a common monetary and political 'hard core'.</P>
    2326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2320
    23272321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his book, the author expresses his view that France will play a vital role in maintaining and advancing the essential elements that form the basis of the European enterprise. And he nails his own colours firmly to the mast as someone who hopes to see the continent moving towards some form of federal structure. As one observer commenting   on the work has noted, 'This little Bible, brimming with faith in the concept of a unified Europe, will be invaluable - even to the doubting Thomases among us'. </P>
    2328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2322
    23292323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
    2330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2324
    23312325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Et.... qu'en pensent les villageois? Projets de developpement durable et be veins de base b&eacute;n&eacute;ficiaires</P>
    2332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2326
    23332327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(But... what do the villagers think about it ? Sustainable development projects and basic needs of aid recipients)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the K.U. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 3Z2 pages.</P>
    2334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2328
    23352329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les problemes du monde rural vus par les habitants - Portraits de villages de Haute-Guinee</P>
    2336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2330
    23372331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(me problems of rural life as seen by the inhabitants - Profiles of villages in Upper Guinea)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the KU. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 222 pages.</P>
    2338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2332
    23392333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who has a PhD in educational sciences and is a researcher at Ured, has written these two works on the basis of a study she carried out on behalf of the European Commission in Guinea (Conakr,v). This aimed at identifying the most urgent priorities of village communities within the context of an environment restoration project.</P>
    2340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2334
    23412335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion of the first book underlines research results which point to the adoption of a different approach to development at local level: one which respects the wishes of the recipients and which finally breaks free from western ethnocentrism.</P>
    2342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2336
    23432337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the second volume, the author presents the results of the survey conducted in the villages of Upper Guinea. Six villages with varying characteristics in terms of size, geographical location and administrative status are featured in more detail. </P>
    2344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
    2346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2338
     2339
     2340
    23472341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informations pour le Developpement: Agriculture</P>
    2348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2342
    23492343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Information on development: Agriculture)</P>
    2350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2344
    23512345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by Ibiscus (ibis, rue du Havre, F-75008 Paris) and by the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation. 1995. 271 pages. FFR 150.</P>
    2352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2346
    23532347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than just an index, this publication is a useful working tool for anyone seeking reliable information about development in the agricultural sector. It includes a list of the main organisations specialising in agriculture in 40 French-speaking countries and a list of the principal places and means from which to obtain information (documentation centres, data banks, optical discs, CDs and on-line data services). There is also a selection of periodicals, a bibliographic section (with more than 300 references, including abstracts) and contributions by specialists relating to major topics connected with rural development: landownership systems, links between cash crops and food crops, agricultural funding, etc.</P>
    2354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2348
    23552349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda - Trois jour qui ont fait basculer l'histoire</P>
    2356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2350
    23572351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Rwanda - Three days that shook history)  by Filip Reyntjens. Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). Cahiers africains no. /6! 1995. 148 pages FFR 9O. ISBN 2-738437044.</P>
    2358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2352
    23592353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much has been written about the tragic events in Rwanda, this work examines an aspect of the story which is still largely a mystery: the brief period which began on 6 April with the missile attack on the presidential jet and ended on 9 April, when the 'caretaker government' was swam into office. According to the author, these 72 hours were of critical importance since it was during  this time that the country's killing machine was set in motion.</P>
    2360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2354
    23612355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially based on eye-witnffs accounts, it is a tale which is far from complete. The book, however, does provide some hitherto undocumented information which allow us to delve deeper in search of the truth behind one of the darkest pages of recent human history.</P>
    2362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2356
    23632357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les refugies rwandais a Bukavu au Zaire - De nouveaux Palestiniens?</P>
    2364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2358
    23652359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan refugees in Bukavu, Zaire - the new Palestinians ?)  by Philippe de Dorlodot Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris) and by the Jeremie Group. 1995. 253 pages. FM 150. ISBN 2-7384-3698-6.</P>
    2366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2360
    23672361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author has brought together various stories, appeals, communiques, analyses and thoughts to write this book about the crisis facing the Rwandan refugees. The accounts cover the period from April 1994 to October 1995 and relate to the situation in South Kivu, Zaire, where an already volatile position has been greatly exacerbated by the arrival of the refugees. The people living in the regional centres of Goma and Bukavu are having to live with the tragedy of gross overcrowding and all its consequences - environmental deterioration, price increases, general insecurity and the threat of war on the border between Rwanda and Burundi.</P>
    2368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2362
    23692363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire now wants the refugees to leave as quickly as possible, but their return to Rwanda is still problematic. Rejected at every turn, are these Rwandan refugees set to become the new Palestinians? In the postscript to the work, Filip Reyntjens (the author of the book reviewed previously) states that 'These new refugees will not accept eternal exile. H voluntary repatriation is not possible, and if forced repatriation is unacceptable, the only way left open to them may be armed repatriation... The civil society of South Kivu... is well aware of this, and the international community would do well to listen to their cries of alarm... If  it does not, the tragic events of the past year will have been merely a prelude, with the worst still to come'.</P>
    2370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2364
    23712365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La tragedie rwandaise - Historique et Perspectives</P>
    2372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2366
    23732367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan tragedy - historical background and future prospects)  by Emmanuel Nkunzumwami. Published by L'Harmaffan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1995. 480 pages. FFR 250. ISBN 2-7384-3697-8.</P>
    2374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2368
    23752369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a teiecommunications engineer and economist, was born and raised in Rwanda. He now lives in France and has had several articles about the situation in his country published. In this work, he seeks to Reconstruct the machine of central Rwandan power which first appeared in the eleventh century, seeking answers to questions such as: Who ruled the country and how? What alliances were forged and according to what criteria? What kinds of social structure existed and what forms did conflict take? He then goes on to describe the trauma of colonial rule which 'deliberately' fanned the flames of socio-ethnic conflict so that the people could be more easily controlled. From there, he takes us through the era of an 'independent' Rwanda under a dictatorial regime. Its power was progressively stripped away, initially under the pressure of internal calls for democracy, and then by the demands of Western aid donors. Finally, he recounts the events since April 1994.</P>
    2376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2370
    23772371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having given the historical background, the author examines the country's future prospects. He believes that the 'siege mentality' of the new government does nothing to induce the return of the 2 million refugees who shuffle back and forth across the border and who find themselves stuck between a 'rock and a hard place'. Finally, the author poses a straightforward question - but one which has yet to be answered: How can we rebuild a country that has witnessed genocide on such a scale ? </P>
    2378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2372
    23802373<B><P></P>
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    2388 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2381</B>
    23892382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In brief</P>
    2390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2383
    23912384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD Report on the least-developed countries (LDCs)</P>
    2392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2385
    23932386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the annual report of UNCTAD (The UN Conference on Trade and Development), the 48 least developed countries of the planet, after several years of stagnation - and indeed, decline in some cases - enjoyed an average growth rate of 3% in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1994-95. The figure was 4.6% for LDCs in Asia and 2.2% for those in Africa (33 out 48).</P>
    2394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2387
    23952388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD says that the renewed grovvth rate for Africa's least developed nations is due to an increase in commodity prices, to improved political and social stability in certain countries and to economic reforms which have been implemented. If these favourable conditions are maintained, further modest progress can be anticipated for 1996.</P>
    2396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2389
    23972390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the positive impact of these factors on the development of countries, notably in Asia, UNCTAD believes that there is still a short-term danger that the world's weakest economies will suffer further marginalisation. It is pointed out, in this context, that the LDCs' share of total world trade - which stood at 1.7% in 1970 - had fallen to 0.4% for exports and 0.7% for imports, by 1994.</P>
    2398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2391
    23992392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the longer term it is thought that the LDCs, with their reliance on basic commodities for export receipts, may benefit from the globalization of their economies. This should happen notably through the regional trade agreements to which they are parties, alongside other developing countries. These regional markets, which are more attractive for investors, offer an opportunity for LDCs to try out their products and can, in time, help improve their competitiveness. In the  meantime, however, UNCTAD has noted that the immediate effects of the Uruguay Round have tended to be more negative, with reductions in the preferences enjoyed by LDCs in export markets and increases in the price of foodstuffs.</P>
    2400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2393
    24012394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, because they are dependent on official development aid (ODA) to finance investment, and even for their national budgets, LDCs are faced with possible further marginalisation as such aid flows are reduced. The figures show that, in terms of total resource flows, the amount of ODA provided by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD fell to 23% in 1994 from a figure of 27% a decade previously.</P>
    2402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2395
    24032396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Likewise, the amount of aid, expressed as a proportion of the GDP of the donor countries, has been falling.</P>
    2404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2397
    24052398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD suggests a bolder policy as regards external debt - which, in 1994, amounted to 73% of the entire Gross Domestic Product of the LDCs. The organisation believes that the establishment of a new mechanism with sufficient resources to reduce multilateral indebtedness, combined with the expansion of existing mechanisms, could have the effect of reducing the overall debt burden to a more reasonable level.</P>
    2406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2399
    24072400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of globalisation, UNCTAD argues that the international community should work to ensure that the LDCs' export markets do not become blocked by protectionist measures. It also believes that extensions to regional trade agreements, taking in the main industrialised countries, should not be allowed to have a damaging effect on the commercial interests of the LDCs. It points out that these countries have only limited scope for pursuing independent, national economic policies and that</P>
    2408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2401
    24092402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No agreement over banning landmines</P>
    2410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2403
    24112404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humanitarian organisations have expressed disappointment over the outcome of a recent United Nations conference, convened in Geneva to draw up a convention on 'Inhumane weapons). Both NGOs, and public agencies such as UNICEF, are particularly unhappy that state representatives at the meeting were unable to agree to an immediate and comprehensive ban on anti-personnel mines. These devices, which often lie hidden in the soil for many years, kill and maim thousands of civilians in current (and former) conflict areas across the globe</P>
    2412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2405
    24132406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomats attending the Geneva conference were keen to emphasise what had been achieved. So-called 'dumb' mines, which do not self-destruct after a certain time will eventually be phased out.</P>
    2414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2407
    24152408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seif-destructing devices, which are still permitted under international law, will be subject to strict new standards, designed notably to ensure that they can be detected. And there will be new rules to ensure that minefieids are properly marked.</P>
    2416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2409
    24172410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics point out that signatories to the Convention will not be obliged to phase out 'dumb' mines immediately and that their use will remain legal for a further nine years after the agreement enters into force.</P>
    2418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2411
    24192412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an exception to the rule about marking the location of mines, 'where direct military action makes its impossible to comply' - a not uncommon circumstance in conflict situations.</P>
    2420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2413
    24212414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Geneva Conference, a number of countries, including the United States, have announced their intention to reduce their stockpiles of mines. Few nations, however, seem willing to renounce their use altogether. </P>
    2422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2415
    24232416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.  their governments have little choice but to adopt the prevailing market oriented approach.</P>
    2424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2417
    24252418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long-term food security</P>
    2426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2419
    24272420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 'Long-Term Food Security Policies' was held in Brussels on 1-3 April at the initiative of the European Commission. The meeting, which was opened by Professor Pinheiro, Commissioner with responsibility for relations with the ACP countries, brought together about a hundred participants representing Member States, third countries, international organisations and major cooperation agencies. It was also attended by experts and researchers in the field of food security.</P>
    2428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2421
    24292422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fulfilling a promise made by the Commission, the aim of the seminar was to clarify the long term strategic issues and take a closer look at food security policies with a view to preparing a European position for the World Food Summit scheduled for Rome in November under the auspices of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).</P>
    2430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2423
    24312424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community and its Member States are the world's main donors of food aid having spent ECU 1.089 billion on this in 1994. This amounted to 53% of the global total with the United States providing 44% and Japan 3%. Despite the large amounts being given, the FAO, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the World Bank are all predicting that unless global food donations are boosted significantly, certain Asian and African countries will face an alarming food deficit by the beginning of the next century.</P>
    2432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2425
    24332426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 600 million and 800 million people are likely to be facing hunger by the year 2010 and the cereal needs  of the developing countries could well double between now and then.</P>
    2434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2427
    24352428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This projected scenario coincides with a period of market difficulty. World stocks are low and grain prices have risen by 40% in just one year. Whether or not this is a portent of future food shortage, it has given rise to renewed debate on the ability of certain countries and regions of the world to supply themselves and the extent to which they will have to have recourse to the international markets. Closer attention is also being paid to the wider strategies that need to be implemented to ensure food security in the future.</P>
    2436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2429
    24372430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If one looks at the issue solely in terms of increasing supply, the projections are gloomy. Experience shows that the 'right' of access to a sufficient food supply for each of the planet's inhabitants cannot be guaranteed whether through world economic growth, food self-sufficiency at the national level, or the international markets and trade liberalisation. There is, therefore, a need for food security policies, in the developing countries in particular, which act on the conditions of demand as well as supply.</P>
    2438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2431
    24392432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his presentation opening the seminar, Commissioner Pinheiro stressed the fact that of the ECU 7 billion allocated by the EU for development cooperation last year, ECU 1 billion was in the form of food aid. He also noted that this aid 'category' had evolved over the last decade in the context of the search for food security and explained how the Commission, in revising the policy towards the end of 1994, had set out three essential aspects:</P>
    2440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2433
    24412434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the use of food aid as a policy instrument designed to achieve longterm food security with the emphasis on local purchases and 'triangular' operations - thereby encouraging the growth of the agricultural sector in the developing countries: this entailed developing a new aid instrument in which funds are available to import basic food products (as a way of encouraging the private sector to  take a more active part in the economic life of those countries facing a structural food deficit);</P>
    2442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2435
    24432436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the integration of aid instruments into the actual development efforts of the beneficiary countries;</P>
    2444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2437
    24452438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - improved access for the people who suffer most from food shortages.</P>
    2446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2439
    24472440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro indicated that the Commission would shortly be presenting a communication on the strengthening of the link between development aid on the one hand and emergency, rehabilitation and food aid on the other.</P>
    2448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2441
    24492442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed the important role that food aid operations could play in preventing conflicts and easing social tensions.</P>
    2450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2443
    24512444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Commissioner, the challenge in this area have been clearly identified but he believes that additional thinking is needed, notably on the impact of events in China and the countries of the former Soviet Union, and on the effect of US and EC agricultural policies on the world markets.</P>
    2452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2445
    24532446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Professor Pinheiro expressed the view that food security was, above all, a national responsibility with all civil society actors having a role to play.</P>
    2454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2447
    24552448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Citing the rise in the price of cereals during the second half of 1995 - which had prompted concerns about the availability of food aid and its impact on the balance of payments (notably in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian sub-continent) - he gave an assurance that the Commission would remain vigilant about this. At the same time, he was concerned not to see a return to situations where aid in the form of straightforward transfers of food increased. These, he observed,</P>
    2456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2449
    24572450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· had at least partly contributed to food costs, the destabilisation of local production and constraints on intra-regional trade. As such, they had set   back or undermined the reforms in this sector in the countries concerned.</P>
    2458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2451
    24592452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean rice exporters fear changes in OCT . rules</P>
    2460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2453
    24612454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana and Suriname, together with a number of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), have expressed concern over the European Commission's recently announced intention to change the shape of its relations with the OCTs. In particular, they are worried that proposed new rules could harm their rice sales to the 15 European Union nations.</P>
    2462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2455
    24632456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana currently exports 180 000 tonnes of rice (80% of its exports) to the KU. This is shipped initially to the Netherlands Antilles (Cura&ccedil;ao, Aruba and Bonaire) to be partially milled. It then enters the EU market duty-free by virtue of the Union's existing trade rules with the OCTs. But Caribbean exporters fear that this 'OCT route' could soon be blocked by changes currently being considered in Brussels.</P>
    2464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2457
    24652458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already announced in issue no 157 of The Courier (May-June 1996), in the context of the mid-term review of the association with the OCTs, the Commission published a text on February 14 proposing some fine tuning to the trade preferences it grants to these territories. This has now gone forward to the Council of Ministers for decision. The Commission proposal is that while agricultural produce may continue being processed in the OCTs - and hence still benefit from the more relaxed rules - this should happen in future on a case-by-case basis, and only if priority is given to the least developed OCTs and the operations are economically justified.</P>
    2466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2459
    24672460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, preferential arrangements do apply to direct rice exports from Guyana and Suriname to the KU, but it is argued that the levies are still too high to make the trade viable.</P>
    2468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2461
    24692462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Yesu Persaud, who is Chairman of Guyana's Institute of Private Enterprise; 'it is only via the OCTs that we can export to the European Union.' Mr Persaud was speaking to journalists during a lobby visit to Brussels on April 16. He was accompanied by Charles P Kennard, Chairman of the Guyana Rice Development Board and David Jessop, director of the London-based Caribbean Council for Europe.</P>
    2470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2463
    24712464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Justifying the need for derange, some EU officials point to evidence that non-tome developing countries are 'abusing' the OCT rice route. Rice is a sensitive product for some EU nations such as Spain and Italy, who grow their own.</P>
    2472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2465
    24732466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Persaud said that Guyana and Suriname were lobbying either for their own duty-free quota under the Lom&eacute; trade rules, or for 'a more reasonable levy'. At the same time, however, he indicated that the Caribbean rice growers were keen on keeping the route open via the Dutch and other OCTs (such as Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos) where major investments have been made on the  strength of the existing arrangements. A representative of the Turks and Caicos told reporters that his country earned half a million dollars a year from the trade, and that a new jetty had been built with British government support.</P>
    2474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2467
    24752468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana's rice exports have climbed from less than 39 000 tonnes in 1986 to more than 200 000 tonnes in 1995. And as Mr Persaud also stressed, the trade has done so well that Guyana is now investing in high-yielding varieties. </P>
    24762469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
    2477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2470
    24782471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fight against locusts</P>
    2479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2472
    24802473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fipronil, a recently developed pesticide, is said to be 10 times more effective than other products on the market in the control of locusts, according to representatives of the pharmaceutical giant, Rhone-Poulenc who organised a seminar on locust control </P>
    2481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2474
    24822475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between emergency, rehabilitation and development aid </P>
    2483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2476
    24842477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European commission has recently approved a communication </P>
    2485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2478
    24862479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (COM(96) 153) which was due to be presented to the Development Council on 28 May. The document seeks to respond tO the challenge of I maintaining and improving the effectiveness of emergency aid  rehabilitation assistance and development cooperation with third countries - in the face of a wide variety of political, economic and social circumstances.</P>
    2487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2480
    24882481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Communication suggests ways of strengthening the links between the three types of aid within a strategic planning framework which includes intensified dialogue and political cooperation.</P>
    2489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2482
    24902483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This initiative follows extensive consultations, both within the Commission (i_ service groups) and with representatives of numerous outside bodies (Member State experts, USAID, UN agencies, NGOs, academic institutions etc.). </P>
    2491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2484
    24922485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the key phrase in the Communication may be 'strategy and global planning', emphasis is also placed on 'coordination' end 'opportunity'. This underlines a commitment to adapting procedures, where necessary, so that measures can be taken at the right time and the transition from emergency aid, to rehabilitation and subsequently to development cooperation can take place in the best possible conditions.  with the 70-member African, Caribbean and Pacific group. The event took place in Brussels in April.</P>
    2493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2486
    24942487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new product, claims the company, fills a big gap that was left in the war against locust infestation when DDT was banned in 1986 (toxic residues from the chemical having been found to enter the food chain and damage the ecosystem).</P>
    2495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2488
    24962489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is stated that Fipronil causes 99% mortality among locusts and gives complete protection for up to three weeks when applied in doses of six grammes per hectare.</P>
    2497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2490
    24982491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its developers claim that it is three times cheaper than any other form of anti-locust pesticide used between 1987-1995, a calculation which includes the logistical costs involved in distributing the pesticide. It is said to be very effective in preventing locust infestations in countries in the Sahel that are particularly at risk.</P>
    2499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2492
    25002493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sahel has some 250 acridian species. Of these, about 15, are known regularly to attack crops in large numbers, according to Michel Launois, who heads the French agricultural research body, CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS.</P>
    2501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2494
    25022495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Brussels seminar, emphasis was placed on the need for donors to set aside more funds for the prevention of locust infestations. It was also stressed that locust control must be at a regional level because of the migratory nature of the species, and the link between locust control and food security was underlined.</P>
    2503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2496
    25042497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS has just published an educational cartoon strip entitled 'Les Dents du Ciel 11' (available from Cirad-Gerdat-Prifas, B.P. 5035, F34032 Montpellier Cedex 1). This is intended to explain to a wide audience the need for an integrated approach to locust control.</P>
    2505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2498
    25062499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I New fishing agreement between Angola and the EU</P>
    2507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2500
    25082501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new fisheries agreement between Angola and the EU was initialled on 2 May. It is due to run for three years (as opposed to two years for the previous one) and should ensure greater stability and better programming of the Community fleet's fishing activities in Angolan waters. The EU will pay Angola the sum of ECU 13.35 million per annum in exchange for improved fishing rights for European fishermen.</P>
    2509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2502
    25102503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth noting that the agreement contains certain innovations. These concern, for example, the legal status of catches (which are given Community origin). This should help to avoid the kind of dispute that has arisen in the recent past. There is also the possibility of imposing an annual biological 'rest-period' for shrimp fishing.</P>
    2511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2504
    25122505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I African conference on consumer protection</P>
    2513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2506
    25142507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first African conference on consumer protection was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 28 April to 2 May. This resulted from a joint initiative by the organization Consumers international and the United Nations, and it was supported financially by the European Commission. The latter was represented at the event by Mrs Emma Bonino, the Commissioner responsible for Consumer Policy.</P>
    2515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2508
    25162509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the conference was to lay down the basis for a genuine consumer policy in Africa. Representatives of 45 African governments attended, together with officials from various regional and sub-regional organizations and delegates from a large number of</P>
    2517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2510
    25182511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African consumer bodies. Coinciding with the tenth anniversary of the adoption by the UN of the guiding principles for the protection of consumers, the Conference offered an opportunity to track progress on the application of these principles in African countries. It also saw the adoption of 'model' legislation setting out the essential rights which should be guaranteed to consumers.</P>
    2519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2512
    25202513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her speech, Mrs Bonino stressed the Commission's commitment to supporting the efforts of African governments and consumer organisations in seeking to establish, in a clear and pragmatic way, the link between consumption and development. Evidence of this commitment, she pointed out, was to be seen in her very presence at the conference. She also lent her support to the broad application of the UN's guiding principles in Africa. This would ensure that the health, security and economic rights of African consumers could be protected.</P>
    2521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2514
    25222515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the European Commissioner stressed that legislation, while important, was not enough in itself to tackle the fundamental problem - which was the satisfaction of basic needs. She appealed for global action in Africa deigned to break the vicious circle of poverty - based on voluntary action at all levels.</P>
    2523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2516
    25242517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs Bonino added that the Commission would seek ways of supporting projects, in particular in the fields of food and health. This should assist citizens to meet their essential needs - with the opportunity to consume products which were different, 'local' and of better quality, and with risks to health and security minimised. The approach should avoid the exhaustion of scarce resources and respect nature. She indicated that an action plan would be drawn up by the Commission in collaboration with Consumers International. This, it was hoped, would allow financing of pilot programmes under a separate budget line which would be sought from the European Parliament for 1997. </P>
    2525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2518
    25262519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTIONS</P>
    25272520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AT WORK</P>
    2528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2521
    25292522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN</P>
    25302523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
    2531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2524
    25322525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
    2533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2526
    25342527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards national reconciliation in Angola</P>
    2535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2528
    25362529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
    2537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2530
    25382531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Troika of the European Union Ambassadors in Luanda made a formal demarche with both the Government of Angola and UNITA in order to welcome the positive outcome of the Libreville Summit between the President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, and the President of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, and in particular their commitment to establish an integrated national army by June and the creation of an appropriate institutional structure, including the formation of a government of unity and national reconciliation by June/July. The Government and UNITA were encouraged to continue to refrain from military activity and hostile propaganda and to provide for free circulation of persons and goods as soon as possible. The EU Ambassadors underlined also the importance of securing human rights as well as transparency in financial management, economic stabilisation and reforms. Having recalled the terms of reference of the EU Joint Position adopted on 2 October, 1995, the Ambassadors underlined that the Union will continue to monitor, with the greatest attention, the development of the situation particularly as regards respect for the implementation of the calendar agreed in Libreville. Welcoming the recent steps taken by UNITA, the EU expressed concern at the slow pace of the quartering and disarming of UNITA troops and urged UNITA to proceed with its commitments, in full cooperation with UNAVEM ill. The EU encouraged the Government to continue the quartering of the rapid intervention police and the disengagement and pulling back of the FAA to the nearest barracks. The importance of disarming the civilian population was also emphasised. The EU also reiterated their call to the Government and UNITA to refrain from acquiring lethal material and to cooperate fully with the de-mining process.</P>
    2539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2532
    25402533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has reiterated its full support to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, Maitre Blondin Beye, to the Joint Commission and to the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM).</P>
    2541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2534
    25422535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
    2543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2536
    25442537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free elections in Sierra Leone</P>
    2545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2538
    25462539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
    2547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2540
    25482541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the fact that presidential and parliamentary elections took place in Sierra Leone in a free and fair atmosphere and in fulfilment of the established timetable for the return to democracy.</P>
    2549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2542
    25502543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results reflect the will of the people of Sierra Leone to achieve a democratically elected civilian government despite attempts at intimidation by armed elements and the ongoing fighting in various parts of the country.</P>
    2551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2544
    25522545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU welcomes the peace talks between the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and the Freetown authorities as well as the intention expressed by President Kabbah to meet Mr Sankoh at the earliest possible opportunity. The EU calls on all the parties to work for peace and national reconciliation.</P>
    2553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2546
    25542547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious threat to peace process in Liberia</P>
    2555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2548
    25562549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 11 April 1996</P>
    2557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2550
    25582551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the outbreak of fighting in Monrovia, which represents a serious threat to the peace process in Liberia. The EU is firmly convinced that the AbuJa agreement provides the right framework for resolving the crisis and calls upon the Council of State, the Liberian national transitional government and the Liberian factions to implement it, and to put the peace process back on track, in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and the violation of human rights. The EU condemns the loss of human life and the harassment of the civilian population and humanitarian workers. All parties concerned should prove their willingness to re-establish and maintain the ceasefire which represents the necessary prerequisite to disarmament and demobilization. The relevant measures and the necessary preparations can no longer be delayed. The EU asks the factions to return all weapons seized during the fighting to ECOMOG. The EU will base its attitude to Liberia on the concrete steps taken by all parties concerned to implement the Abuja agreement and bring the conflict to an end.</P>
    2559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2552
    25602553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty of Pelindaba on a nuclear weapon-free zone in Africa</P>
    2561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2554
    25622555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 12 April 1996</P>
    2563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2556
    25642557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the signature in Cairo on 11 April 1996 of the Pelindaba Treaty establishing the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The Treaty is in line with the Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament issued by the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference which   recognised that the creation of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones enhances global and regional peace and security.</P>
    2565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2558
    25662559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers that Nuclear Weapon Free Zones are welcome complementary instruments to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the universality of which the EU continues to promote.</P>
    2567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2560
    25682561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
    2569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2562
    25702563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appeal for the 'boat people' of Liberia</P>
    2571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2564
    25722565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 14 May 1996</P>
    2573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2566
    25742567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the grave humanitarian situation caused by the ongoing fighting in Monrovia and condemns the violence against the civilian population and the harassment of aid operations.</P>
    2575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2568
    25762569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While recognising the enormous efforts already made by neighbouring countries to assist the hundreds of thousands of existing Liberian refugees, the Council deplores the fact that the thousands of people crammed in precarious conditions on ships in the area are still in search of a friendly port.</P>
    2577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2570
    25782571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals on humanitarian grounds to the neighbouring countries to give at least temporary shelter to these victims of the fighting and affirms its own willingness to give humanitarian aid to cover their most urgent needs.</P>
    2579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2572
    25802573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council calls on all the Liberian factions to stop the fighting immediately and put the peace process back on track in order to avoid further suffering.</P>
    2581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2574
    25822575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISITS</P>
    2583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2576
    25842577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda</P>
    2585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2578
    25862579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda, Pierre Celestin Rwigema, visited Brussels from 26 to 29 March in the course of a tour aimed at informing the main donors about the work undertaken by his government in recent months and about the policies which would be implemented in the future. He was accompanied by the Minister of Planning and the Minister for Rehabilitation. The Prime Minister was received by Commissioner Pinheiro, who is responsible for relations with the ACP countries and by Mrs Bonino, the Commission member in charge of humanitarian actions. He also spoke at meetings of the External Relations and Development Committees of the European Parliament. Professor Pinheiro took the opportunity to highlight to the Prime Minister his concerns about the current situation in Rwanda, reiterating the Commission's commitment to the country and its people. He also spoke of the need for the authorities to pursue policies and implement measures leading to the restoration of normality. He said it was essential to have a dialogue with the Rwandan refugees in neighbouring countries (there are now about 1.7 million) and to pursue the pacification process under the auspices of the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity, with the involvement of all the heads of government in the Great Lakes region. Mr Rwigema's visit came at a crucial time for Rwanda. Even if the immediate crisis had passed, there was still a dire need for rehabilitation and development assistance, on top of the existing emergency aid programmes. The political situation remained delicate and the future was by no means secure, notwithstanding some encouraging signs of a progressive improvement as exemplified by the Tunis summit. The recent nomination of</P>
    2587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2580
    25882581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aldo Ajello as the EU's special envoy to the Great Lakes region underlined the political and moral dimension of the EU's commitment to the peace process in this troubled part of Africa.</P>
    2589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2582
    25902583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPPORT FOR HUMAN</P>
    25912584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RIGHTS</P>
    2592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2585
    25932586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to provide the following financing for projects under the budget line 'Support for. democratisation and human rights'. Non-ACP countries </P>
    2594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2587
    25952588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 180.000 to support seven national and one regional fore aimed at providing training in the field of human rights for instructors. </P>
    2596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2589
    25972590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 100.000 for a democracy consolidation training programme for 30 teams from various organisations in Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. </P>
    2598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2591
    25992592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America/Colombia: ECU 263.000 for a series of actions, notably in Colombia, involving the provision of information on human and citizens' rights. </P>
    2600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2593
    26012594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 190.000 for a project designed to boost the civil rights of black people in the country, through the training of judicial personnel and the strengthening of legislation against race discrimination. </P>
    2602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2595
    26032596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 145.000 for a training programme for magistrates, prosecutors and the police aimed at facilitating the uniform application of the law in the State of S&atilde;o Paulo. </P>
    2604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2597
    26052598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 290.000 for a training programme in the sphere of democratic municipal management, in the cities of Recife, Porto Alegre, Santos and Fortaleza. </P>
    2606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2599
    26072600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 308.000 for a project to collect and make available the case law of the Constitutional Court, and  to train officials and members of civil society.</P>
    2608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2601
    26092602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 326.000 to support the National Human Rights Commission with a view to promoting such rights in the Departments of Comayagua and Olancho. </P>
    2610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2603
    26112604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 131.000 for an education programme dealing with civic and electoral issues and the rights of children. </P>
    2612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2605
    26132606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico: ECU 20.000 to support an initial Latin-American colloquium on the subject of the Ombudsman (in the face of the objectives and challenges of the region). </P>
    2614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2607
    26152608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 285.000 to support the social rehabilitation of minors in custody. </P>
    2616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2609
    26172610<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 125.000 for a training action in the field of the defence of human rights. </P>
    2618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2611
    26192612<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 250.000 to support a communication campaign designed to strengthen the image of the 'people's ombudsman'. </P>
    2620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2613
    26212614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 160.000 to strengthen the institution of Justices of the Peace in the country's municipalities.</P>
    2622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2615
    26232616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 100.000 ECU for a training and promotion action in the field of human rights and the strengthening of civil society. </P>
    2624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2617
    26252618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN</P>
    2626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2619
    26272620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
    2628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2621
    26292622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
    2630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2623
    26312624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
    2632 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2625
    26332626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon: ECU 7.3 million for a programme aimed at protecting the urban boundary of the city of Kousseri from the encroachments of the Logone river, to improve sanitation and for the upgrading of an urban access route towards Chad. </P>
    2634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2627
    26352628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 54 million for a transport infrastructure programme aimed at facilitating the social and economic development of the people living in the recisions in question (Western region, Brong Afaho, the Ashanti region). </P>
    2636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2629
    26372630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 3.8 million for a human resource development programme designed to achieve better planning, management and implementation of development projects. </P>
    2638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2631
    26392632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.9 million for a project to support the development of tourism. </P>
    2640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2633
    26412634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 385 000 to extend the water supply system in the town of Mantola </P>
    2642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2635
    26432636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 13.5 million to upgrade the Ere-Kelo road </P>
    2644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2637
    26452638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
    2646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2639
    26472640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin-Cameroon C&ocirc;te-d'lvoire-GhanaGuinea-Togo: ECU 1.99 million for a regional programme of trade activities and training with a view to relaunching the pineapple business in West and Central Africa. </P>
    2648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2641
    26492642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 180 000 for the construction of an 'export and creativity' pavilion at the Salon international de l'artisanat in Ouagadougou. </P>
    2650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2643
    26512644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua-New Guinea: ECU 5.3 million for the fourth structural adjustment support programme. </P>
    2652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2645
    26532646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
    2654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2647
    26552648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a rice irrigation project. </P>
    2656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2649
    26572650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enterpris</P>
    2658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2651
    26592652<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 33.7 million from the Sysmin fund, to support the work of the BCL, Tati and FEB mining companies in the SelebiPhikwe region. </P>
    2660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2653
    26612654<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
    2662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2655
    26632656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic: ECU 1.3 million to support the STD-HIV-AIDS prevention programme. </P>
    2664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2657
    26652658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education</P>
    2666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2659
    26672660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a decentralised training project in favour of regional tourism operators. </P>
    2668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2661
    26692662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuvalu: ECU 300 000 for the rehabilitation of primary schools on the islands of Nukutetau and Nanumea. </P>
    2670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2663
    26712664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
    2672 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2665
    26732666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Africa (Cameroon-Central African Republic-Congo-GabonEquatorial Guinea): ECU 16 million for phase 2 of the ECOFAC project (Conservation and rational utilisation of forest ecosystems in Central Africa). </P>
    2674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2667
    26752668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
    2676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2669
    26772670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1 million towards a study aimed at allowing the government to implement its land reform policy. </P>
    2678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2671
    26792672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 4.5 million for a study aimed at allowing the government to undertake proper planning in the area of water resources and irrigation. </P>
    26802673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
    2681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2674
    26822675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific region: ECU 4.9 million for a project designed to improve the efficiency and security at certain airports. </P>
    2683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2676
    26842677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
    2685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2678
    26862679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
    2687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2680
    26882681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 1 million towards the reintegration of some 200 000 Malians who fled to Algeria and Mauritania during the rebellions of the 1980s. </P>
    2689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2682
    26902683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 317 000 for victims of the severe floods that struck the centre and south of the country recently. </P>
    2691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2684
    26922685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 850 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic affecting seven provinces of the country. </P>
    2693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2686
    26942687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 700 000 in urgent food and medical assistance for some 250 000 refugees who fled to the areas around the towns of Bo and Kemena following the fighting. </P>
    2695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2688
    26962689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 200 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic. </P>
    2697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2690
    26982691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 145 000 to help victims of the cholera epidemic and to assist in preventing its further spread (following the course of the Zaire river). </P>
    2699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2692
    27002693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
    2701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2694
    27022695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 60 000 to help fight cholera in the municipality of Silvia, where some 40 000 are under threat due to a lack of drinking water and deficiencies in basic hygiene. </P>
    2703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2696
    27042697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 1.52 million to provide food aid and basic essentials to returnees from other parts of the country, and from Mexico, following years of civil war. </P>
    2705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2698
    27062699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armenia/Azerbaijan: ECU 11.57 million (ECU 4.07m for Armenia and ECU 7.5m for Azerbaijan), for food and medical assistance, targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population, and for the provision of agricultural materials with a view to reducing progressively the dependence of the refugees, who are victims of the conflict in Nagomo-Karabakh.</P>
    2707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2700
    27082701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caucasus-Georgia-Tadilkistan: ECU 3.2 million for food aid to be targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population. </P>
    2709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2702
    27102703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia: ECU 7.43 million for victims of the internal conflict in this country where the loss of the Russian market has seriously undermined the rural economy. </P>
    2711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2704
    27122705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lebanon: ECU 600 000 for displaced people, to allow for the purchase of basic essentials including food, medicines, shelter and blankets. </P>
    2713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2706
    27142707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 600 000 for health infrastructures in the refugee camps   around Jalalabad, and for medical aid to refugees in the town of Herat. Indonesia: ECU 120 000 for toots and materials to construct shelters for the victims of the earthquake that struck in February. China (Tibetan nomads): ECU 550 000 for food aid, medicines and blankets for some 72 000 people living in the mountainous regions who have been badly hit by severe weather and a food shortage.</P>
    2715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2708
    27162709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID </P>
    2717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2710
    27182711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p95a.png"></center><br>
    27192712 The Commission has recently taken decisions to finance food aid as set out in the chart which follows: </P>
    2720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2722 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2723 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2713
     2714<B>
    27242715<!--
    27252716</Section>
    … …  
    27302721  </Description>
    27312722-->
    2732 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2723</B>
    27332724<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
    27342725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
    2735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2726
    27362727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-KU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium</P>
    2737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2728
    27382729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere - Brussels Belgium</P>
    2739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2730
    27402731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smide commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - BRUSSELS (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
    2741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2732
    27422733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
    27432734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
    2744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2735
    27452736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
    27462737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
    2747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2738
    27482739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
    27492740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
    27502741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remade</P>
    2751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2742
    27522743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant  editor</P>
    27532744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
    2754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2745
    27552746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joumalist:</P>
    27562747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
    2757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2748
    27582749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
    27592750<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
    2760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2751
    27612752<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
    27622753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
    27632754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30~02</P>
    2764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2755
    27652756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
    27662757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P></FONT>

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    1414  </Description>
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    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    17 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     16</B>
    1817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN-UNION</P>
    19 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    20 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     18
    2119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     20
    2321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali, which used to be the centre of great appears hemmed in by its frontiers, colonisation having culminated in the break-up of the old 'French Sudan'. Following the marxist regime of Modibo Keita (the 'founder' of the nation) and the dictatorship of Mousse Traor&eacute;, Mali has discovered democracy. It is still one of the world's poorest countries but recent macro-economic trends are highly encouraging and there is a new dynamism. It seems that the ending of the Tuareg conflict has provoked a surge of optimism- even among ordinary citizens whose wallets have yet to feel the effects of an improving national economy.</P>
    26 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     24
    2725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
    28 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     26
    2927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
    30 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     28
    3129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific island nations have a reputation for idyllic scenery and rich cultural traditions. Western Samoa has both of these assets in abundance, but it also faces many development challenges. With a population of just 165 000, the country has a limited local market, and it is a very long way from potential overseas customers. It is also susceptible to destructive tropical storms. Despite these constraints, there have been some promising signs of economic progress in recent years.</P>
    32 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     30
    3331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
    34 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     32
    3533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people</P>
    36 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     34
    3735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in these days of constantly shifting development theories? We look at this subject in our Dossier. </P>
    38 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    40 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    41 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     36
     37<B>
    4238<!--
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    48 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     44</B>
    4945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
    5046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
    51 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     47
    5248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) </P>
    5349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi </P>
    5450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 Brussels </P>
    5551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium </P>
    56 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     52
    5753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) </P>
    5854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Gen&egrave;ve </P>
    5955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evere - Brussels </P>
    6056<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium</P>
    61 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     57
    6258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt </P>
    6359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission of the European communities </P>
    … …  
    6662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Belgium) </P>
    6763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
    68 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     64
    6965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
    7066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
    71 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     67
    7268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
    7369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
    74 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     70
    7571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
    7672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
    7773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
    78 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     74
    7975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
    8076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
    81 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     77
    8278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
    8379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     80
    8581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
    8682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
    87 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     83
    8884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
    8985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
    9086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     87
    9288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
    9389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P>
    9490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(299-30-12)</P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     91
    9692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cower page:</P>
    9793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover photo by</P>
    9894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John and Penny Hubley</P>
    99 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    100 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     95
     96<B>
    10197<!--
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    109105<B><P></P>
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    115111-->
    116 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     112</B>
    117113<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Pacific Forum: 'responding to the needs of the Member States'</P>
    118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     114
    119115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although an accountant by training, leremiah Tabai has never had the opportunity to practise his profession, having pursued a successful political career instead since 1974. In 1978, he was annointed head of government in Kiribati and a year later he became his country's first President, when it achieved independence. He held this position for 12 years. In 1991, he took up the top post in one of the South Pacific's key regional bodies, the Forum Secretariat, which is based in Suva, Fiji. During a recent Courier visit to the region, we had the opportunity to interview the Secretary General. Our discussion was wide-ranging, covering issues such as the Forum Secretariat's role, the economic challenges facing the South Pacific, and the development of regional links with Australia, New Zealand and Asia. We began by asking Mr Tabai to outline the objectives of the organisation that he heads.</P>
    120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     116
    121117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Like many other organisations in the region, the Forum was established essentially to try and assist the development process of the Member States. At the time it was set up, there was already an organisation in existence - the South Pacific Commission - which dates back to 1947. But there was a feeling that we needed an organisation that was not just restricted to economic issues; that could talk about other matters with a bearing on the development of the region.</P>
    122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     118
    123119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early years, when the organisation was called the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC), the focus was heavily on trying to assist the trade and economic development of the member countries. Later, the name was changed to the Forum Secretariat and its role evolved.</P>
    124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     120
    125121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what way ?</P>
    126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     122
    127123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has evolved in seeking to respond to the needs of the Member States. It started as a very small bureau essentially dealing, as I said, with trade and economic issues. Subsequently, it moved into areas like energy, civil aviation, maritime questions and telecommunications. It also became more involved in political issues. We have a division which deals specifically with these.</P>
    128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     124
    129125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995 was a very important year in the history of the Forum. We had a review of the organisation, looking at ways we could perform better and taking account of the changes in the region and the world at large. The fundamental recommendation in the report which came out of that review was that the Secretariat should focus mainly in future on poliy-related issues, in the areas of trade and investment, economics and international relations. This report was discussed and endorsed at the last Forum in Madang, Papua New Guinea. </P>
    130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     126
    131127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does this mean, in practice, a withdrawal from project activity ?</P>
    132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     128
    133129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It may. The essential focus of the work will be providing policy advice to countries. Having said this, there should still be some project work. For instance, we will be engaged in a programme to provide assistance for importers, particularly in the small island countries. The idea is to help people- who may not be familiar with all the legal requirements-to learn how to get into the business. This will involve running a workshop and inviting people with expertise to pass on their knowledge. So even though the focus will be on policy issues, there will still be room for project-type activities where needed -so long as these fit in with the policy priorities. </P>
    134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     130
    135131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the fact that the Forum now deals with political questions. Although the issue may now be seen as 'water under the bridge' to what extent was the Forum Secretariat involved in the diplomatic disagreement over French nuclear testing ?</P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     132
    137133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- We were very much involved from the beginning. In 1991, when the French testing was not underground but atmospheric, the region, at a Forum meeting, came out strongly in opposition to the tests. Right up to our last meeting in Madang, the subject was always a major item on the agenda, and we left France in no doubt as to the resolve of our region.</P>
    138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     134
    139135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the new President took the decision to resume testing after a gap of several years, I was in the group from the South Pacific that went to France to express our views to French ministers, face-to-face. Our team was led by the then Australian Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, who was President of the Forum. And when the tests began again, the Chairman took a decision suspending the dialogue and partner status of France with the Forum. So, as you see, we have been heavily involved in the issue.</P>
    140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     136
    141137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What resources does the Forum have at its disposal and where does the money come from ?</P>
    142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     138
    143139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An important source of funds is our members' contributions. These tend to be used to cover the operational costs of the organisation. Then of course, there are the funds made available by our donors. The main ones are obviously Australia and New Zealand but there are many other countries and international organisations who provide assistance. The EU, of course, is an important partner. There was also a private donor who funded our conference centre.</P>
    144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     140
    145141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are employed in the Secretariat ?</P>
    146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     142
    147143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Around 80, all based here in Suva. Most of these are support staff.</P>
    148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     144
    149145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the current state of relations between the Forum Secretariat and the main donors ?</P>
    150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     146
    151147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say our relations are good. We have an extensive mechanism for consultation with the donors. Every two years, we invite them here for a dialogue. We talk about the key issues and discuss ways in which they can assist us. There is also usually a dialogue associated with the Forum (ministerial) meetings. In September this year, after the Forum meeting, we will have more discussions with our main partners such as the EU, Canada, France, Japan and the UK. I should mention too the close links we have with international organisations like the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and the IMF.</P>
    152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     148
    153149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I think it is fair to say that the Forum Secretariat is seen as a particularly important organisation in the region. That is why donors are quite keen to be seen assisting us in what we do.</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     150
    155151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the key development issues facing the South Pacific nations ?</P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     152
    157153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Development is quite a difficult process for our region. There are various international reports (particularly from the World Bank) - that describe how we have fared over the last few years. If you compare our performance with the Caribbean countries, for example, you find that we have not done nearly so well.</P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     154
    159155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We face a number of problems. First, there is the fact that we are so small. Small communities find it much more difficult than large ones to achieve development. You need to have the market and the critical mass to do all the things that are needed and we lack these. A second, related point is that our countries are very isolated from the rest of the world. It is true that here in Fiji, there are quite good connections, but if you go to Tuvalu, Kiribati or Niue, you will soon discover how difficult it is to get out. And if you are so isolated in terms of communication, how can you hope to increase your exports ? How can you airfreight your fish to Japan when there is no aircraft available-or the one that is available is not fast enough to ensure that the product is still fresh when it arrives?</P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     156
    161157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On this question, one of the things we are increasingly realising is the need to do more in terms of human resource development. We all recognise that, without an educated population and workforce, it is very hard to achieve the development that we are aiming for. To be fair, if you compare the literacy rates here with those of many other countries, say in Africa, they are not at all bad. Our literacy levels are quite high. But I think we have a long way to go in acquiring problem-solving skills of the type needed to compete internationally. We are now talking with the EU about how we can utilise funding from the second protocol of Lom&eacute; IV. And I suspect that human resource development will remain high on the agenda.</P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     158
    163159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is that view shared by the European side ?</P>
    164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    165161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think so. l have a feeling that they will support it because it is so obvious. If you develop human skills, you are better placed when it comes to problem-solving.</P>
    166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162
    167163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Going back to the key development issues, another point is the lack of natural resources. This is less of a difficulty for countries like Fiji or Papua New Guinea, but it certainly affects the small island states. It hardly needs saying that if you don't have the resources in the first place, it is much harder to develop.</P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    169165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I think there is a question of how the Pacific region can get a better return on the resources it does have. This theme of 'managing our resources' was discussed by the Forum in Brisbane two years ago. Fisheries is probably the most important area here. The question is how we can earn more from this than we are currently doing- and there is no easy answer. Likewise in the forestry sector. We have to ensure that logging is done on a sustainable basis. But we must also recognise that leaders of the Pacific nations are under pressure. On the one hand, they are trying to take a lona-term view. but they are also striving to tackle the immediate problems. In an ideal world, our region would obtain a far better return on our resources, and that is something that we have to work on.</P>
    170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    171167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having said all this, I don't think one should be too pessimistic. This region is still a very good place to live in. That is clearly reflected in the number of visitors we get. The 'South Seas' still have a special connotation that draws people here.</P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    173169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You effectively have two 'genera/' regional organisations, with overlapping memberships, covering the South Pacific -the Forum, and the South Pacifc Commission (SPC). Do you think there is room for bath ? Do you complement each other or is there a rivalry ?</P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    175171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We have more than two regional organisations. We also have SPREP (South Pacifc Regional Environment Programme), the FFA (Forum Fisheries Agency)....</P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    177173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but these are specialist bodies with distinct sectoral responsibilities.</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    179175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, that's true. In answer to your question, my view is that we have no problem with things as they stand. I was very involved in the debate some years back on the question of what we called an SRO - a single regional organisation. There was a strong push to try and achieve an SRO. The subject was debated for a few years and, in the end, it was possible to resolve the question.</P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    181177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean it was resolved by the idea being abandoned ?</P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     178
    183179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I suppose it depends on the way you look at it. The outcome was a decision to leave the regional organisations as they are but with the establishment of a mechanism to ensure they work together more effectively. This mechanism is called SPOCC-the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee. It is a meeting of heads of regional organisations which happens at least once a year. We talk about the issues that are common to our mandate and work out ways of doing things better. SPOCC has been operating for six or seven years now and I think it works fairly well. There is, after all, no conflict in our underlying objectives. So my answer here is no, I don't see any problem. I don't see any rivalry between us. It is a question of seeing how we can work together to achieve the goals that we share.</P>
    184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     180
    185181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the European Union, the fundamental goal, set out in the Treaty, is to move towards 'ever-closer union' We have been doing this in fits and starts over the past 35 years. Do you see the Forum perhaps taking on a similar role here-as the focus for economic, and perhaps ultimately, political integration in the South Pacifc ?</P>
    186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     182
    187183<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think it is too early to speculate. We already have a number of sub-groups in the region like the MSG, the Melanesian Spearhead Group, whose members are the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Fiji (admitted last year). Further north, we have the Micronesian grouping which brings together Nauru, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. These groups meet outside the Forum framework and they essentially have a common aim which is to work more closely together. I think they feel it is easier to do it at this level because they are closer to each other and have more in common.</P>
    188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     184
    189185<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the Forum Secretariat, you can never tell what may come in the future. On balance, however, I think at the moment that integration is a long way off. Having said this, you do sometimes hear people putting the idea forward. There is, for example, something called the CER system, which stands for 'closer economic relations' between Australia and New Zealand. There have been suggestions that it might be possible to enlarge this grouping.</P>
    190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     186
    191187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at closer economic cooperation, and the general dismantling of trade barriers, we also need to recognise the growing importance of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) for the region. We are trying strengthen our links with the APEC countries and in October, we will be establishing a trade office in Japan.</P>
    192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     188
    193189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean a Forum Secretariat office ? </P>
    194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     190
    195191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, in Tokyo. We are also talking with the Chinese and will probably end up with an office in Beijing. This is all part of our attempt to integrate ourselves with the Asean region. </P>
    196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     192
    197193<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Simon Homer</P>
    198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     194
    199195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mission statement of the Forum Secretariat</P>
    200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     196
    201197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mission of the Forum Secretariat is to enhance the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific, in support of the efforts of the national governments. The Secretariat has particular responsibility to facilitate, develop and maintain cooperation and consultation between member governments. </P>
    202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     198
    203199<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Secretariat must pursue its mission in accordance with the directives of the Forum and within its mandated areas of operation. it undertakes political and economic activities, regional in nature and complementary to the activities of the member governments. Its role requires it to act as the secretariat to the Forum and to disseminate the Forum's views, to coordinate activities with other regional institutions in particular through the SPOCC process, and to represent the Forum's interests intemationally, as required. </P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    205 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     200
     201<B>
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    214 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     210</B>
    215211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investment symposium</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     212
    217213<B><P></P>
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    224 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     220</B>
    225221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency) symposium was held in Montreal from 22-24 May. It brought together some 40 African mining ministers, most of the important donor agencies and representatives of around 25 mining companies. MIGA, which is a specialised agency of the World Bank, promotes the flow of private investment to developing countries. It provides insurance against political risks and assists member countries in attracting foreign investment.</P>
    226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     222
    227223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the symposium was to attract investors from all over the world in order to exploit the rich mining possibilities offered by many African states. Several of the countries that attended went to considerable effort to present themselves well, and it was evident that some are quickly learning what it takes to attract foreign investors.</P>
    228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     224
    229225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate for mining investment in most African states has improved tremendously over the last two to three years. Most countries have introduced new mining codes, clearly defining the rights and obligations of foreign investors. State-owned companies are also being privatised, taxation has been made more reasonable and institutions in the mining sector, such as geological surveys, are becoming more efficient.</P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     226
    231227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has led to a big increase in exploration for new deposits and a substantial increase in investment. At present, the activity is particularly heavy in West Africa, where many countries have very good gold potential. The European Community is contributing to this development in several ways. The biggest success so far has been the exploration campaign in Mali, funded under that country's Lom&eacute; National Indicative Programme (NIP), which led to the discovery of the Sadiola gold deposit. A world-class gold mine will be built here, bringing substantial benefits to the country.</P>
    232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     228
    233229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has also supported many African countries in their efforts to reform the legal and administrative framework for the mining industry. An important element, however, in attracting mining companies is the availability of good geological data. This is a very expensive activity, which does not bring immediate returns, if at all. So it is not appropriate to finance this through bank loans. The NlPs and SYSMIN Fund, on the other hand, are instruments that are well-suited to this kind of work. The Community has already financed a series of airborne geophysical surveys in Botswana and Namibia -to mention just two examples-and a new Sysmin project is currently being prepared for Burkina Faso.</P>
    234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     230
    235231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission Unit responsible for Mining Cooperation and Sysmin (VIIIl.B.5) was represented at the symposium. Its main purpose for being there was to present the functioning of Sysmin and the Community's cooperation in the field of mining to ACP ministers, mining companies and other donor agencies.</P>
    236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     232
    237233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current state of the mining sector</P>
    238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     234
    239235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mining sector is currently very active. Exploration in West Africa doubled between 1993 and 1995 and new mines are being opened all the time. A lot of this new activity is to be found in the gold sector. This is mainly due to the development of cheaper production methods combined with a much more positive investment climate in many African countries. A gold mine takes less time to reach the production stage than, for example, a copper mine, with the former being far less dependent on good infrastructure. Outside the gold sector, activity is much more subdued. While base-metal prices are at a reasonable level, the pay-back period is much longer and the lack of suitable infrastructure kills many projects.</P>
    240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    241237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many countries, mining is a key area in the growth of the private sector. State-ownad mines are being privatised and the new mines that are being opened have little or no state participation. Foreign investors are bringing in the most up-to-date mining technologies and business methods, and they are faced with the need to train local people in technical and business skills. Supporting the mining sector is clearly an efficient way of supporting private sector development.</P>
    242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     238
    243239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SYSMIN's future role</P>
    244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     240
    245241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that most metals are currently fetching quite high prices, it is probable that relatively few ACP countries will be eligible for SYSMIN assistance over the next two to three years. The viability of most existing mines is not thought to be under threat and they should continue to be profitable. Thus, countries that are heavily dependent on mining should not experience severe losses in export income, which in turn means that relatively few SYSMIN requests are expected during the period of Lom&eacute; IV's second financial protocol. At the same time, the financial allocation for SYSMIN has been increased from ECU 48Om to ECU 575m.</P>
    246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     242
    247243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When trying to attract new mining investors, it is essential for a country to have good geological information. Private companies are normally unwilling to undertake much general prospect ion, such as airborne geophysical surveys, because it is very expensive and, if they do, it is usually limited to very small areas.</P>
    248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     244
    249245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, companies are tending to restrict their activities to areas for which general information is already available. These points were raised by several of the mining companies that attended the symposium.</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     246
    251247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the present mining boom is not going to last for ever. Metal prices are volatile and, with the next downturn in the business cycle, a decline in metal prices will surely follow. So it is essential to prepare the basis for future mining activities by collecting general data. Given that a significant part of the SYSMIN allocation may remain unused because of a lack of requests, it would be worthwhile to consider whether a part could be reallocated to prepare general geological data for mining activities in the next century. </P>
    252248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. B.-H.</P>
    253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     249
    254250<B><P></P>
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    262258</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hans van de Veen</P>
    263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     259
    264260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU-ACP relationship be used to strengthen the dialogue between Europe and the main victims of climate change ? And can the Lom&eacute; Convention be one of the tools to promote climate protection measures, as well as the implementation of the Climate</P>
    265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    266262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty? These questions will be considered in depth at a hearing on climate derange scheduled for the next ACP-EU Joint Assembly, to be held in the last week of September 1996.</P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    268264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periods of heavy rain have always been part of normal life in Fiji. But the latest rains were different, says counsellor Taina Tudau of the Fiji Embassy in Brussels. 'They were much more extreme than what we were used to, and caused heavy damage. Normally it took several days of heavy rain before the floods came up. This time, the water flooded the islands almost immediately the rain began to fall.' Mrs Tudau sees two main causes for the recent flooding. First, there is heavy deforestation on the islands, causing widespread erosion. But she is sure there was another reason for the recent damage: 'In the Pacific we know the local climate is changing. We see that the sea is rising. We are experiencing more extreme weather events. There can be no doubt that global warming is already going on.'</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     265
    270266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is a prominent member of the Alliance of Small Island States (Aosis), the group of 36 nations which feel particularly threatened by global warming. At the first Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Berlin in March 1995, Aosis called for industrialised nations to reduce their C02 emissions by 20% by 2005 (based on 1990 levels). At the end of the conference, the 150 national delegations agreed to begin negotiations on targets for industrialised nations to cut emissions in the early years of the next century.</P>
    271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     267
    272268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So intentions may be good, but in practice not much has been done yet. The EU, for its part, risks losing credibility if firm action is not taken soon. According to a recent Commission White Paper on energy policy, the use of energy within the Union will increase by 1% a year up to 2020. Failing 'any strong policy interventions', the paper says, emissions of carbon dioxide are likely to show a 'substantial increase' during this period. Says Fiji-counsellor Tudau: 'As small island states we know what's at stake, but there seems to be no feeling of urgency in the rest of the world. We really wonder how long it will take before there is a definite move towards reduction of greenhouse gases.'</P>
    273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     269
    274270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU-ACP cooperation</P>
    275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     271
    276272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Berlin conference, the ACP countries-led by Aosis but with support from most of the African states -took a constructive and moderate position in the G77. The position adopted by the EU could also be described as moderate, certainly compared to that of other OECD countries. Several observers have pointed to the fact that these two moderate approaches by important blocks within the Climate Convention negotiations offer possibilities for some form of cooperation.</P>
    277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     273
    278274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'No doubt the EU represents the most progressive group of countries</P>
    279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     275
    280276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">within the OECD, although its position is far from sufficient', says Sible Schone, a representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature. 'Besides that, the EU has a special relationship with a large group of developing countries. Quite obviously it will be significant to get a dialogue started between the EU and the ACPs on the subject of climate change.' Currently, there is no such dialogue. 'At the moment we are not in a dialogue with ACP countries on climate change', says Bertil Heerink of the European Commission's Environment Directorate-General who is a member of the EU delegation to the climate negotiations. 'I'm convinced this will happen some day, but first we have to agree on our own goals and measures. I am sure developing countries want us to give priority to this too.'</P>
    281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     277
    282278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The special ACP subcommittee to deal with tropical timber, the environment and fisheries, formed after the signing of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, only recently started its work. With respect to the global warming issue, it is waiting for the Joint Assembly hearing, according to ambassador Michael King of Barbados, who is a committee member. 'The specific interests of the different regions have to be articulated there, and then some kind of sustained effort has to be initiated.'</P>
    283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     279
    284280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unit for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources in the Development Directorate-General of the Commission (DG VIII) not at present dealing with the subject of climate change. Says Head of Unit, Amos Tincani: 'We have worked on biodiversity and desertification, and we want to do more on the specific environmental problems of small island states. But we have done nothing similar on climate change. This is partly because it is so much a global problem, but the main reason is we simply lack the people and the time to go into it.'</P>
    285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     281
    286282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assembly hearing</P>
    287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     283
    288284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its meeting in Windhoek in March this year, the Joint Assembly adopted a resolution which had been proposed by representatives of 13 small island states. This urged the EU to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof. More specifically, the Commission is being asked to update its climate change strategy for the period post-2000 and to achieve significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases over the coming decade and thereafter. The resolution riches on to call for extra assistance to ACP countries in the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean to help them improve their disaster preparedness. The Commission is also urged to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies and practices, to enable ACP states to develop coastal zone management strategies and to rehabilitate and protect areas stricken by drought and desertification as well as by hurricanes and floods.</P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     285
    290286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two representatives of the European Parliament, Maartje van Putter (PES) and Peter Liege (EPP), have been active on the situation of the small island states and climate change for several years. According to Mrs Van Putten, the main effect of the coming Assembly hearing should be to put extra pressure on the Commission to take its responsibility seriously. 'Talking about climate change,' she says, 'one should never forget who is to blame and who, therefore, must take decisive action. A European tax on energy or carbon dioxide would be an important first step, but no more than that.'</P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     287
    292288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides influencing the Commission's energy policy, Mrs Van Putten hopes the Assembly hearing will raise public awareness on the climate problem in those ACP countries which are not in the 'small island' category. 'If you are talking about rising sea levels, the African states with low-lying coastal zones face the same problems as the small island countries,' she points out. 'And they also face the problem of desertification and declining food production.'</P>
    293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     289
    294290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrating the climate dimension</P>
    295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     291
    296292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a recent briefing paperto the Commission, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) concluded that, hitherto, the aid community (including the EU) had not incorporated measures on global warming into their strategic thinking on sustainable development. 'Indeed, the possibility of climate change has been considered of minor importance in comparison to other environmental concerns.' This is hardly surprising, says the London-based institute, as the climate issue has only recently been placed on the international agenda. Moreover, the long-term threat of global warming raises some difficult questions regarding priorities in circumstances where resources are limited. In other words: who wants to spend scarce funds on problems the full effects of which will probably not be felt for another 25 to 50 years? The best way forward, suggests the IIED, is to tackle the apparent conflict between shortterm development priorities and longterm climate protection, by 'integrating the climate dimension' rather than considering climate change as an issue in isolation.</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     293
    298294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technology transfer could be a central point, according to WWF's Sible Schone. 'Developing countries see technology transfer as a central theme in the Climate Convention, but the industrialised countries don't give enough weight to these There are a lot of paragraphs about technology transfer in the Convention as well as in Lom&eacute;. Now it's time to fill in these commitments.'</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     295
    300296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strangely, there are hardly any Lom&eacute; projects currently under way in the field of energy efficiency. It is strange because experts have pointed to the large potential in developing countries for cost-effective energy improvement and energy conservation. Improved management could save at least 25% of the energy now being consumed. Quick realisation of this potential would significantly contribute to alleviating environmental &agrave;nd development problems.</P>
    301 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     297
    302298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henri Martin, energy specialist in DG VIII, agrees a lot more could be done in this field, but he points out: 'We are dependent on requests. If you look at the wording of the Convention, everything has already been said. There are chapters on energy and technology transfer. The problem is that we don't get enough signals back from the ACP countries that these items are a priority for them. I'm afraid sustainable energy or energy efficiency is not high on the agenda of most countries.' Taina Tudau disagrees strongly: 'Our experience is that the projects that could make a difference and contribute to sustainable development, protection of the environment and local sustainable energy production, are found to be too small. It is the donor that sets the conditions for the projects, not us, the small island states.'</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     299
    304300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New funding?</P>
    305 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     301
    306302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU build a credible policy linking climate and development cooperation, without reserving extra money? Not surprisingly, there is disagreement on this question. In Brussels, officials are inclined to point to possibilities that are already there but not being used. Amos Tincani, for instance, observes that 'there are budgets for this kind of problem under Lom&eacute;. We have provisions specially targeted for the islands'. He mentions regional budgets in particular: 'A lot can be started at the regional level which then trickles down to the national level. But after producing fine resolutions, everybody seems to forget the work still needs to be done. The idea is: 'oh yes, we can do it, provided it is with fresh money'. We say: a lot more can be done with existing budgets and instruments.'</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     303
    308304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maartje van Putten, from the Parliament, says the discussion should not be 'dominated by southern demands for additional money'. She agrees that ACP countries could make better use of existing funds and possibilities, such as, for instance, the funds for intra ACP cooperation. But counsellor Tudau points to the fact that the Climate Convention urges industrialised countries to support the response of developing countries to climate problems through 'new and additional' money, besides the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and expertise.</P>
    309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     305
    310306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a financial mechanism built into the Climate Convention, which is administered by the Global Environmental Facility, to cover additional costs of appropriate measures. But much more could be done by the aid community, including the EU, according to Mrs Tudau. 'Most European countries will not succeed in stabilising, let alone reducing, their emissions. In reaction to this, as ACP countries we should say: European Union, you are not fulfilling your obligations. You have to try harder and you have to set extra money aside to compensate for the damage this is doing to us. </P>
    311307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.v.d.V.</P>
    312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308
    313309<B><P></P>
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    321 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317</B>
    322318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were no real surprises or unexpected developments at the ACP-EU Council meeting which took place in Apia, Western Samoa, on 27 and 28 June, 1996. The session was preceded by an ACP Council, which saw the adoption of three important decisions. The first of these was the appointment of a new ACP Secretary-6eneral, Mr Ng'andu P. Magande of Zambia. The post had been vacant for some time, following deadlock within the ACP Group over a successor to Berhane Ghebray (see issue 155 of The Courier, p.6). The ministers also agreed to hold a summit of ACP heads of government in Libreville, Gabon, during the second half of 1997. This meeting is expected to focus heavily on the future of ACPEU relations once the present Lom&eacute; Convention has expired.</P>
    323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    324320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the substantive area, the ACP Council adopted a resolution deploring the suspension of cooperation with Equatorial Guinea. Ministers urged the European Union to make use of the procedure in Article 366a of the revised Lom&eacute; Convention, and to set in train the consultation procedure envisaged in this provision.</P>
    325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    326322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue was raised again by the ACP side at the subsequent ACP-EU Council. This meeting, which was presided over by Mrs Toya (Italian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs) and Mr Syamujaye (Zambia's Trade Minister) had a relatively light agenda. There was a discussion about the Commission proposal for a directive on the use of vegetable fats, other than cocoa fat, in chocolate (see issue 158 of The Courier, p.35). Somalia also featured in the debate, with representatives agreeing on the need to find ways of allowing this country to benefit from Lom&eacute; Convention provisions. The civil conflict in Somalia, and the absence of an effective central administration have prevented the deployment of regular development aid for many years, although significant amounts of emergency assistance have been and are still being provided.</P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    328324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the ACP-EU Council approved two reports drawn up by the development finance cooperation subcommittee and commodities sub-committee respectively. Representatives were able to reach a compromise on two outstanding points of contention in the resolution on development finance relating to tenders and the dissemination of the user's guide.</P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     325
    330326<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note was taken of the number of countries that have so far lodged instruments of ratification for the revisad Lom&eacute; Convention (Mauritius agreement). At the time of the Apia meeting, only nine countries had ratified: seven on the ACP side (Barbados, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Jamaica, Malawi, Mauritius and Solomon Islands) and two EU Member States (Denmark and Sweden). Appeals were made for the contracting parties to speed up their ratification procedures so that the Eighth European Development Fund can come on stream as speedily as possible.</P>
    331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     327
    332328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next ACP-EU Council meeting will take place in Luxembourg on 24 and 25 April 1997.</P>
    333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     329
    334330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Western Samoa deserves a special mention for the warmth of their hospitality and the efficient way in which they organised the Council meeting. Delegates from all sides were keen to express their appreciation of the host country's efforts, which ensured the smooth running of the various meetings and gave the visitors a real taste of this Pacific country's unique culture. ed. S.H.</P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     331
    337332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New ACP Secretary-General</P>
    338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     333
    339334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ng`andu Peter Magande, is no stranger to the challenge of development at the grassroots. The new Secretary-General of the ACP Group, who was born in 1947, began his working career as a provincial development officer, planning and supervising projects in the Southern Province of his native Zambia. He is an economics graduate of the University of Zambia and also holds a master's degree in agricultural economics from Makerere university, Uganda.</P>
    340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     335
    341336<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From working in the field, he moved into government administration, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary-a post which he held in a number of ministries. Since the mid-1980s, he has had key jobs in a number of Zambian enterprises (including Managing Director of the Zambia National Commercial Bank) His most recent work has been on a project to develop private sector participation in agricultural input and produce marketing.</P>
    342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     337
    343338<B><P></P>
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    351 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     346</B>
    352347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Elisabeth Pape</P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     348
    354349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya has enjoyed rare political stability since independence in 1963. It is one of the most famous holiday destinations in Africa, with abundant wildlife, fine beaches and stunning scenery. But despite having the most advanced economy in East Africa, it is still one of the world's poorest countries. Over 11 million Kenyans live below the poverty line. But better times may be ahead. The Government has embarked on an ambitious reform programme which promises to lay the foundations for strong growth.</P>
    355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     350
    356351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early 1990s marked the worst time in Kenyan history, in economic development terms. Real GDP growth dropped from 4.3% in 1990 to 2.1% in 1991 and was almost zero in 1992 and 1993. This poor performance was due to drought, structural rigidities, lack of monetary discipline, non-enforcement of banking regulations, and reduced donor assistance. While Kenya was used to receiving substantial foreign aid inflows, the present decade began with growing tensions between Government and donors. In the new post-Cold War atmosphere, the latter wanted to see political and economic reforms, and in November 1991 they decided to halt guick-disbursing aid.</P>
    357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     352
    358353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Multi-party elections in December 1992 did not immediately restore relations with the donors, in particular as they were accompanied by a lack of fiscal and monetary discipline whose effects threatened economic ruin. Monetary expansion was fuelled, among other things, by discretionary exemptions to Banking Act provisions, which enabled over-borrowing by certain 'political' banks from the Central Bank. In early 1993, things came to a head. Foreign currency reserves were down to just a few weeks of imports, the banking system was on the verge of collapse, and consumer prices had shot up. Against this background, the Government went for a comprehensive, IMF-supported structural adjustment programme.</P>
    359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     354
    360355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of far-reaching reforms were implemented with unprecedented speed. Exchange restrictions were removed, import licensing was ended, import procedures were made easier and tariffs were reduced. The export license requirement was also lifted and price controls were abolished. In March 1993, the Central Bank (CBK) began to tighten monetary policy. By issuing large amounts of treasury bills, it soaked up most of the excess liquidity which had been injected the previous year. There was also stricter bank supervision and a number of weak financial institutions were closed.</P>
    361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     356
    362357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural reforms</P>
    363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     358
    364359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government began structural reforms aimed at reducing its own role in the economy in favour of the private sector. The privatisation programme, begun in 1991, was accelerated. By the end of 1995, the authorities had divested more than half of the 211 non-strategic parastatals-though critics complained the process often lacked transparency. The Government also substantially reduced its fiscal deficit through, above all, an improved revenue policy. The deficit fell from 11.4% of GDP in 1992/93 to 2.5% in 1994/95. The number of civil servants was reduced, mainly through voluntary early retirement, so that, by the end of 1995, the service had been trimmed by more than 30 000 (10% of the payroll).</P>
    365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     360
    366361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, the reform programme lost momentum as proponents of the old and the new systems locked horns. Vested interests stood in the way of more radical reforms. Temporary import bans on maize and sugar were reimposed, key parastatal reforms were delayed and expensive but economically dubious projects were approved outside normal budgetary procedures. These included an international airport in Eldoret, a presidential jet and an identity card project. These further delayed the resumption of balance of payments support by the Bretton Woods Institutions and contributed to the frustration of efforts to improve relations with donors.</P>
    367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     362
    368363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic crisis peaked in early 1993 and the shilling was sharply devalued. The official rate went from about KSh 36 to the dollar at the end of 1992 to KSh 60 in April 1993. On the market, the currency was being traded at a premium of more than 30% and that continued until July-i.e. about two months after the removal of exchange restrictions. The market premium then started to decline and the two rates converged in mid-October when the shilling stood at 69 to the dollar.</P>
    369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     364
    370365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high interest rate on treasury bills under the liberalised foreign exchange regime was the main reason behind strong currency inflows which began in October 1993. Other factors, whose exact impact is difficult to gauge, included capital flight from neighbouring crisis-torn countries, the international money laundering one normally finds in places with newly liberalised foreign exchange regimes, and a surplus in the current account position. The shilling then started to rise, despite the CBK's massive currency purchases which led to a build up of reserves to the equivalent of six months of imports. The appreciation continued up to October 1994: indeed, at one point, the shilling reached a high of 35 to the dollar.</P>
    371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     366
    372367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That was the turning point. Strong import demand, fuelled in particular by a surge in oil imports in the wake of petroleum market liberalisation, and an outflow of portfolio investments due to lower interest rates, weakened the currency. By mid-1995, after two sharp falls, it reached a rate of 56 to the dollar. Since then, it has been relatively stable.</P>
    373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     368
    374369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic recovery</P>
    375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     370
    376371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP grew by 3% in 1994 and an estimated 5% in 1995. Good weather certainly helped, but the economy also benefited from the Government's reforms. Agriculture, the mainstay, grew by 2.8% in 1994 and by more than 5% in 1995. This compares with negative growth rates in 1992-93, when the sector was hard hit by bad weather. Elsewhere, the trends were more mixed. Many producers for the local market were affected by trade liberalisation and, in 1994, by the strong shilling. The former created a highly competitive environment almost overnight-after years of cosy protectionism. For cloth manufacturers, the liberalisation of imports of second-hand clothing further aggravated the problem. In 1994, the clothing sector's output dropped 35%. Tourism, the main foreign exchange earner, fared quite well in volume terms in 1994 despite the strong shilling. But while turnover may have gone up, it is likely that many operators did not earn enough extra to cover their increased local currency costs. In 1995, visitor arrivals fell by 20% to the lowest figure since 1988. In consequence, tourism earnings fell by a quarter.</P>
    377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     372
    378373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As intended, liberalisation led to higher trade volumes. In 1994, exports ( + 16%) rose by more than imports ( + 13%) in value terms, but the position was reversed in 1995 when the latter jumped by 35% while the former were 14% lower. One good sign was that the highest import growth was in industrial supplies and machinery (60% up) but the fact that the deficit almost doubled to reach record levels was obviously a cause for concern.</P>
    379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     374
    380375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major revolution has also taken place in trade flows. In 1994, for the first time, Uganda overtook the UK as the biggest importer of Kenyan goods. In the same year, the value of Kenya's exports to African countries moved ahead of its combined exports to Europe and North America.</P>
    381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     376
    382377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During 1994, the Nairobi Stock Exchange proved to be one of the worid's best-performing stock markets, the value of shares rising by 80%.1995 was disappointing, however. Although foreigners were allowed to invest for the first time, the index nonetheless fell by 25%.</P>
    383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378
    384379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fighting inflation has been the CBK's main objective since 1993 and a tight monetary policy has brought the problem under control. Inflation dropped from 46% in 1993 to 29% in 1994 and to below 2% in 1995. Recently, however, an upward trend has bean observed. This follows a money supply increase far in excess of the expansion of economic activity, and is mainly due to a substitution of treasury bills for borrowing from the Central Bank since the end of 1994. If inflation is to remain within the 5% target for 1996-which already seemed highly unlikely by the middle of the year - the trend needs to be speedily reversed.</P>
    385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    386381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, the main way of mopping up excess liquidity was through the sale of treasury bills. When the sales began in March 1993, there was a huge liquidity overhang and high interest rates had to be offered to take money out of the market quickly. The rate earned on 90-day bills-which became the lead interest rate in the economy- rose from 17% to 80% between March and July 1993. It then declined steadily, reaching 18% at the end of 1994. This prompted an outflow of short-term capital, leading to currency depreciation and lower foreign reserves. Since mid 1995, treasury bill rates have been back above 20% and this seems to have stabilised the foreign exchange situation. It is generally believed that the high prevailing real interest rates are a major obstacle to investment and economic growth.</P>
    387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     382
    388383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest on domestic debt is still a big item in the state budget, although, the situation is much improved, thanks to the reduction in the stock of treasury bills and lower interest rates. In fiscal year 1993/94, interest payments on domestic debt alone swallowed one third of total gavernnnent expenditure.</P>
    389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     384
    390385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agriculture sector employs 70% of the total labour force and generates more than a quarter of Kenya's GDP. Much of industry is linked to agricultural processing, and tea, coffee and horticultural products are Kenya's major foreign exchange earners after tourism. The marketing of key farm products is dominated by large parastatals and cooperatives which are often run like parastatals. Most marketing organisations have been hard hit by the liberalisation, which brought both inefficiency and corruption to light. Tea growers have complained about improprieties at the Kenya Tea Development Authority. Imported sugar flooded the local market, often without paying import duties, leaving the mills with huge stocks. This, in turn, created severe cash flow problems. Most sugar farmers have not been paid for months. Kenya Cooperative Creameries was not able to pay farmers for milk deliveries for up to half a year, and could only start servicing the arrears when the Government came to its rescue with KSh 800 million in January 1996.</P>
    391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     386
    392387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formidable challenges</P>
    393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     388
    394389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya's labour force, around 12.5 million in 1996, is growing at more than 4% a year. This means that at least half a million people enter the job market annually. The challenge of absorbing the new workers is formidable. Studies show that any strategy to deal with this must be based on three pillars: smallholder agriculture (to absorb most of the growth in the rural labour force), continuing substantial job creation in the informal sector, and high real GDP growth (+8% per year is needed to ensure that the modem sector absorbs a significant number of workers).</P>
    395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     390
    396391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informal sector employment has risen rapidly (up by 15-20% a year since 1991). By 1994, for the first time, there were more people working here than in the modern economy. The informal sector covers semi-organised and unregulated activities largely under taken by self-employed people or employers with just a few workers. Typically, they do not comply fully with tax, registration, and licensing rules, and this sometimes leads to conflict with the authorities. Workers are often paid below the minimum wage and have no social security. For many, the informal sector is, therefore, an 'employer' of last resort.</P>
    397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     392
    398393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is estimated that almost 50% of rural people and 30% of urban residents live in absolute poverty- unable to meet their minimum requirements for food and essential non-food items. While the percentage has remained fairly stable in recent decades, the increase in the number of 'absolute' poor is alarming. So too is the extent of the poverty: the gap between these people's minimum needs and their actual disposable income has reportedly increased over the last ten years. The bulk of the poor live in the central and western parts of the country, which have the best agricultural potential, the rich soils having always attracted settlers. For decades there was enough land to go around, but demographic trends have finally started to take their toll. The size of landholding has declined continuously, in many cases reaching levels which are no longer capable of sustaining a family.</P>
    399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     394
    400395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been some progress in restructuring parastatals, but much remains to be done. The performance of key parastatals has been unsatisfactory by international standards and this has constrained growth. At Mombasa port, which is managed by the Kenya Ports Authority, handling charges are 50% higher than the global average, while container turnover is three times slower. Rail transport is unreliable, slow and more expensive than road haulage. The Kenya Power and Lighting Company has a shortage of generating capacity which means periodic power cuts. And intervention in the maize market by the National Cereals and Produce Board- at above-market prices-has prevented private sector involvement as well as placing a heavy burden on government finances. The Board has posted annual operating losses of between KSh 1.8bn and KSh 2.5bn each fiscal year since 1992/93.</P>
    401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     396
    402397<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption, misuse of funds, and the politics of patronage remain endemic and these clearly distort development. Elimination of corruption has been an aim of most reform programmes but it seems that the effect so far has only been to change its form. Trade liberalisation has killed cash cows such as import and foreign exchange licences, and the commercialisation of parastatals has stopped them from doing deals with cronies which were profitable only for the latter. But other forms of non-acceptable wealth accumulation have emerged. In the early 1990s, alleged exports of gold and diamonds are thought to have resulted in a loss of KSh 7 billion of public funds. Land grabbing has also become widespread. This either involves land being sold to individuals or companies with well-established political connections at well below market prices, or the purchase of land by public institutions from the same individuals or companies at inflated prices.</P>
    403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     398
    404399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After delays because of political differences, cooperation between the three states of the former East African Community (Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) was revived in early 1996. The EAC Secretariat, based in Arusha, is headed by a Kenyan, Francis Muthaura, a former ambassador in Brussels. For the three countries, the new cooperation aims at facilitating movements of people, capital and trade within the region, and harmonisation of external tariffs and investment regulations. Currencies will be fully convertible. This revived cooperation is expected to have a major growth impact. The Nairobi Stock Exchange is currently assisting Kampala and Dar es Salaam to set up their own exchanges. And the NSE Chairman, Jimnah Mbaru, sees the future not only in a cross-listing of companies in the three places, but in a regional stock exchange.</P>
    405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     400
    406401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy framework</P>
    407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     402
    408403<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Policy Framework Paper (PFP) for 1996-1998, which was published in February ahead of the donors' Consultative Group (CG) Meeting, was highly applauded for both its content and form. The programme, which the media has dubbed 'the big push', promises finally to crack most of the 'hard nuts' of previous reform agendas, in particular in the parastatal and public sector. It also lays down measures aimed at supporting fiscal and monetary discipline through the next elections. These include cutting the budget deficit to 1.5 % of GDP by 1997/98, a tight monetary policy, and more autonomy for the Central Bank. In addition, it tackles some areas'that have emerged as avenues of corruption in recent years, such as the National Social Security Fund. While previous PFPs were highly confidential, this one was published, and the President appointed a Commission chaired by himself to oversee its implementation. These are seen as important steps in bridging the credibility gap which threatened to open up again in 1995. Donors are prepared to support the reform agenda and are eager to see it implemented speedily. Shortly after the positive outcome of the CG meeting, the IMF approved a three-year Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility programme for a total of $220m. The World Bank is expected to follow suit with a credit of $85m.</P>
    409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     404
    410405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An increasing number of donors, however, have pointed to the link between democratic governance/ human rights issues on the one hand, and aid and investment flows on the other. If Kenya is to meet its ambitious targets and turn into a newly-industrialising country by 2010, foreign inflows will be vital. The point was succinctly put by a delegate to the CG meeting. 'If its (the Government's) economic successes are matched by a commitment to democracy and human rights, Kenya may yet prove that surging economic growth is not just for Asian tigers, but for African lions, too.' The period leading up to the next general election will be the acid test. </P>
    411406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.P. </P>
    412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    413 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     407
     408<B>
    414409<!--
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    422 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     417</B>
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    430 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     425</B>
    431426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have a strong folk memory. Despite its size, Mali appears hemmed in by its frontiers. For more than a thousand years, this state was a splendid empire, constantly spreading outward and reflecting the history of the African continent with its conquests and alliances, reversals of fortune and moments of glory. At its height, it extended from the Atlantic to the Sudanese border, from the south of Morocco to the north of Nigeria. Mali's history rests in the minds of its people rather than in any structures inherited from the past. This acts as an antidote to the 'amnesia' often brought on by colonisation, which has the effect of paralysing the future. Although poor, the country has a well-established sense of its place in the world.</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     427
    433428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A racial melting pot</P>
    434429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">`</P>
    435430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the eve of colonisation, Mali was known es 'west Sudan'. In 1924, the territory then known as 'French Sudan' was split up and small portions of the Malian nation were incorporated into the seven states bordering it-a move certainly not calculated to have a cohesive effect on the remnants of the old empire. Mali has long been a melting pot of races, ethnic groups and cultures. They have learned to live together- intermingling, sometimes forming unexpected alliances, and occasionally fighting one another. The result today is a potpourri where true racial or ethnic confrontation is difficult to imagine. The interplay of history and the mixing of ethnic groups, families and individuals, has created what one intellectual de scribed to us as 'the anti Rwanda vaccine'. Historical mythology offers, perhaps, further evidence of the fusion of cultures in this country. As in ancient Greece or Rome, to take European examples, each ethnic group and each Malian empire, was 'backed' by a host of gods, spirits and totems. In this nebulous world, where dreams beget history and where vastly differing ethnic groups can trace themselves back to a common ancestor, the result was a multiplicity of interrelationships. Under various names, the python totem belongs to many different peoples, including the Peal, Ma/inke and Sarakolle. A study of the migrations of the peoples who make up Mali also reveals a great many relationships - for example, between the Dogon, who are black, and the Shongoi; who are more half-caste. They regard one another as cousins, originating from Aswan in Egypt.</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     431
    437432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malians appear to share a genuine sense of belonging in keeping with their shared culture. The 'people' of Mali came into being long before the state of the same name. The guerilla war fought in recent years by the Tuaregs (this is the English plural, Tuareg already being the plural form of Targul) against the Malian army, is often viewed abroad as a struggle between whites (or Arabs) and blacks. But this is an illusion. Although the Tuaregs are probably the only 'white' minority in the country, they are an integral ingredient in the melting pot. They are also known as 'Kel-Tamasheq' - those who speak Tamashek, which was originally the language of their Bella slaves. Like all the country's ethnic groups, they have dominated and have in turn been dominated. They have forged alliances with one another, and, more commonly, have united against Arab or Berber invasions. The relative absence of bitterness overall is probably due to the fact that each of Mali's peoples has had its era of glory and imperial dominance.</P>
    438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     433
    439434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is lucky to have such knowledge of its history. For centuries, the most precise details have been collected by the griots. The same role has also been played by the many secret societies which have initiation periods lasting, in some cases, up to 50 years. They were, and sometimes still are, repositories for the secrets of history, magic, astrology and science, and also for the symbols of power-the religious objects and artefacts of the former emperors. There are written sources as well, something which is quite rare in Africa. These have been transcribed since the beginning of the millennium and, in recent decades, close collaboration between historians, griots and members of traditional societies has enabled a deeper knowledge to be gained of Mali's history.</P>
    440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     435
    441436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rich empire</P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     437
    443438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asselar Man, discovered near Timbuktu in the centre of Mali, was a contemporary of Cro Magnon Man. </P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     439
    445440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cave paintings from five thousand B.C. reveal similarities with those in Egypt and are probably the work of migrant populations from the east, who moved into Mali as the Sahara Desert expanded. Less reliable sources state that interbred populations of Jews and Egyptians under the command of an officer of the Pharaoh Dinga created the Soninke dynasty (originating from Aswan). These people probably laid the found ations of the first great Malian empire, that of Ouagadou. Other sources, equally unreliable, report that they were probably Judaeo-Syrians who arrived at the end of the third century A.D. and found a population already in place. What is more or less certain is that, during the first millennium, a Soninke dynasty was installed around the current frontier between Mauritania and Mali and that 40 princes ruled it in succession in the period prior to 750 A.D. Initially, these rulers were white but, with increasing intermarriage, their skins became darker and darker. To Arab chroniclers, Mali came to be known as Bafour or Bilad es-Soudan (the country of the blacks). At the beginning of the second millennium, the Ouagadou empire held sway over several kingdoms in the south, including the Nigerian delta and a number of Berber principalities. Documents dating from this period have replaced the name Ouagadou with that of Ghana, by analogy, perhaps, with the emperor's title. The empire was already very rich, the richest in the world according to an Arab chronicler who visited it in 970. A work by the writer A/ Bakri, which appeared a century later (1087) went into great detail about the empire's organisation-the system of matrilinear succession, the role of councils of dignitaries, and the capital, Koumbi (whose foundations were discovered in 1914 in southern Mauritania). This city was divided into two districts, one of these being the sacred, imperial city, home to the empire's python totem to which a young girl was sacrificed every year.</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     441
    447442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A story of courage</P>
    448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    449444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The killing of the snake totem is the most significant myths in the country's history. The hero of the story is Amadou Sefedokete whose love for his beautiful fiancee Sia (who was about to be offered in sacrifice), prompted him to descend into the monster's lair and confront it. By killing the totem, he broke the thread of countless generations before him, who had carried out the ritual sacrifice. He is still remembered for this magnificent action, based on love and a sense of nobility, and he remains a subject for artists of all types. His brave action still causes young lovers in Africa to shudder in admiration. However, this act of deicide brought about a reversal of fortunes. The monster's seven heads, which the young hero is said to have cut off one after the other, are reputed to have been scattered to the four comers of the earth, thereby dispersing the empire's riches and leaving it penniless. The true story is more prosaic. Ghana's wealth was eyed greedily by the Arabs and Berbers who had long traded with it. The empire's resistance in the face of Islam gave Moroccan religious fanatics a pretext for organising a jihad. It was invaded by an army of 30000 devotees supported by forces from some of the empire's black vassal states. The 'holy war' began in 1042 ending 34 years later with the occupation of Koumbi.</P>
    450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    451446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The occupation did not last long but was followed by internal clan wars which brought about the end of an era. Restoration came about at the end of the 72th century , in the small Sosso kingdom, south of Ouagadou (also set up by a small group of Sonink&eacute;). One of the minor kings called Soumangourou Diarasso dreamed of recreating Ghana's empire, and, in 1203, he succeeded in sacking the ancient capital of Koumbi in a move designed to establish his own dynasty. This was an important symbolic act and in the fierce war which followed, Soumangourou subjugated Mand&eacute;, a region which was overflowing with wealth. One of Africa's greatest heroes, Soundjata, rose up against him. He was supposedly the legitimate heir to the Mandingo throne, but was unable to walk, having been born an invalid of a deformed mother who had been married at the recommendation of the king's sorcerer. His young half-brother took his place on the throne and sent the paralysed prince into exile. At the age of 18, Soundjata decided to seize his own place in history and a 'giant' was thus bom. In 1235, his army fought that of the bloodthirsty Sosso monarch whom he himself is said to have cut down in an extraordinary battle. It was a fight which, according to the legends, saw the use of all types of weapon, including magic. Soundjata had forged a grand alliance in order to gain victory. Rather than reducing to vassalage the small kingdoms which had allied themselves with him, the new emperor decided to form them into a federation-although he wisely declared that from Niani (his capital), 'I shall see all'. His empire took the name of 'Mali' (the hippopotamus) on account of that animal's strength and mastery of bath water and land. For 20 years, the empire was to stretch as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Its structure, based on a number of warrior clans, craftsmen, freemen and marabous, is still characteristic of Mali and neighbouring countries today. The empire was rich in gold once again but also in terms of agricultural organisation with the development of cotton and groundout farming. Soundjata disappeared mysteriously in 1255, leaving a prosperous empire.</P>
    452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     447
    453448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Conquest' of America?</P>
    454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     449
    455450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1285, there was a struggle for succession between two princes and a third, Prince Sakoura (a freed slave), took advantage of the quarrel to take power for himself. Sakoura expanded the empire by subjugating the Timbuktu Tuaregs and the Gao Shongoi: After his short reign, a genuine heir of Soundjata, Aboubakar II, ascended the throne. He had his eye on conquests over the seas and, according to the story, he set sail westwards leading a fleet of 2000 vessels. He was never seen again. However, recent studies favour the hypothesis that he was not lost at sea as had always been supposed' but did, in fact, reach the Americas. A series of ineffective monarchs succeeded this 'conqueror of the impossible', who preceded Christopher Columbus by 200 years, leaving little real impression on history other than the records of their exuberant behaviour. One of them, for example, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with a reported retinue of 60 000 and distributed considerable amounts of gold to all the dignitaries he encountered in that holy place. These kings, however, are acknowledged as having preserved the empire's unity, guaranteeing order without repression and allowing wide religious, moral and sexual tolerance, even for married women. </P>
    456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     451
    457452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kingdom centred on Gao dates back to at least the first millennium but it was usually a vassal of the Ouagadou empire and of Mali. One of its kings, Sonny Ali Ber (known as Sonny the Great), came to the throne in 1464, profiting from the decay of the Mali empire. His reign was marked by a bitter struggle against the Ul&eacute;mas of Timbuktu who, over a period of four centuries following the Almoravid conquest, had converted a large portion of the empire to Islam. The circumstances of Sonny's disappearance are uncertain, but he is thought to have drowned in 1492, the year when a certain Genoese navigator was to achieve the ancient goal of 'discovering' the Malian empire.</P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     453
    459454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sonny Ber's successor did not last long in the face of Islamic expansion. The new Askia dynasty was installed to lead the Shongoi empire, and this expanded with the annexation of Dahomey and part of Nigeria. However, a small part of the former Mali empire never passed under their rule. The Askia dynasty blew hot and cold in terms of religious fervour. Tyrannical at first, it later took a softer line. Under the reign of one monarch, the Gao court based in the university city of Timbuktu became a place of exceptional refinement-only to slide once again into a state of intolerance. One of the Askias, having destroyed the last symbols of the former Mali empire, the city of Niani, set upon his former Moroccan allies. Another emperor, Askia Daoud (1549-1582), turned out to be a fine administrator. He developed agriculture and set up a genuine bank in Gaol War with Morocco continued throughout his reign and beyond. In 1584, imperial force defeated 20 000 Moroccan soldiers, winning a victory which might have been decisive had it not been for internal dissent. This weakened the Askia side and enabled Morocco, with a band of Spanish mercenaries, to take over the empire, following a battle in April 1591. Success was due, above all on this occasion, to the firearms deployed by the winning side. Such weapons were unknown to the 45 000 Malian cavalry and infantry who were engaged. It also turned out to be a Pyrrhic victory. The occupying troops sent the great scholars from Timbuktu University to Morocco, where their peers took up their cause. Moreover, the foreign soldiers were won over by the easy life in Mali-and one of the first results of their presence was a big increase in the half-caste population. In 1612, the troops rejected the Moroccan command: the occupation was at an end and the last few Moroccans were later expelled from Timbuktu by the Tuaregs.</P>
    460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     455
    461456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black religious proselytism and colonisation</P>
    462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     457
    463458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To each dog his day. In the 17th century, the Bambaras set up an empire around Segou, but the debauched lifestyle of several of the sovereigns and disapproval of the part they played in the slave trade proved to be their downfall. Once again, the history of the country was to be shaped by a slave- Ngolo Diarra-who founded his dynasty in 1766. He was able to restore a degree of prestige to the kingdom, but his efforts were undermined after his death. As a reaction, a proselytising Black Islam then began to evolve.</P>
    464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     459
    465460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massina became a theocratic state around the beginning of the 19th century, in common with other kingdoms which appeared at the same time. One of their most famous rulers, the conqueror El Hadj Oumar, was defeated by the troops of the French General Faidherbe who forced him to give up West Senegal. The days of Malian independence were now numbered. The courage of his successor only delayed the progress of French colonisation, which finally prevailed at the end of the century.</P>
    466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     461
    467462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance fighters carried on the war from other points in the old empire, particularly from what is now Guinea. The country was dismantled by the colonial system and pacified, but the end of the Second World War and the return of African soldiers brought a renewed desire for independence. French Sudan became the rallying point for freedom fighters in the French colonies-the old dream of reunification was not dead and buried. In 1946, the Rassemblement Democratique Africain was set up, later to become the USRDA (Union soudanaise-Rassemblement democratique africain). In 1956, the future architect of Mali's independence, Modibo Keita, was appointed leader of the movement and elected to represent the 'Sudan' in the French Assembly. A 'Malian Federation' project was drawn up to include Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Senegal and 'Sudan' (Mali). A constituent assembly of independence movement representatives was set up in 1959. However, the constitution adopted by the local Malian and Senegalese assemblies was rejected by the other two. The Federation now had only two members but was nonetheless proclaimed independent on 20 June 1960. In the event, the spirit of unity was lacking and, on the pretext of a rivalry between the two leaders (the 'Sudanese' Modibo Keita and the Senegalese Mamadou Dia), Senegal withdrew from the union in August. On 22 September 1960, the 'Sudan', now without an outlet to the sea, adopted one of the most prestigious names in its history: Mali.</P>
    468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     463
    469464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state was landlocked not only geographically but also, very soon, politically. Modibo Keita's socialist agenda prompted foreign investors to pull out, and the country was organised increasingly as a 'people's democracy'. Fortunately, the repression was not excessive but a sizeable proportion of the population disapproved of the system that had been chosen. Mali and Guinea still had modest aspirations to their old dream of unification. The founder of the Republic, Modibo Keita, was overthrown by a military coup on 19 November 1968. More than the break-up by colonisation, which left dreams of Sudan being reconstituted, this military putsch sounded the knell of the old empire. Mali became just another state whose colonial and post-colonial eras have been marked by a lack of success. Nevertheless, a sense of history is still omnipresent. </P>
    470465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goueier</P>
    471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    472467<I><P></P>
    473468<!--
    … …  
    477472  </Description>
    478473-->
    479 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474</I>
    480475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is just something you have to get used to-in French-speaking Africa, virtually all countries have imitated France in assigning a number to each republic formed under a new constitution. At the time of its independence on 20 June 1960, Mali was a federation of two states; Senegal and the former 'French Sudan'. It was an alliance which failed after only a few weeks'existence end 'French Sudan' then adopted one of its most prestigious former names- Mali. </P>
    481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    482477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first regime, under Modibo Keita, became increasingly unpopular as its form of 'tropical' marxism caused it to become more and more isolated. One of its main shortcomings was its unrealistic five-year plans, none of which were ever implemented. Discontent became rife among various social groups. including the farmers who, opposed collectivisation and were adept at passive resistance which they employed to disrupt the supply of produce. The regime also modelled itself on the so-called 'people's democracies' in certain respects. For instance, it made a determined effort to improve education, health and social justice, while refraining from the more dictatorial excesses that often characterised such systems.</P>
    483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    484479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially welcomed by some sections of the population, the November 1968 putsch, by Lieutenant Moussa Traore quickly fumed into dictatorship although it was to be more than 10 years before there were any significant anti-government protests. At the end of 1990, opponents of the regime openly set up organisations which claimed opposition-party status. One of these was ADEMA (the Alliance for Democracy in Mali), formed by the current President of the Republic, Alpha Oumar Konare. Marches calling for a multi-party state attracted the support of tens of thousands of people.</P>
    485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    486481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dictator then sought to neutralise the opposition, beginning with the Tuaregs in the north who had been waging a guerilla war. This conflict was viewed by many as the 'front line' in the people's struggle against dictatorship, and the Tuareg cause was supported by opposition movements. The government, which had for some time opted for 'soft' repression, now revealed its claws and in January 1991 it began to imprison student leaders. The streets were filled with armoured vehicles and the first death amongst the students brought condemnation. Repression reached its height on 22 March 1991, when several dozen students were killed.</P>
    487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    488483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this, in February 1991, Moussa Traore's UDPM (Democratic Union of the Malian People) came out in support of a multi-party system - a move which marked the beginning of the end of the regime. The day after the students were killed, a democracy coordination committee launched an appeal for a general strike, to last until the dictator was overthrown. This began on 26 March, and amounted, in effect, to a 'democratic' coup d'etat. Its instigator was Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure, who took charge of the transition to-tether with the democratic movements.</P>
    489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    490485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former dictator was arrested and put on trial for his crimes. He was later condemned to death but his sentence was recently commuted by President Konare.</P>
    491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     486
    492487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Tuareg guerilla war continued despite the government's conciliatory attitude. The new administration also had to deal with a number of social claims which had long been stifled by the dictatorship. However, popular support for the regime remained firm. The new constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in a January 1992 referendum and, a week later, ADEMA won the municipal elections, the first in a series of electoral victories for Alpha Oumar Konare. He went on to win the Presidential election (for the Third Republic) in April, with almost 70% of the vote. Meanwhile, negotiations with the Tuareg rebels resulted only in signatures on agreements which were not observed. The situation grew worse with the Ghanda Koy counter-offensive, but this in turn led to a seemingly viable accord between the Azawad Arab Islamic front, the most important guerilla movement, and the Malian government. Last March, President Konare presided over an enormous bonfire of weapons seized from the former guerilla fighters. The flames lit up the skies above Timbuktoo, the symbol par excellence of rapprochement between the peoples of Mali.</P>
    493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     488
    494489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of January 1994, the regime suffered the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Economic liberalisation had enabled Mali to improve its macroeconomic position, but social discontent, particularly in the towns and cities, demonstrated that the average citizen was continuing to suffer economic hardship. The President still enjoys considerable support, and political democracy is greatly appreciated. Obviously, the government cannot be blamed for all the difficulties facing the country. There is, for example, a lack of professionalism in the press. However, it could have given a lead in the case of the State media, which still studiously avoids criticising the government's actions. The administration has also been taken to task for its apparently lax attitude towards 'economic' misdemeanours.</P>
    495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     490
    496491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next year will see a series of elections. The government views these with apprehension, although it has stolen a march over its rivals by signing a political accord with several small parties. Opposition is centred around the MPR (Patriotic Movement for Renewal), the revamped former party of the dictator Moussa Traore. This has undergone a 'facelift, and now seems to be regaining support. lts trump card is decentralisation. Its former leaders, who held total power for a quarter of a century, can take advantage of the network of contacts they built up. The US-ADA, the party of the Republic's founder, Modibo Keita, which until recently appeared to be the herald of change, seems lately to have restricted its role to that of arbiter. Surprises are in the offing, but one thing is certain: the Third Republic's constitution will remain the guarantee of democracy in Mali. </P>
    497492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G.</P>
    498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     493
    499494<I><P></P>
    500495<!--
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    505500  </Description>
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    507 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     502</I>
    508503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mali, the army has learnt if from the past</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     504
    510505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali's institutions were radically remodelled in the wake of the recent vote on decentralisation. This is aimed at allowing, among other things, a degree of autonomy for the north of the country-which is essential to guarantee national reconciliation. The sudden growth in the number of small towns and villages may result in some political surprises during the long e/ection campaign period which is due to begin early next year. The President of the National Assembly, Ali N. Diallo, finds himself in a pivotal position: his Adema (A/fiance for Democracy in Mali) party current/y holds a comfortable majority in Parliament. With democracy being consolidated in Mali, he must find this an exhilarating time. Our frst question touched on this</P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     506
    512507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is certainly an excellent time to be in Mali, but freedom is the most difficult of man's needs to satisfy. Our National Assembly has 12 parties and most people in our country are inspired by ideas based on tolerance and respect for the right to be different. The main concern of those of us who lead the party currently in the majority, is to question constantly whether we are necessarily always right. We have a comfortable majority-72 members out of 115-but this certainly doesn't mean that the National Assembly is just a rubber stamp.</P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     508
    514509<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is, of course, another stumbling block when one has such a large majority, which is the possibility of internal divisions.</P>
    515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    516511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, I would agree with you there. Mali's MPs have to realise that they came into this business after a three-stage process. First there was a popular uprising, then the army intervened to put an end to the bloodbath.</P>
    517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    518513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, we had the high level national conference to draft the constitution, the electoral code and the charter for the country's parties. MPs, therefore, must always bear in mind that, though they can claim legitimacy on the basis of the revolution, there is also a republican legitimacy they ought to respect.</P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    520515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The second phase in the process was the intervention of the army-are you not a*aid that the 'Niger syndrome'will raise its ugly head in Mali, too ?</P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    522517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Naturally, MPs have seen what happened in Niger and elsewhere, but fear is tempered here because officers in Mali's forces have also given a great deal of thought to the effects of military dictatorship. Democrats and republicans within the armed forces are very aware that only a minority of men in uniform profited to any degree from the previous regime.</P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    524519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that because Mali had what might be called a 'moderate' dictatorship, it is now in a better position than it would have been had the previous administration been more repressive ?</P>
    525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     520
    526521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Let me put it this way. The military dictatorship went through three different stages. During the first stage, just after the coup on 19 November 1968, the junta chose Mao Tse Tung as a model, hammering home the idea that power could be won by force of arms-and it was carried away by the popular acclaim it initially received. Subsequent popular resistance then took them by surprise. People wanted more freedom, but they also wanted to keep what they had gained in social matters. Army officers asked the protestors to abandon their action so that normal constitutional life could be resumed, but the trade unions had their own ideas. They advocated things which the people in power opposed. The ensuing repression was therefore fierce.</P>
    527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     522
    528523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a second phase during which the military were at odds with one another over the leadership question. The popular view was that the country had fourteen different heads of state at that time. This went on until 28 February 1978 when there was a brief Iuli and they were tempted to return power to the civil authorities.</P>
    529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     524
    530525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then came the third phase when, despite appearances, poverty was on the increase. At first, Malians said that there were two 'IMFs' on the loose in Mali-the International Monetary Fund and the intimate circle surrounding the Moussa family. When the social foundation of the regime contracted, and all the country's business became concentrated in the hands of Moussa, his wife and her relations, the popular forces went on the offensive. This was a period of vociferous protest. Moussa Traore reacted with brutality: hence the 200 dead amongst the schoolchildren and students who were protesting- we will never know the exact number.</P>
    531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    532527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the former regime could be said to have made the crucial economic choices which your government has continued with. </P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    534529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I wouldn't agree with that. There was a half-hearted discussion at the time about liberalising the economy but, in reality, bureaucracy got in the way. It is the economic laws voted in by ourselves which form the true basis of a liberal economy. However, if you really want to look to the past, I would say that it was the February 1967 accords signed between Mali and France, when we came back into the franc zone, which set the whole process rolling.</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    536531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Tuaregs and the government have just signed an agreement but the question of the north of the country is still a sensitive one. What are your views on this subject ?</P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    538533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The problem in the north of Mali is extremely complex. First, the Malian nation is made up of a patchwork of minorities, the largest being the Ban Mana (Ed. 'Bambara' in the colonial vocabulary), but no ethnic group is larger than all the others put together. Second, all groups have, at one time or another, held supremacy. But the fact is that the peoples involved have all lived in the same area throughout history- they have shared joys and sorrows, and their blood has mingled on Malian soil. l would accept that the Malian nation is not as well consolidated as it should be, but it is arguably one of the most advanced in the sub-region in terms of its constitution-though I don't mean to sound chauvinistic here.</P>
    539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    540535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyway, the problem in the north of the country seems to me to be one of development. The various regions have not all developed at the same rate on account of climate differences. In addition, the dictatorship did not show any great respect for minorities - although it did not direct its actions solely against the Tuaregs, who resorted to arms. The Tuaregs exaggerated the mistreatment they had suffered because they were unfamiliar with what was happening in the rest of the country. In fact, Moussa Traore oppressed everyone: the French-style Jacobin state we inherited did not allow for regional differences. After independence, the regime redoubled its efforts to centralise the state. both because it was Jacobin in outlook and because of Modibo Keita's communist leanings. In 1959, the French forced the Tamashek (ea. 'Tuaregs') to secede-Max Lejeune and Houphouet Boigny were mixed up in all that. This was when oil was first discovered in Algeria and the war with Algeria had been in full swing since 1954. Modibo Keita set up the Malian Federation and declared in 1959 that, upon independence, he would withdraw all soldiers from the Algerian front. Since the Malian Federation was dismantled, Gao virtually became an Algerian willaya, a base camp for its fighters. Mali did not accept this. Moreover, Algeria, around the time it achieved independence, took retaliatory measures and sealed off its borders, mercilessly sending back huge numbers of refugees. It mobilised them through humiliation, telling them that they were the last members of the white race-the only ones to allow themselves to be under black rule.</P>
    541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    542537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But when Ganda Koy's militia halted the Tuareg movement, they appeared to have been supported by the black population. Doesn't that also suggest a racist attitude ?</P>
    543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538
    544539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I addressed the Tuaregs in October 1992, and pointed out that their wish to regard themselves as overlords and the other peoples in Mali as vassals who ought to pay tribute would provoke a general uprising, with the risk of a slide into civil war. I told several of the Tuareg chiefs seated around me the legend of Ouagadou- about the serpent of the well who each year demanded that the Soninke people should sacrifice an 18-year-old girl in its honour. Then the day came when a young man refused to accept the sacrifice of his fiancee. He went down into the monster's lair, watched by a horrified crowd who saw his recklessness as folly, and cut off the serpent's head. In the beginning, the Malian people's sympathies in fact lay with the rebellion. On 26 March, when the rebellion against the dictatorship took place, the president at the time, Konare, asked for all the Tuareg chiefs to be brought to him so that they could set up a transition body. He got a nasty surprise when the Tuaregs resorted to arms.</P>
    545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    546541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Was the government, as rumoured, behind the Ganda Koy ?</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     542
    548543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not the government as such. To my mind, it would be wrong to applaud when one faction of the people one governs wants to exterminate another faction.</P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    550545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It appears that some of the people are unhappy with the concessions that have been made to the Tuaregs.</P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     546
    552547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a myth. The idea that we are frustrated because the Tuaregs were once our masters, is a story put about by Europe. The situation is quite the reverse. At the time of colonisation, they were unwilling to ream, like other nomads, such as the Peul people, for example. There were splits with them, of course, but no actual, all-out war. Forging a nation always requires tears, sweat and mourning. Those who return will find what they left broken or stolen and will want land which is less barren than that impoverished by the encroaching desert. However, those who stayed put in the face of rebel attacks had their houses smashed and their animals taken away. There will be problems when some Peals, for example, identify their cows which were stolen. We will have to negotiate, but I have confidence in the people. Just as they ended the war, they will be able to heal the wounds-of this I am sure. And the process has already started.</P>
    553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     548
    554549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I gather that you continue to practice as a doctor, on top of your political duties. Is this to teach a moral lesson to your political colleagues ? </P>
    555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     550
    556551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say that it is more of a weakness, an inability to abandon a passion, even for supposedly good reasons. l am an 'internalist' and I have a passion for mechanisms. If you cure an infection and it returns, you have to look elsewhere to solve the problem. There are those in authority who spend money on trying to tackle problems without troubling to locate the cause. I would like to think that the analytical rigour of clinical science might also be put to good use in promoting understanding in politics. </P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     552
    558553<I><P></P>
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    564559  </Description>
    565560-->
    566 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     561</I>
    567562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
    568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     563
    569564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 1 240 190 km²</P>
    570565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 10 million</P>
    … …  
    575570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: French (official language), Bambara, Peul, Shongoi, Tamashek </P>
    576571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curreny: CFA franc. In July 1996,1 ECU was worth CFAF 647.5 ($1 = CFAF 515) </P>
    577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     572
    578573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
    579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    580575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential and parliamentary system. Greater powers are due to be transferred to the regions after the next elections. </P>
    581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    582577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: Alpha Oumar Konar&eacute;</P>
    583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    584579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Political parties represented in Parliament: ADEMA (absolute majority). 'Opposition' - CNID, USRDA and numerous other smaller groupings. </P>
    585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     580
    586581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
    587582 Map</P>
    588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     583
    589584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
    590585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1993 figures unless otherwise stated) GDP: CFAF 753.8 billion</P>
    … …  
    598593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main exports: cotton 40%, livestock 28%, gold 17.5%</P>
    599594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 3%</P>
    600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     595
    601596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
    602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     597
    603598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 46.2 </P>
    604599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortalityper 1000 live births: 158 </P>
    605600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy: 28.4% </P>
    606601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 16% </P>
    607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    608603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.223 (171st out of 174)</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    610605<I><P></P>
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    618 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     613</I>
    619614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources'</P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     615
    621616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It cannot be easy to be in opposition when Parliament is dominated by a majority which is given a good press and is regarded abroad as a good pupil.</P>
    622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     617
    623618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We do not really find it a problem. If one is familiar with Mali's current situation, the people's views, reactions and judgments count for more than outside opinion, despite the fact the latter may seem important. However, we do take account of others' opinions. We are pleased to be able to speak to you-to express our ideas and points of view- so that outsiders can see that the USRDA offers a credible alternative for Mali. We feel quite secure in our current position because the principles and values we stand for are those closest to the Malian people. So we have no problem in being the opposition party. We are not the kind of hysterical opposition which resorts to foul means as well as fair ones.</P>
    624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     619
    625620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given that most Malian political trends stem from the revolutionary democratic movement, what are your party's special features ?</P>
    626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     621
    627622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Our party's origins are in the movement which dates from 26 March 1960-which itself grew out of an underground movement. The main component of this was the USRDA whose government was overthrown by a reactionary military putsch. Adema won the last elections, and we do not contest this fact despite a number of irregularities. Indeed, we supported the Adema government's initial actions. We were one of seven parties who regarded the Third Republic as our own offspring. Between 1992 and 1994, even when we faced grave difficulties and they were asking for suggestions, the government ignored our proposals. This happened, for example, at the time the World Bank threatened to pull out. As it functions at the moment, the government is not meeting the Malian people's basic aspirations. They want to see a change from the previous regime.</P>
    628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     623
    629624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your essential criticisms of the way Adema works ?</P>
    630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     625
    631626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are critical on a number of fronts. Looking at it first from an institutional standpoint, when the Malian people rejected the old regime, they wanted the existing set-up to be changed into a democratic one. The few institutions that have been established since then do not reflect this desire. They are virtually no different from what we had under the single-party system. True, we have an opposition party, but its views are ignored. Second, in terms of the management of democracy, a number of bodies, such as the State Commission on the public media, simply do not function. You have been in Mali for a week now, so you must have heard Adema spokesmen on the TV or radio. But you will never hear a member of the opposition. The space reserved for that -formerly an open forum for free political discussion-has been removed and the state-controlled TV and radio stations do not allow political parties to have a say. In the economic sphere, our approach is also completely different. We believe that support for the development of the private sector means that the state has to act as regulator. Economic development cannot simply be left to run its course as a kind of 'rat race'.</P>
    632 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     627
    633628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you give us a few practical examples of what you describe as Use selling-off of the family jewels ?</P>
    634 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    635630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-With pleasure. Before the 26 March revolution, there was a general consensus that, in the process of privatisation, the state sector should be managed in a way that benefited the Malian economy. But the reality is that privatisation methods have not changed. They are no different from what they were in Moussa Traor&eacute;'s time. The electricity sector, for example, which has not yet really been privatised, is now managed by the Bouyges group of France. And it costs more, which will hardly help the country's economic development. The state airline has simply been absorbed by Air Afrique. </P>
    636 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    637632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If you were in power, how much economic scope do you think you would have, given the prevailing trend towards international liberalisation ?</P>
    638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    639634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I recognise that there is a dominant international lobby which has drawn up its own conditions, laws and principles. Even if one does not agree with this approach, one has to take it into account. However, it should be feasible to achieve privatisation in a different way. We know what we are talking about because we used to run this country. Indeed, we set up the national economy. Before 1960, there was no economic system to speak of. l am currently completing the text of a work which looks at our economic position at the time of independence. The plain fact is that we had nothing at the time of independence. There were only three pharmacists, fewer than ten doctors, and about ten people qualified to teach in our grammar schools-not much to write home about after 70 years of colonialism! After 1960, we had to set everything up from scratch. If you trace the history of every country in the world, whether under a monarchy or a republic, you see that the state has always made the first move in bringing about industrialisation, developing the maritime sector, and stimulating imports and exports. If you think about it, at the outset, the main manufactured activities were the domain of royalty.</P>
    640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     635
    641636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You claim that your party left a legacy, but some might say that the highly interventionist regime of your hero, Modibo Keita, who brought about independence, contained the seeds of Moussa Traore's dictatorship.</P>
    642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     637
    643638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-These are just fairy stories. When a regime is overthrown by a coup d'etat, it always becomes the victim of systematic defamation campaigns in the press. We were maligned for 23 years with no right of reply and no right to issue a statement to set the record straight. In a way, we are talking today about a past which did not exist. You know the saying 'you are not only what you are but also what people say you are'. This reference to dictatorship is one of the most serious calumnies. But no matter what lies are told, something of the truth will always remain. If our regime had been dictatorial or inquisitorial, a coup d'etat would not have been possible. Before the 1968 coup, Modibo Keita was given a file by the security services warning him of the plot by Moussa Traore, and giving a list of his accomplices. He was advised to arrest the conspirators and put them on trial. His response was that he would not agree to a Malian citizen being deprived of his liberty without a scrap of evidence. I knew Keita very well. It will be a long time before we have another head of state with such democratic convictions.</P>
    644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    645640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ordinary people, the farmers, say that they did better under Traore, than under Keita.</P>
    646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    647642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, but it depends who you talk to. With Traore, there was an atmosphere of moral decline. We were free to plunder, steal and murder, but it was not real freedom. The farmers see it from a different perspective. However, l can still show you a copy of the 'Summary Report on the Seminar on Cooperation in the Rural Environment' which we drew up in 1968, just a few months before the coup d'etat. This highlighted the fact that socialism had not penetrated into the countryside during the seven or eight years we were in power. So you see our own self criticism appeared in a document published in May 1968. This demonstrates the fact that we were not complacent.</P>
    648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     643
    649644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view of the compliments the current government is receiving from many foreign observers, and the good marks it has been given in the macro-economic field by international institutions ?</P>
    650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    651646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Good macro-economic results which are due to good management of public finances are beneficial for the country. However, such management must be accompanied by greater welfare and an improved standard of living for the people. There is no point hailing a GDP increase of 3-4% if more than 10% of the population does not have enough to eat. You have been through Bamako and other towns and cities and you have seen the construction sites and big buildings. But in their daily life, people are now more ill at ease. They have been disappointed by the Adema regime. The welfare of the ordinary citizen cannot be defined by reference to the personal wealth of someone who is having a seven-storey building put up. All of this new construction is reflected in the higher GDP. But the macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources-and the scales are currently tipped towards injustice. Those who are working are earning less but those who do not work are earning more. Embezzlement and corruption are currently worse than under Moussa.</P>
    652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    653648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the likelihood of a changeover of political power given that the opposition groups are at odds? The union between yourselves and Parena appears to have been suspended.</P>
    654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     649
    655650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are capable of winning the forthcoming elections without entering into an agreement with any other party. Having said this, we are the party to which most groupings in Mali are now turning and we are currently in the process of forming an alliance which will carry a great deal of weight. l am not one to speculate but I am sure that Parena's supporters will, in time, reach the same conclusions as ourselves regarding the timeliness and suitability of an alliance between us. We have contacts with a number of other parties but we do not want to form an electoral pact in the way one would make preparations for a coup-forming a group, ousting the regime and then shooting at each other! Moreover, it is important not to confuse change with restoration. There are those who advocate the restoration of Moussa's regime. Opposition of that kind would suit the current government very well because it would allow them to raise the spectre of our former dictator in the hope of attracting support from those who are frightened by such a pro spect. </P>
    656651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by H.G.</P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     652
    658653<I><P></P>
    659654<!--
    … …  
    664659  </Description>
    665660-->
    666 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     661</I>
    667662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In West Africa, there is a dry, desert-like region which a river tried to bring under its sway. Instead of flowing seawards, the river's path went in the opposite direction to find this region, impulsively tracing a majestic loop of 2000 kiLom&eacute;tres before heading seawards. The Niger may not have provided an ideal site for Mali's major towns and villages, but it was considerate enough to form a major waterway between them which is navigable over almost its entire course. Its network of tributaries has resulted in the formation of large landlocked lakes whose waters are full of fish-a reminder of the times when the Sahara was one huge expanse of water. It has also resulted in the extraordinary Niger basin, a central delta area the size of Belgium, criss-crossed by lesser tributaries which reach into the smallest valleys. The river has created a diverse landscape which entices the visitor back. The land is steeped in history and if one wishes to learn its secrets, one has no choice but to study the empires of the past, forged it is said, by mythological deities and heros.</P>
    668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     663
    669664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, visitors marvel at the beauty of the plains, which stretch as far as the eye can see. They will be tempted to return to view the waters that will cover them for just a few months during the rains. This is when the towns and villages appear as islands in the flooded landscape. Later in the seasonal cycle, Nature divests itself of its watery raiment and prepares to welcome the egrets, pink flamingos and all the other richly coloured birds which have flown in from afar. The cultural life of this region is also imbued with a rare richness, combining mystery and individuality. Mali has a distinctive character: it is accessible but not adulterated by frippery, welcoming but not taken over, affable but able to treat everyone as its equal. There is no need to make constant reference to the past which existed before colonial times-the past simply exists, eloquent in its tranquil humility.</P>
    670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     665
    671666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Mali should logically begin in Bamako, the likely port of arrival. But if one immediately journeys to the towns and villages that were the cradles of empire, one is better able to appreciate this young capital, barely 250 years old, whose history owes much to its smaller forebears. We arrived in the evening and departed at dawn the next day. So Bamako was no more than a blur. The River Niger, still known as the Djoliba in the capital, is crossed by two long bridges which offer a view over the wild river banks. Most of the constructions are brand-new and some have a style borrowed from their thousandyear-old 'Sudanese' architectural heritage. It would have been more romantic to travel by river to the central part of the delta but, despite the welcoming nature of the Niger as it flows through Mali, it is difficult to navigate over the Sotuba rapids, between Bamako and Koulikoro approximately 50 km away. When the waters are in spate from July to December, it takes no more than two days to reach Segou, three to reach Mopti, five to reach Gao and an extra day to arrive in Timbuktu.</P>
    672 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     667
    673668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Segou, the rebel</P>
    674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     669
    675670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our first stop after Bamako is Koulikoro, the departure point for Niger cruises. After the unusual houses of the bazo fisherman on the banks of the river, as one leaves Bamako, it is the river itself which is a source of curiosity, transforming the voyage into a wonderful promenade through a forest abounding in game. Then there are the thatched, circular mud huts. Those without a roof are built on piles and are often ovens for preparing karite-nut oil whose bitter-sweet fragrance mingles with the fruity scent of the mango trees which line our route. In Koulikoro, every day is market day. The market spills out into the road and then shrinks back to allow vehicles to pass. It is also a centre for hunters and poachers who come here to seek customers. Above all, it is the centre for the guilds of masons who jealously guard the secrets of traditional Sudanese building skills. For the visitor who cares to linger, the griots will sing the praises of the old magician-king Soumangourou whose spirit has haunted this small town for eight-and-a-half centuries. When he was overthrown by the hero Soundjata, he just vanished into thin air-in the land of mystery that is Mali, great kings do not die, they simply disappear.</P>
    676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     671
    677672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first 250 kiLom&eacute;tres of the river's course from Bamako are enchanting. One's first real encounter with Mali's past come at Segou-when the balanzans come into view. The charming, independent city is close by. Segou, the Bambara capital, did not form part of most of Mali's empires. Indeed, the word Bambara comes from 'Ban-Mane', which means 'those who reject a master'. There are 4444 + 1 balanzans to announce the city, all of which are numbered except the last one, which still guards its secret. The balanzans conceal another secret: during the dry season they are covered with leaves, which they lose during the winter. A curious traveller might arrive at Segou with memories of Maryse Conde's fine prose (Segou, Robert Laffont, France, 1984). Her work is an epic fresco of life at the court of the Bambara kingdom in the nineteenth century. The city itself stretches for eight kiLom&eacute;tres along the river bank, with a promenade high above the river on an embankment from where there is an uninterrupted view over the water to the horizon. The richly coloured fabrics of the washer women create a dreamlike atmosphere, giving an impression of the shimmering tunics worn by princes, and the women who swim in the river are not given to excessive prudishness, another reminder of the city's enduring rebellious nature. The charm and cleanliness of the town are striking, its administrative buildings stretching along a grand boulevard lined with modern structures. We see in their profiles, the traditional architectural styles as well as a variety of colours. The whole scene is shaded by gardens full of flowers. It is easy to forget that Segou has retained none of its former architectural wealth. This was all destroyed by the organisers of a jihad who sacked this city of infidels who had never been won over to Islam or, later, to Catholicism. The city walls and the regal courtyards are all gone, so what remains is jealously protected: the sceptre and regal symbols of King Diarra, the kingdom's treasures and its secrets. On Mondays, market day, it is possible to see people kneeling at the feet of an old man. He is the custodian of the town's remaining riches, but will never reveal where they are held. Oumar Santara, one of Segou's intellectuals, is attempting to gain an insight into these mysteries in order to protect them better because, he says, the pillage is still going on. Mali's cultural heritage is being ransacked by outsiders. In some villages on the opposite bank of the river, it is still possible to find 13th-century coins in the village squares.</P>
    678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     673
    679674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trial marriage</P>
    680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     675
    681676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly 500 kiLom&eacute;tres separate Segou from Mopti. Midway between the two is San, barely more than a large village. San is bathed by the waters of the Bani, a major tributary of the Niger which it flows into it at Mopti. In the market, fine cotton fabrics can be bought, as can the skills of the blacksmiths. Here, however, there is above all an air of secrecy. The town's inhabitants are members of the Bobo people. The name translates es 'stammering', 'mute' being implied. This is the town which holds the secrets of fatal poisons- cocktails of poisonous plants and snake venom. There are also unguents of all kinds to relieve pain, alleviate scarring, and so on. San has another reputation, that of handing out severe punishment to adulteresses. This seems paradoxical when one discovers that women here enjoy exceptional sexual freedom during adolescence and up to the time of their marriage, and even afterwards. They enter into a trial marriage for three or four years, during which time they are free to 'play the field'. At the end of this period, on the occasion of a feast, they reveal whether or not they will accept their 'provisional' husband. If not, the woman regains her freedom and can start all over again as many times as she wishes. If she decides to become the man's wife, she chooses some of her husband's friends with whom she may 'have a fling' for two weeks, the aim being that she thereby lays to rest her unmarried freedom. She will then swear an oath of fidelity to her husband which she breaks on pain of being cast out of society and even, it would appear, at the risk of losing her life.</P>
    682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     677
    683678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1 2-kiLom&eacute;tre dyke, which seems to float on the water during the winter season, links Sevare, the crossroads of the major routes across Mali, to Mopti. Situated below water level, Mopti owes its existence to the embankments which protect it. The dyke offers a fine promenade which opens out onto the quayside of this bustling town. The streets are crowded and the settlement has a vitality and beauty, with coloured lights mirrored in the water. On land, the crowds drift in much the same way as the multitude of boats anchored in staggered rows along the riverbank. These stretch for hundreds of metres- as far as the eye can see. All this wealth of detail forms a tableau punctuated by the outlines of the slender fishing smacks (pirogues or dugout canoes). Despite their size, these vessels retain their uncluttered lines, always giving the impression that they are slicing through the water. The biggest of them are perhaps 50 metres long, carrying cargoes of up to 150 tonnes. This strange, animated scene, which resembles no other in the world, seems to have been staged as a way of reviving the buried images of the Mali of legend-provoking a memory of things unseen and prompting new sensations. Despite the fact that it is replete with Malian influences, Mopti did not develop until colonial times. Like Segou, it never really belonged to any of Mali's great empires, although it became their meeting point. It is a place where all the country's languages are spoken. Indeed, the word 'mopte' in Peal means 'place of assembly'. At Zigui's restaurant or in a cafe down by the port, one find groups of beribboned Tuareg artisans still with their belle servants (former slaves) in tow. One can watch the Peals, also followed by their servants, negotiating their deals. Some trade in gold jewellery, dogon or other ethnic sculptures. Others buy and sell the magnificent Segou carpets or cotton fabrics. Others still dabble in ancient archaeological artifacts (which it is forbidden to sell) and in sacred objects from all over the country. The town itself is an artifact: the apparent hotchpotch is regulated by an internal, almost natural organisation. The hundreds of boats, fishing smacks and other small craft are arranged along the river banks according to the goods they are importing. There is one place for fishing boats, another for furniture imports, and so on.</P>
    684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     679
    685680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mopti merits an overnight stay. In the curve of the great arc which forms the port, a soft light lingers on the congested river banks. It is not just the people who seem to tire of the day's hustle and bustle. The biggest boats with their gentle backwash, anchored in the mud until the next incoming tide, grow too lazy for their images to be reflected in the water and they seem to hold on to the last of the sun's glow, awaiting the first glimmers of moonlight</P>
    686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     681
    687682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region, poetry in stone</P>
    688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683
    689684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one approaches Bandiagara, on the threshold of the cliff faces which bear the name of this town, the landscape changes. Most of Mali is flat, but here, we find ourselves in the high land. In fact, the altitude is only a few hundred metres, but the landscape is dominated by sheer and rugged rock faces. This is Dogon country where everything seems to be made of stone: the roads, houses and hills appear in matching tones of salmon pink. The inhabitants, too, seem to have been hewn from the very rock. At first glance, the landscape is unremarkable apart from the sight of all this rock, but as one's perception grows keener, shapes can be made out. At the foot of the slopes are caves that are still lived in. And in the most vertical part of the cliff faces, we can pick out regular, sculpted barrel shapes, combining to form an impressive design. These stone cylinders are the ancient dwellings of the Telems, a mysterious people who preceded the Dogons and were conquered by them. Nothing is known about their disappearance. Today, the cylinders are used as Dogon graves. Access is gained to them during funeral services, by means of a system of ropes. At the top of the cliff is Shanga, the beauty of the Dogon region. It stands atop a 400metre sheer drop which extends over a length of 200 kiLom&eacute;tres. Reaching Shanga from Bandiagara involves picking one's way through the rocky landscape and sliding over sandstone scree.</P>
    690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    691686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the Europeans arrived to colonise the country, no one had succeeded in subjugating the Dogon region. Was it really ever under the sway of the colonists ? This region, whose beauty lies in its harshness, has no embellishments. And its language is as hard on the ears as the rock is underfoot. As everywhere, to feed themselves, the Dogons till the soil. But this must be carried on the backs of men and women over distances of several kiLom&eacute;tres and then deposited on the rock. Every onion bulb and every root pulled from this thin layer is a testament to the tenacity of humankind.</P>
    692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    693688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region is like a magnet-it attracts pilgrims from afar who come to venerate El Hadj Oumar, the founder of the Islamic brotherhood of the African Tidjani-a military and religious leader whose life and disappearance are shrouded in mystery. It also attracts people because of the beauty of its works of art. Some of these, apparently of recent manufacture, are actually centuries old. For the custodians of the sacred objects, the interest of outsiders is viewed as a catastrophe. The artefacts are constantly pilfered and sometimes, their keepers commit suicide in their horror at such desecration.</P>
    694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     689
    695690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine regalia</P>
    696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     691
    697692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djenne translates as 'the beloved of the waters' and is surrounded by two strekhes of the Bani river. Thus, apart from a short time in the dry season, when the river can be forded, it is an island accessible only by boat. The town has always been a rival of Timbuktu, the 'daughter' of the desert. Before Mopti was created, Djenne was the country's meeting point. The town is dominated by its mosque which is a masterpiece of Sudanese architecture. This imposing clay structure has been a magnet for the faithful since the thirteenth century. It has always been rebuilt in the same style, each version scrupulously identical to the previous one. The most recent reconstruction dates from the early 1900s.</P>
    698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    699694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre of the Malian empire, Djenne has retained all its finery, magnificence and prestige. It was annexed by the Shongoi empire at the end of the Middle Ages and its conquerors have always been seduced by the town's beauty. The mosque has been designated a World Heritage Site, and the entire town has protected status. For centuries, its architecture influenced other towns and cities in the Sahel and it continues to do so. The secrets of the knowledge and skills of its master masons are still jealously guarded, passed on only reluctantly to the initiated. The whole town is built around the mosque, revealing an interplay of balance and power. There are magnificent inner courtyards to which entry is gained through massive, ornate studded gates. The elaborate and finely carved windows, the intertwined leaves and scrolls of the arabesques and the moucharabies, all bear witness to the Moroccan influence. This has, however, been toned down and it now blends in with Djenne's indigenous forms of decoration and architecture. Whilst all Mali's former great towns and cities were known for their power and military glory, Djenne takes pride in having dispensed with brute force, its spirit protecting it from subjugation. All those who pass through take something of Djenne's spirit away with them.</P>
    700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    701696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coca Cola kept at bay</P>
    702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     697
    703698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the capital from where we started, we discover that it was colonisation that turned Bamako from a village into the large city that it is today. It inhabitants now number approximately one million. Although a city of recent origin, the site on which it is built dates back to the dawn of time. The hills overlooking the city are home to cave paintings and the underground tombs provide more evidence of a human presence dating from ancient times. There is then a gap of several thousand years in Bamako's history. In early colonial times, just two centuries ago, the village had no more than 700 inhabitants. Bamako began to be developed at the beginning of the 1900s and it is the only city in Mali to have a colonial atmosphere. It has not, however, lost out to change. The ministerial buildings at Koulouba hill, one of five dominating the city, or the Point G houses in the National Museum area, may not equal the beauty of Sudanese architecture, but they are elegant nonetheless. Their plain style is softened by their leafy gardens. The administrative buildings in the lower part of the city are often a fusion of colonial or modern styles and traditional architecture. These edifices are also made more attractive by fine gardens, which lend originality to the city. One of the most successful combinations is the great market, unfortunately in the process of restoration at the time of our visit and whose beautiful interior we were unable to appreciate. It is interior beauty which characterises this city in comparison with other African capitals. Despite its congestion and the density of its population, Bamako still has the atmosphere of a lively village. There is little of what one might term a 'social scene', but it is enough to be invited into the 'squares' or respectfully to visit the block-shaped houses which are still home to entire families and where discussion sessions (grins) last into the small hours. These sessions are enhanced with food and the omnipresent cup of tea. Bamako still prefers tea to imported beverages and to receive guests in the family home rather than joining in the social round in the hotel foyers so characteristic of major capital cities.</P>
    704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     699
    705700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those hesitant to venture into the traditional life of Bamako (although they would be assured of a welcome), there are many restaurants which make a good attempt at recreating a homely atmosphere. One is not, however, required to take part in the conversations. Two restaurants (the Djenne and the Santoro), which have opened recently, allow one to enjoy the pleasures of art and history. They are part of a wider project to promote Malian art and set up an organisation for artists and craftsmen. They contain areas modelled on the refinement of former imperial furnishing, interior design and architecture, as well as exhibits by Mali's greatest artists. Their creator, Aminata Traore, is an intellectual, art connoisseur and international expert. In Dakar or Abidjan, patrons of such establishments would probably be expatriates with perhaps a few local dignitaries. But at the Santoro and Djenne, prices have been kept reasonably low (no account having been taken of the 50% devaluation in the CFA franc) and the art remains accessible to middle-class Malians. Thus, the spirit of the 'grins' is preserved. The preferred beverage is still a cup of fragrant tea or perhaps a glass of refreshing juice. Whisky will never replace tea, nor will Coca Cola replace fruit juices. Mali is not a country which rejects other people, but it resists cultural encroachment, preferring the </P>
    706701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">familiar to the exotic. </P>
    707702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
    708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     703
    709704<I><P></P>
    710705<!--
    … …  
    717712</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roads and adjustment</P>
    718713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Theo Hoorntje</P>
    719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     714
    720715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 1990-95, ECU 151.7m was allocated (mainly in project aid) under the seventh EDF National Indicative Programme (NIP). This is equivalent to about 1.5% of Mali's GDP and 13% of its public-sector investment programme for the period in question. European funds from sources other than the NIP-emergency aid, Stabex, European Investment Bank (EIB) venture capital and resources from the structural adjustment facility- reached ECU 87.2m over the same five-year period.</P>
    721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     716
    722717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, support for the structural adjustment programme represented 5.4% of the balance of payments deficit and 7.8% of the budget deficit. Looking at all instruments together, the amount involved in financing decisions taken by the Commission last year was ECU 42m, with the disbursement figure rising to ECU 40m.</P>
    723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    724719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NlP's primary commitment level under the 7th EDF rose from 76% at the beginning of the financial year to 92% at the end, which means that virtually all available programmable resources are now allocated to projects and programmes. The secondary commitment level, which involves the conversion of proposals into concrete agreements and contracts, rose from 33% to 45% by the end of the financial year. Disbursement rates remain relatively low (32% of available resources).</P>
    725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    726721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allocations</P>
    727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    728723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid is distributed to the various sectors, as follows:</P>
    729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    730725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Roads (29% of the total);</P>
    731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    732727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for structural adjustment (20%);</P>
    733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    734729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rural development / Environment (1 4%);</P>
    735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    736731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for the private sector (12%);</P>
    737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    738733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Decentralisation (9%); </P>
    739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    740735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Public health (9%); </P>
    741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    742737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Water supplies (4%); </P>
    743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    744739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Education/Culture (3%).</P>
    745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    746741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that Community aid concentrates mainly on road infrastructures-covering both maintenance and the opening-up of remote regions. Support for structural adjustment, which comes second, is used to finance the State budget's current expenses, particular emphasis being placed on improvement of fiscal and customs income and greater efficiency in health-policy matters.</P>
    747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     742
    748743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other areas, such as rural development, Community aid also makes an attempt to consolidate gains from previous actions, particularly through the development of rice growing and stock rearing, which should improve supplies to the domestic market and offer further export potential. As far as the environment is concerned, the aim is to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources on the part of basic users, such as farmers, breeders, etc.</P>
    749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     744
    750745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is supported by actions in key areas and by a programme that was recently set up which involves directing resources through a financial institution (Credit Initiative SA). The objective is to promote lending to SMEs, which is in keeping with the general aim of achieving economic growth.</P>
    751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     746
    752747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the context of administrative reform, priority is given to the decentralisation process which aims to promote the emergence of new local decision making centres (which should, in the long term, become key players in project development and implementation), and to give such decentralised bodies the means they require to fulfil these new public-sector missions.</P>
    753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     748
    754749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for health, Community aid has contributed to the PSPHR project financed by other donors. Its main focus is initially on infrastructures and on the policy relating to the supply of essential medicines.</P>
    755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     750
    756751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the water-supply sector, actions are aimed at strengthening village infrastructures, particularly in the Bankass and Koro areas. A solar-pump programme has also been set up in the Mopti and Koulikoro regions.</P>
    757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     752
    758753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a school reconstruction programme in the north of the country, the Commission has been able to support education and culture through a dozen or so film projects.</P>
    759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754
    760755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the general 'heading' of non-programmable resources, there have been a number of interventions. These include extra support for structural adjustment, Stabex transfers, deployment of the balance from the 5th EDF and EIB projects. Emergency aid has been deployed in the north of the country where, despite difficult conditions, programmes have been able to continue without interruption.</P>
    761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     756
    762757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Community regional aid is helping to combat rinderpest, as well as being directed towards road maintenance, and the provision of training and information on environmental protection. </P>
    763758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.H. </P>
    764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     759
    765760<I><P></P>
    766761<!--
    … …  
    771766  </Description>
    772767-->
    773 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768</I>
    774769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catherine Beauraind and her five colleagues in the small team of foreigners and Malians, woke early. It had been a short night: our fault, since we had arrived at Bandiagara on the edge of the Niger valley much later than expected having taken the Sevare route. This is the gateway to the rocky Dogon region and travellers on the road occacionaliy fall victim to bandits-which probably made our hosts somewhat apprehensive about our late arrival. The people we had come to see are road builders, working without sophisticated equipment in a region of rocks and cliffs. They seem very youth froml, particularly those who have come from afar.</P>
    775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    776771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are 'Progress Volunteers', the name given to the many young people who come to this very poor African country to offer their commitment and dynamism, if not perhaps their experience. On this particular morning, still feeling fatigued, Catherine was having to coordinate the departure of escorts for seasonal workers who were being dispatched to various locations. Their job is to ensure the upkeep of the rocky roads, and the equipment they use is rudimentary to say the least. The Bandiagara-Dourou stretch is maintained by the AFVP (French Association of Progress Volunteers) and is one in a long list of NGO projects. In 1995 alone, the European Commission supported over 50 NGO schemes, to the tune of ECU 1.5 million. Most EU countries and a number of others also have their own projects. On top of this, there is the emergency help provided by the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), which has just approved a grant of ECU 1 million for the north of Mali. Now that a peace accord has been signed between the government and the Tuareg rebels, this region is likely to see a huge influx of refugees returning to villages that are ill prepared to receive them.</P>
    777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    778773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is a least-developed nation and one of the most highly subsidised countries in terms of per capita aid, though recently, its political fortunes have been boosted by the democratisation process. And the efforts of the NGOs now seem to be paying off. The recent times of famine have faded in people's memories even in the Dogon region, where many families ate calabashes in desperation before succumbing to starvation. Mother nature is playing a part in the country's renewal: there has been ample rain over the last Many NGO projects are aimed at helping the population use its meagre resources to exploit the natural wealth of the River Niger and its tributaries. At Konna, for example, a striking village at the confluence of two rivers, the Regional Literacy and Self-Management Project is up and running. Financed, among others, by the European Development Fund, this is being implemented at a number of localities, and it has played a part in the renewal which can now be seen. Fresh coats of paint, repairs to houses, fewer starving children and the return of many migrants all underline this new vitality. Each of the 17 small cultivated areas in the village that are covered by the project (worked by about 60 people), receives no more aid than a motorised pump, a few cereals and a small amount of cash in the first year. A basic course in management is also provided. It is up to the villagers to use these resources to yield a profit. Results tend to be good, proof of success being the growing number of such schemes which are being set up without aid from the organisation. The project is now in its seventh year. It did experience one bad year-1992-when, despite bumper harvests, rice imports into Mali were excessive and prices dropped. The village has therefore made an attempt to diversify its crops. Its objective is to sell onions in Cote d'lvoire, where the inhabitants are very fond of this vegetable.</P>
    779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    780775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages have been able to save money which was initially placed in banks and then invested elsewhere in the wake of devaluation's harsh lessons. Konna opted for purchasing livestock. In nearby Kotaka, surpluses partially funded the construction of an impressive mosque. Kotaka was one of the places most affected by the recent meningitis epidemic, but a hospital would probably have been too expensive. </P>
    781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    782777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier </P>
    783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     778
    784779<B><P></P>
    785780<!--
    … …  
    791786  </Description>
    792787-->
    793 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     788</B>
    794789<I><P></P>
    795790<!--
    … …  
    799794  </Description>
    800795-->
    801 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     796</I>
    802797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small countries with a limited resource base are frequently buffeted by economic forces over which they have no control. If you live in Western Samoa, however, you are likely to be preoccupied by forces of a different kind. For while most of the time, Mother Nature presents a benign face in this attractive and fertile Pacific state, every once in a while, she loses her temper.</P>
    803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     798
    804799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical storms are an unavoidable reality in much of the Pacific and they breed a special form of resilience which should impress the inhabitants of more temperate climes. The people of Samoa, and other cyclone prone countries in the region, are adept at picking themselves up and, if necessary, starting all over again, once the winds have passed. But between 1989 and 1993, the Samoans' capacity for renewal was to be tested more than ever before. Like a plucky boxer facing a much stronger opponent, the country would just be struggling back to its feet when another hammer blow would send it reeling.</P>
    805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     800
    806801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The closest to a knock-out punch came in December 1991 in the shape of Cyclone Val-the worst storm to hit the islands in more than a century. This brought death and injury, as well as widespread economic devastation. The coconut and coffee trees on which the country depends for much of its export income were either swept away or stripped bare. Many homes were also destroyed and infrastructures were severely damaged. (The 1993 cyclone, although less powerful, caused further crop destruction.)</P>
    807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     802
    808803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last five years, virtually all the damage has been repaired. Indeed, a great many facilities have been upgraded with plans for further improvements in the pipeline. To some extent, the credit for this remarkable recovery must be shared. Overseas donors played an important part in restoring key infrastructures while expatriate Samoans, whose remittances are an important 'invisible' earning for the country in normal times, also rallied round. But the key players, of course, were the people themselves, who rose to the challenge of reconstructing their country.</P>
    809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     804
    810805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa - which has a population of 165 000-is experiencing an economic mini-boom. Growth during 1996 is expected to be between 5% and 6% for the second consecutive year and there are encouraging signs of a new, home-grown entrepreneurial spirit. This is not to say that everything in the garden is rosy. The latest growth figures need to be set against the unavoidable recession caused by Cyclones Val and Ofa (which struck in 1990) and a mediocre economic performance throughout the 1980s. And while there is some evidence of diversification, the economy is still very narrowly based. There is also considerable room for improvements in health care and education provision. Doubts have been expressed, for example, as to the accuracy of the official literacy figures. Finally, there is a high level of dependence on foreign aid (the country's main donors are the Asian Development Bank, Japan, Australia and the European Community).</P>
    811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     806
    812807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economists will tell you how notoriously difficult it is to express the wealth of a developing nation in statistical form. GDP figures can offer a pointer, but they do not present the whole picture as they take no account of the informal economy. Western Samoa provides a particularly good illustration. At US $950, the estimated per capita GDP is very low by Pacific standards. Yet there is clearly no starvation. A great deal of the food consumed by the Samoans simply does not 'show up' in the cash economy. The term subsistence agriculture seems peculiarly inappropriate here since locally available food sources are many and varied.</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    814809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similarly, many of the materials used to build the 'fares' (traditional houses) in the villages are obtained without recourse to builders' merchants. And when a Samoan wants a new house, he builds it himself-with the help of his family and neighbours. This involves skilled carpentry work-for which people would pay highly in industrialised societies - and which does not register either in the country's economic statistics. So it is clear that the basic GDP figures do not paint a complete picture. Nonetheless, they illustrate the relatively underdeveloped state of the formal economy.</P>
    815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     810
    816811<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     812
    818813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at exports, Western Samoa's traditional agricultural sector has gone through some rough times, for a variety of reasons. In the past, the mainstays were copra and coconut products (oil and cream), cocoa and tarot</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     814
    820815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storms destroyed or damaged many of the coconut and cocoa trees, wiping out exports for a number of years until new plantings could reach maturity. The market in food products derived from the coconut had been depressed in any case. One reason for this was negative publicity over the high cholesterol content of coconuts, although more recent research, suggesting that not all types of cholesterol are bad for you, has at least partly restored the reputation of this highly flexible crop.</P>
    821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     816
    822817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taro, which is Western Samoa's staple food crop, was exported in ever increasing quantities during the 1980s but the trade has suffered badly in recent years because of an outbreak of taro leaf blight.</P>
    823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     818
    824819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa's most important primary exports are, once again, coconut-based (oil and cream). With the new trees reaching maturity, production recommenced on a small scale towards the end of 1994. The following year saw a big jump in exports and the figures for 1996 are expected to - come close to pre-cyclone levels,The marketing situation has also improved as a result of privatisation. The old Copra Board, a parastatal with a reputation for inefficiency, was abolished in 1990, its assets being bought for a nominal sum by a Samoan businessman who has invested heavily in refurbishment. This has all been achieved despite continuing low prices for coconut products in the world markets.</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     820
    826821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa takes longer to recover but harvesting of the first new crop is due to take place this year with the emphasis on a high value, fine tasting variety. A new chocolate factory (Wilex C.C.P. Ltd), also masterminded by a local entrepreneur, Eddie Wilson, has been built with assistance from the EU's Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) and a credit from the European Investment Bank (EIB) channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS). This is a particularly significant venture since it aims to maximise added value before export. The factory is currently operating well below full capacity, awaiting the arrival of the first local crop, but there are high hopes for its long term success.</P>
    827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     822
    828823<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other main crops exported are bananas and kava. The latter is a mild narcotic based on the root of the pepper plant, which is used in pharmaceutical preparations. It also has an important place in Samoan (and wider Pacific) culture, being drunk in diluted form on ceremonial occasions.</P>
    829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     824
    830825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a view to achieving further export diversification, a number of other agricultural/horticultural export possibilities have also been identified. These include asparagus, mangos and cut flowers. The most likely potential market for new tropical production is New Zealand-already the destination for more than half of Western Samoa's exports. However, this country has stringent health rules with rigorous controls on the import of plant and animal material. The understandable aim is to protect the local farming sector from diseases introduced from outside, but it creates an additional hurdle for potential exporters in the developing countries of the Pacific. In particular, Western Samoa needs to come to grips with the fruit fly problem, if it wishes to make inroads into the New Zealand market.</P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     826
    832827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber also once featured prominently in the trade statistics before declining at the end of the 1980s. There are hopes for a revival here with the authorities keen to encourage value added processing of wood products within the country.</P>
    833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     828
    834829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its obvious association with the sea, Western Samoa has never really gone in for commercial fishing. While the Exclusive Economic Zone is small by Pacific standards, the country being 'hemmed in' by other island nations and territories, it is still more than 40 times the land area. The government would particularly like to attract foreign investment in fish processing and canning.</P>
    835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     830
    836831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry</P>
    837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     832
    838833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably unrealistic to expect a small and geographically isolated nation such as Western Samoa to develop a highly diversified industrial base but there have been one or two notable ventures which show signs of potential. The above-mentioned chocolate factory is one such. The country also has a highly successful brewery. It is not uncommon for developing nations to produce their own local beer but Western Samoa's Vailima brand has managed to break out successfully into the regional market, bringing in useful foreign exchange in the process.</P>
    839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     834
    840835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest industrial success story-dwarfing all other manufacturing ventures-has been the establishment of a factory by the Japanese company Yazaki to produce wire harnesses for cars. The business employs some 2500 people (mainly women) in a highly labour-intensive operation-and it makes a significant contribution to the trade balance. The value-added electrical components are re-exported for incorporation into cars sold mainly in Australia.</P>
    841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     836
    842837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The company was attracted by a number of factors including low labour costs in this non-unionised society, and the political stability of Western Samoa. Perhaps most important, however, were the incentives offered by the government. These went well beyond the usual tax holidays provided by developing countries to attract foreign investors. Indeed, it was the government that built the factory and the company was allowed to occupy it rent-free. Some observers have expressed concern at such largesse but the authorities are insistent that it was still a good deal. They point to the jobs that were created (a huge number by Samoan standards) at a time when many people's livelihoods were threatened by taro blight. They also argue that the profits of the operation are retained in Western Samoa, thereby helping to boost the wider economy.</P>
    843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     838
    844839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Services</P>
    845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     840
    846841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service sector offers perhaps the best potential for expansion of Western Samoa's formal economy. Top of the list here comes tourism (featured in a separate article), which has been expanding much faster than the underlying rate of economic growth. Despite the increase in both visitors and income, tourism is still underdeveloped. The government (supported by the opposition) believes that this is one field where Western Samoa definitely has a 'comparative advantage'.</P>
    847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     842
    848843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked to tourism, of course, is the air transport business. Although it might still be possible to obtain passage on a merchant ship bound for the South Sea islands, the vast majority of visitors arrive by plane, and good air connections are obviously essential. The history of the country's national carrier, Polynesian Airlines, offers two object lessons. The first is how not to run an airline and the second, more recent and encouraging one, is how to grasp the nettle when the crisis finally breaks. In 1992, with tourism in mind, the government owned airline decided to expand its operations substantially. It leased three long-haul aircraft which it hoped to fill with visitors in search of a new tropical haven. The market research was clearly inadequate and the planes flew with many empty seats. Other aspects of the company's management proved deficient and there was a chronic lack of financial. Debts mounted at such a frightening rate that the budgetary position of the entire country was threatened.</P>
    849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     844
    850845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the government took decisive action, bringing in Richard Gates, the experienced airline entrepreneur, who is credited with having turned Air New Zealand around. Relatively small airline businesses in the Pacific are not likely to make a.fortune for anyone, but with proper management, they should at least be able to break even and perhaps even turn in a small profit. This was not something that even the prodigious talents of Mr Gates could achieve, however, with the crushing burden of debt accumulated by Polynesian Airlines. So the government assumed responsibility for the debts and then gave the new manager a free hand, on the firm understanding that the taxpayer would not come to the rescue again.</P>
    851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     846
    852847<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the airline side, the operation was drastically slimmed down. The leases on the large aircraft were terminated, staff 'down-sizing' took place and bath ticketing and financial management were tightened up. The positive impact of these measures was soon evident, with a small operating profit registered in 1995.</P>
    853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     848
    854849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Left with huge debts, the action of the authorities was equally impressive, although it entailed discomfort for most Western Samoans. In order to restore its own financial position, the government instituted 15% public expenditure cuts across the board. In macro-economic terms, it is generally acknowledged that this strong medicine was needed, but the social consequences were all too clear as well: reduced funds for health and education, and pressure on important capital investment budgets. Perhaps fortuitously for the country, the financial crisis caused by the Polynesian Airlines debacle coincided with the payment of a substantial Stabex payment from the European Community. The country's was eligible for Stabex funds because of the collapse in agricultural export receipts following the cyclones, and the money-which was directed mainly into infrastructure projects-could hardly have come at a better time. Meanwhile, the government has paid off a large portion of the airline's debt with the residue rescheduled for payment over a five-year period.</P>
    855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     850
    856851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government has taken a number of steps aimed at attracting offshore finance business to the country. Western Samoa now has a comprehensive legal framework governing such activities, including crucial provisions guaranteeing secrecy. Another vital factor in attracting offshore funds, which has already been mentioned, is political stability. There is even the suggestion that the country's time zone, which puts it almost a day behind Australia and New Zealand, might somehow be turned to its advantage in global financial dealings (although it is not clear how the benefit would be derived in otherwise legitimate transactions).</P>
    857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     852
    858853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last three years have seen a big increase in company incorporations and there are now more than 2500 offshore companies (including 15 banks and eight insurance companies) registered. It is difficult to imagine Western Samoa ever challenging the likes of Liechtenstein, the Bahamas or Jersey in this market, given its geographical distance from the main industrialised nations, but even a successful 'niche' operation could bring some useful income to the country.</P>
    859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     854
    860855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
    861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     856
    862857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five years ago, when the Courier last covered Western Samoa, the emphasis was heavily on recent constitutional changes and most notably, the introduction of universal franchise. At the time, there was a lot of interest in how the traditional Samoan way of life (faa-Samoa) would be affected. This is based on the village structure and the matai system which vests considerable authority in family heads. There is also a strong attachment to the Christian faith, as exemplified by strict Sunday observance rules (also found in Tonga and other Pacific countries).</P>
    863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     858
    864859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the Samoans appear to have embraced their more 'westernised' system of government without any difficulty. Although everyone over 21 has a vote, one still has to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament. In contrast to hierarchical structures elsewhere in the Pacific, however, the system here seems to be based largely on merit and it is not particularly exclusive (there are an estimated 19 000 matai). The matai, nonetheless, exercise considerable authority in village affairs, most notably over the use of customary land.</P>
    865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     860
    866861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, the change seems to have caused few problems because Western Samoa already had its own decentralised form of democracy. It was not a question of educating people about hitherto alien concepts.</P>
    867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     862
    868863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that change in Western Samoa is slow and progressive rather than sudden and violent, is recognised by most observers to be a good thing. An illustration of this evolutionary approach is the arrangement governing the position of Head of State. The post, which is held by His Highness Malietoa Tunamefili 11, currently appears to be a cross between a presidency and a monarchy. Under the 1962 independence constitution, two of the country's four paramount chiefs were given the position, to be held jointly, for life. With the death of Tupua Tamasese Meaole in 1963, the surviving incumbent became sole Head of State. There will be no automatic succession, however, and Parliament will decide who should have the post in future, with the term of office limited to five years. There is obviously a great deal of respect for the Head of State and his office among Western Samoans, although it should be stressed that his role is largely ceremonial, with political authority being vested in the elected government. </P>
    869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     864
    870865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for party politics, there are two groupings represented in Parliament, the ruling Human Rights Protection Party and the opposition Samoa National Development Party. The party system is not particularly strong, however, being based more on personalities than ideology. Corruption is not seen to be a major problem although a major row did blow up recently over a critical report issued by the Auditor-General for 1994. This led to him being suspended and this issue had not yet been resolved at the time The Courier went to press.</P>
    871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     866
    872867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is not unique in having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. The phenomenon affects all societies, with modern communications technology increasingly breaking down the 'protection' that geographical isolation used to afford. In Westem Samoa, as elsewhere, there must be concern about the impact of this on the country's traditional way of life. Yet the indications are that this Pacific nation is managing the transition rather better than many other developing countries. The people seem to combine an unselfconscious pride in their traditions and cultural assets with a pragmatic welcoming of ideas from outside which help to improve their material wellbeing. The hope must be that this process can continue as we approach the third millennium. S'imon Homer</P>
    873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     868
    874869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historical summary</P>
    875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     870
    876871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to archaeological evidence, the islands of Samoa were first settled about 3000 years ago, after gradual migration within the Pacific from people originally from South East Asia. Samoa, it seems, was the cradle of the Polynesian culture, and settlers from there spread to other islands of Polynesia in the east, north and south.</P>
    877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     872
    878873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first European to sight the group in 1722 was Jacob Roggeveen, and although there was intermittent contact between European sailing vessels and the islanders during the 18th century, more permanent contact was established with the arrival of the European missionaries in the early 1980s. They were soon followed by traders looking for copra, beche de mer, sandalwood and other products. Later, some of the trading firms, notably German, fumed to large-scale production of copra and other products such as cotton, cacao and rubber, which also led a corresponding increase in interest on the part of colonial powers. </P>
    879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     874
    880875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1800s, the Samoan group became the focus of colonial rivalry between Great Britain, the USA and Germany, leading, in 1900, to the partitioning of the islands between Germany and the United States. The eastern part of the group came under American control and has remained so to this day, while Germany controlled the western islands. Britain received territorial concessions elsewhere in the Pacific. </P>
    881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     876
    882877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand took over what had come to be known as German Samoa, and became the administrative power there under the League of Nations and later the United Nations until Western Samoa became the first Patific island nation to become an independent state in 1962.</P>
    883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     878
    884879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Source: Government of Western Samoa. this text is taken from the information brochure prepared by the authorities for distribution to delegates at the recent ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting). </P>
    885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     880
    886881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dream ticket ?</P>
    887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     882
    888883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depart Nuku'alofa-12.00, January l 2000 Arrive Apia - 14.00, December 37 1999</P>
    889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     884
    890885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with cash to burn are often ready to spend surprising amounts of money in their pursuit of the unusual. Tonga has already recognised this as it begins preparing for the third millennium Lying just to the west of the International Dateline, it believes it will the first country to see the sun rise on the new millennium, although other Pacific territories have also made the claim. (For this purpose, we ignore the purists who point out that the third millennium will not actually begin until January 1, 2001.) Celebrations are planned and bookings are already being taken.</P>
    891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     886
    892887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westem Samoa is obviously not in the running for this distinction since it is east of the dateline, but what this means is it will be the last nation in the world to say goodbye to the old millennium. This surely presents an opportunity for the local tourist industry.</P>
    893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     888
    894889<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what about those intrepid voyagers who fancy greeting the year 2000 in Tonga and then 'seeing out' the old millennium 24 hours later in Samoa. If i were an airline manager, I would be examining the possibility of extra flights from Nuku'alofa on the big day. (Let's hope it's not a Sunday I)</P>
    895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     890
    896891<I><P></P>
    897892<!--
    … …  
    903898-->
    904899</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Economic future in tourism end manufacturing'</P>
    905 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     900
    906901<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier visited Western Samoa at the end of June while the country was hosting the ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting. At the time, veteran Prime Minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana, was recovering from an operation, and his duties were being carried out by his deputy, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, who is also the Minister of Finance. Despite a hectic schedule, the Deputy Prime Minister kindly managed to find a slot for a keynote interview with The Courier.</P>
    907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     902
    908903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is growing evidence of a new economic dynamism in this island nation, which has managed to find its feet remarkably speedily after the destruction wrought by cyclones in 1989 and 1990. With this in mind, we began by asking the Minister about the economic prospects for the country ?</P>
    909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     904
    910905<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think they are excellent. Our country suffered a major catastrophe as a result of the cyclones, coming, as they did, in two successive years. There was major damage to our infrastructure and forestry resources- coconuts and cocoa. At the time, we estimated the bill at more than $600m. But the rehabilitation of the infrastructure went ahead quickly, thanks to the major support provided by bodies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and of course, the European Union, not to mention the bilateral donor countries who answered our call for help. So in some ways, it was a blessing in disguise. We suffered badly, but with the assistance that came, we have been able to improve our roads and electricity supply, and the protection of our foreshore. It also encouraged us to embark on replanting to replace the trees-mainly cocoa and coconut -that had been destroyed. Last year, for the first time since the cyclones, our copra exports came back in strength. We have, at last, started to approach the pre-cyclone export levels.</P>
    911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     906
    912907<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are likely to be the key sectors for future economic activity ?</P>
    913 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     908
    914909<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We believe that the economic future of our country now lies more in tourism and in manufacturing industries. Dealing with the latter first, we have already succeeded in attracting some industries. The major investment so-far has come from Yazaki, a Japanese company that produces wire harnessing systems (electrical components) for vehicles. This employs almost 3000 people in Western Samoa. In fact, the company set up here before the cyclones and it did not take long for us to see the benefits. The value added equivalent provided by just that one plant is roughly equivalent to our total agricultural exports for last year. So you can see the importance of manufacturing industry for us. We have provided very generous incentives and have also allocated sufficient government land to provide space for factories.</P>
    915 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     910
    916911<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other industry which is now in the forefront, in terms of foreign exchange earnings, is tourism. We now earn four times more from this sector than we do from agriculture-and agriculture is supposed to be the mainstay of our economy.</P>
    917 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     912
    918913<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, we mustn't reduce the priority that we give to agriculture. It is one area where we have the resources. More specifically, I think that we have great potential for beef production. If we should have another cyclone, the trees will be damaged but cattle should not be affected. So I think we should look more towards beef production and other forms of agricultural diversification. We do have some good commercial farming in place at the moment, but it is not enough. We need to do more.</P>
    919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     914
    920915<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the chocolate industry ? You have traditionally grown cocoa but you now also have a factory to process the raw material right up to the end product.</P>
    921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     916
    922917<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a direct result of our drive to promote more manufacturing - whether it is export-oriented or geared towards import substitution. The chocolate venture is a new one and I think there are good, prospects here as well.</P>
    923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     918
    924919<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important point is that we are moving back into growing the fine flavour variety of cocoa here. We used to be one of the 14 producers of fine flavoured cocoa in the world, and we got premium prices for it. But somehow, over the years, we switched to producing inferior quality bulk cocoa. We regretted doing that and are now switching back to the higher quality variety-which is just coming back into production following the cyclones. So here we have another potential area for exports. On the other hand, taro which used to be our major export prior to 1993 is facing difficulties. It is affected by a disease, the taro blight, which seems to be uncontrollable.</P>
    925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     920
    926921<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thinking in particular of the impact of tourism, are you concerned that an influx of foreign visitors might damage Western Samoa's unique and very special culture ? I see, for example, that you now have a 'McDonalds' restaurant in the centre of Apia.</P>
    927 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     922
    928923<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No. I am not really concerned. In 1992, we set up our own tourism festival. This takes place in the first week of September and is quite clearly intended to be a feature event with an emphasis on promoting tourism. All the activities at the festival focus on the various aspects of our culture-the arts, the dances, the preparation of food, the singing and so on. It seems to me that our drive for tourism is actually helping to revive some of the cultural aspects that would otherwise have been dvina out. So I believe there is a complementarily between culture and tourism, so long as we ensure that the relationship between the two is maintained. I think this point is backed up, if you look at the growing popularity of ecotourism nowadays. This is very much concerned with preservation-of both the environment and of local cultures.</P>
    929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     924
    930925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In international circles, Western Samoa is deemed to be a least-developed country on account of its low GDP per head figures. Yet nobody is starving here and you appear to have a very 'rich' lifestyle, even if people don't have a great deal of cash in their pockets. Do you think the international classification is a fair one ?</P>
    931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     926
    932927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think the first point to emphasise is that a lot of the signs of development you see here are of recent origin. They date back only to 1992-93. Infrastructures have improved considerably over a very short time and this could well create a certain impression about the people's standard of living. On the other hand, it is true that our economy is not completely based on cash. And, of course, our earnings are in Tala which go a lot further here than their dollar equivalent in the United States.</P>
    933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     928
    934929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Presumably, it is to your benefit to be classified as an LDC because it gives you access to more sources of foreign funding ?</P>
    935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     930
    936931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I am happy to leave the classification to the experts. They are the ones who come and estimate our average per capita income, which is then used as the yardstick for placing a country in one or other category. I think it is ironic though, that if you go to a country like the USA, which is supposed to be very rich, you find beggars on the street. It certainly makes you wonder. Perhaps it is not really the statistical wealth of a country that is important, but its social system. And our social system here ensures that no-one goes hungry.</P>
    937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     932
    938933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· That leads on rather neatly to my next question. What do you think are the main social challenges that need to be tackled here ?</P>
    939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     934
    940935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We still have quite a lot of 'service care' needs in the villages that we need to attend to. That is why we have placed the highest priority on social services over the next five years. I am talking here in particular about health, education and water supplies. There are still a lot of villages that need to have piped water brought into the home. Education-wise, we have reasonable access, but we need to improve the teaching material that is available in the classes and upgrade the general level of village schooling. We need to dissuade families from moving to the capital in the belief that they can get better education for their children here. So we still have a lot of work to do to ensure that the primary schools in the villages are upgraded. It is not simply a question of ensuring that competent teachers are available, but also as I say, providing good teaching materials and laboratory equipment for science subjects.</P>
    941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     936
    942937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· All of this obviously needs to be paid for, which entails healthy government finances. You recently had a serious problem over the debts run up by Air Polynesia, and you took very stringent measures to tackle this which resulted in expenditure cuts. What do the figures look like today ?</P>
    943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     938
    944939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-They are OK. We are running a budget deficit which means we have to borrow both overseas and locally, but we try to keep the deficit at a reasonable level.</P>
    945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     940
    946941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What has been the effect of introducing the Value Added Goods and Services Sales Tax (VAGST) ?</P>
    947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     942
    948943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has helped enormously. Of course, in order to sell the idea, we had to reduce other taxes and duties. As you know, there is an international trend towards removing customs duties and shifting revenue-raising in the direction of consumption taxes. Customs levies, which are the traditional source of revenue are diminishing. So what we have done is to lay the foundation for the eventual shift in our revenue base. Also, we promised to cut income taxes even more-from 38% to 25% within two years.</P>
    949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     944
    950945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this measure been implemented yet ?</P>
    951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     946
    952947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, it is due to be introduced in 1998.</P>
    953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     948
    954949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Finally, I would like to turn to a constitutional question. Western Samoa introduced universal franchise some five or six years ago, but you still have a system in which only matai (family heads) are entitled to stand as candidates in elections. Do you envisage any further changes to the system ?</P>
    955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     950
    956951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I cannot really see that we will ever change again. The Constitution stipulates that our government is based on Samoan traditions and Christian principles. When we introduced universal suffrage, we were applying something that had always been there in any case. Samoans have always taken part in the process of choosing their leaders and voting is simply another way of doing this. The only difference is that we would arrive at a decision by getting together through our village structures and talking, whereas your system involves marking a ballot. So the change was quite in accordance with our customs.</P>
    957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     952
    958953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me say something about the way villages choose their matai. When there is a question of succession, everyone has a right to take part in the process. There is no age limit. So in that sense, you could argue that we are more advanced. And we always had female matai, even before the arrival of the Europeans.</P>
    959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     954
    960955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this respect, I believe we are quite different from Fiji and Tonga. In Tonga, the dividing line is quite clear. If you are born a noble, you remain a noble and if you are born a commoner, you will always be a commoner. It is the same in Fiji. There, you are automatically a ratu K your father was one. By contrast, here in Samoa, my son cannot automatically succeed to my title. So to become a matai, a person has to earn it, and to put his case at the family meeting which is convened to choose a successor. Usually, the person chosen is the one who displays the best leadership qualities. I think I should also point out that becoming a matai is not that difficult. If you want to be one, you inform the family and if they think you have matured sufficiently, you will generally get the position and then become eligible to be a parliamentary candidate. It is typical that when a family sees a fellow has matured, he becomes a matai.</P>
    961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     956
    962957<I><P></P>
    963958<!--
    … …  
    968963  </Description>
    969964-->
    970 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     965</I>
    971966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
    972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     967
    973968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 2934 km² (Exclusive Economic Zone of 130 000 km²)</P>
    974969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 165000</P>
    … …  
    977972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National language: Samoan (English is the business language)</P>
    978973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Tala (WS$) made up of 100 sene. In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately WS$ 3. (US$1 = WS$ 2.3)</P>
    979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     974
    980975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
    981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     976
    982977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A unicameral constitutional democracy with strong traditional elements. The current Head of State is one of the country's four paramount chiefs, and he holds the office for life. Thereafter, the Fono (Legislative Assembly) will elect the Head of State for five-year terms.</P>
    983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     978
    984979<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is universal franchise (introduced in 1991) but in order to be a Parliamentary candidate, one has to be a matai (family head). Western Samoa is said to have about 19000 matai. The minimum voting age is 21.</P>
    985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     980
    986981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II</P>
    987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     982
    988983<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Tofilau Eti Alesana</P>
    989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     984
    990985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP), Samoa National Development Party (SNDP)</P>
    991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     986
    992987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: HRPP 35, SNDP 11, Independent 3. (The HRPP total includes 11 members elected as independents in the April 1996 election who subsequently joined the governing party).</P>
    993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     988
    994989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
    995990 Map</P>
    996 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
     991
    997992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (1995 figures unless otherwise stated)</P>
    998 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     993
    999994<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 950</P>
    1000 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     995
    1001996<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: 7%. The target for 1996 is 34%</P>
    1002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     997
    1003998<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: coconut oil (WS $8m), coconut cream (WS $4.8m), copra (WS $2.2m).</P>
    1004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     999
    10051000<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: exports - WS $21.7m, imports - WS $228.1m. 'Invisible' earnings, officially described as 'net foreign earnings' amounted to WS $171m, leaving a current amount deficit of WS $36.8m in 1995 (20%lower than the previous year). The main 'invisibles' are private transfers (remittances from Western Samoans living abroad), tourism, income from services and the value added trade of the Yazaki electrical components firm.</P>
    1006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1001
    10071002<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (end 1995): 1 %. Inflation tends to fluctuate a great deal. The figure for 1994 was 18.4%.</P>
    1008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1003
    10091004<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (projected for 1996/97): revenue WS $288.4m, expenditure WS $312.7m, deficit WS $24.3m.</P>
    1010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1005
    10111006<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated government debt: WS$ 389 m</P>
    1012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1007
    10131008<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
    1014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1009
    10151010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 67.8 years</P>
    10161011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 98% (A UNESCO report in 1994 suggested that real literacy levels were significantly below those indicated in official figures) </P>
    10171012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 74%</P>
    10181013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.700 (88th out of 174) </P>
    1019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1020 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1014
    10211015<I><P></P>
    10221016<!--
    … …  
    10271021  </Description>
    10281022-->
    1029 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1023</I>
    10301024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folasaito Joe Annandale and his wife Tui are the brains behind Western Samoa's latest tourist facility- the Sinalei Reef Resort, which has just opened on the beautiful south coast of Upolu island. They are among a growing number of Samoan entrepreneurs who are injecting new dynamism into the country's economy although they are somewhat unusual in the tourist trade. With the notable exception of the famous 'Aggie Grey's Hotel' in Apia, tourist accommodation in Western Samoa has tended to be the preserve of foreign investors, including some of the major international hotel chains.</P>
    1031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1025
    10321026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, it is surprising to discover how underdeveloped the tourism sector is in Western Samoa. Tour operators may be inclined to use the phrase 'tropical paradise' a little too freely but this island nation certainly seems to meet most of the essential criteria. It has the obligatory golden beaches fringed with palm trees, extensive coral reefs and striking mountain scenery overlaid with lush vegetation. The vivid colours leave a particularly strong impression. Greens predominate but there are also many copper-leafed trees and bushes, and an abundance of red, orange and yellow flowers. Western Samoa can also offer a number of special features which are important in marketing terms. There is, of course, the legendary hospitality of the Samoans and their distinctive and vibrant traditions. This must be one of the most musically 'literate' populations in the world, a talent which is reflected in the numerous choirs/dance groups. The harmonies are impressive and the traditional dances are both expressive and entertaining. There is also the unique 'fare' architecture which is a particular source of fascination to outsiders, not to mention the Robert Louis Stevenson connection. The famous author spent the last four years of his life in Western Samoa and the house where he lived- which used to be the Head of State's residence - has recently been converted into a museum.</P>
    1033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1027
    10341028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good prospects</P>
    1035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1029
    10361030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential for expanding tourism is something that has not escaped the government. In today's highly competitive free-market world, countries are being urged to exploit their 'comparative advantage' and the Western Samoan authorities recognise that this sector offers some of the best prospects for future growth.</P>
    1037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1031
    10381032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most other economic activities, the tourist trade was badly hit as a result of cyclone devastation in 1989 and 1990. However, visitor numbers have increased substantially since then. Indeed, looking at year on year earnings, the tourist sector is performing better than any other area of the economy. In 1994, income was WS$.58 million (50 000 + visitors). The following year, it reached WS$.78m and there are hopes that it could top WS$.100m in 1996. Of course, no-one in Samoa is talking about 'mass' tourism. The country is too far from the main industrialised nations to be able to offer traditional package holidays (perhaps fortunately !), and too small to absorb the cultural and environmental impact without lasting damage. Having said this, the market can be divided into two very distinct portions. At one end of the scale are the low spending 'back-packers'-often taking advantage of relatively cheap 'round the world' airline tickets to stop off and sample the pleasures of Western Samoa. These tourists may not spend very much on a daily basis but they are reasonably significant from a financial standpoint because they tend to stay for quite lengthy periods.</P>
    1039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1033
    10401034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the other end, you find the high-spending, 'exclusive' customer willing to pay for high quality accommodation and catering. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Government is more interested in attracting the latter, which is why they are keen to encourage investors such as the Annandales.</P>
    1041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1035
    10421036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier spoke to Joe Annandale about his business strategy when we recently visited the country. The Sinalei Reef Resort, which has received EIB loan financing channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa, has just 20 rooms (including four suites) giving it a capacity of less than 50. Customers will be offered a tropical idyll and a chance to escape completely from the pressures of modern living. The long term aim, according to Mr Annandale, is to entice Europeans in general and Germans in particular. The latter, it is said, have a preference for environmentally-friendly, 'escapist' vacations and, of course, there is a historical link between Germany and Western Samoa. Until a European clientele can be built up, the focus will be on attracting guests from Australia and New Zealand. </P>
    1043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1037
    10441038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culture clash?</P>
    1045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1039
    10461040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is no question of Western Samoa being swamped by visitors from overseas, even a modest increase in tourist numbers is bound to have an impact in this country of just 165000 inhabitants. On the negative side, the Samoan system of customary (village) land ownership sometimes appears at odds with entrepreneurship founded on individual ownership of property and resources. In the early stages, Joe and Tui Annandale encountered local difficulties-including squatters-when they bought the land to develop the resort. The usual arrangement is for overseas tourism operators to lease customary land, a process which may involve protracted and ultimately fruitless negotiations with the matai (village heads) who have traditionally used the land for other purposes. Of course, the clash between traditional land tenure systems and 'modern' capitalism is not restricted to tourist ventures-as mining operators in Papua New Guinea have discovered. But while one understands the frustrations for developers, who may find themselves embroiled in complex and interminable land disputes, we should also recognise the concerns of local people who see a possible threat to their way of life.</P>
    1047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1041
    10481042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, new tourism developments mean jobs and trading opportunities. In the building of the Sinalei Resort, the Annandales drew heavily on local labour, employing 35 people from the neighbourhood. As Mr Annandale pointed out, this was essential for a complex designed to fit in with the local environment. The Samoans have always built their own houses and only they had the required carpentry skills. The resort also employs 35 regular staff for catering, housekeeping etc. and again, the majority are local people.</P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1043
    10501044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there is one criticism often levelled against tourist ventures which certainly does not apply at the Sinalei Reef (or other Samoan hotels). This is that most of the food and drink consumed by visitors is imported. The Annandales make a point of purchasing their fish, meat and fruit locally, thereby ensuring that some of the financial benefits of their venture flow back to their own community: in short, a happy combination of astute public relations and good economics. </P>
    10511045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
    1052 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1046
    10531047<I><P></P>
    10541048<!--
    … …  
    10601054-->
    10611055</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Revive the agricultural base'</P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    10631057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tupua Tamasese Efi a former Prime Minister of Western Samoa, is leader of the opposition Samoa National Development Party which won 11 of the 49 seats in the parliamentary elections held in April 1996. In this interview, he outlines his own and his party's views on some of the key political and economic issues in his country.</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1058
    10651059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what ways does your party offer a different agenda from that of the governing HRPP ?</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1060
    10671061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think the differences are mainly of emphasis. The present government tends to focus on law-making and exploiting the country's least developed status. Our focus would be more on developing our indigenous agricultural industries. If you scrutinise the economic picture in Samoa, you will find that there has been a very substantial decline in agricultural exports in the last fifteen years. Our economy, if you can call it that, is increasingly sustained by largesse-the donations that we get from overseas. This has complicated our situation. Our relative economic independence has been sabotaged to a point where, suddenly, we are getting a proletariat. That might be unavoidable in a lot of places, but it doesn't have to happen in a small country like ours which has self-sustaining village units, and a potentially secure agricultural base supported by products like cocoa, copra and bananas. If you look at what is happening today, you see that, all of a sudden, we have a new class of under-privileged people with absolutely no income at all. And the tragedy is that it has happened without anyone really noticing.</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1062
    10691063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So our emphasis is to try and revive our agricultural base, and to seek out exports. In the past, our economy was sustained by cocoa and copra exports, and a lot of our food was sold to New Zealand. Now, you find that there are hardly any exports.</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1064
    10711065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So your focus would be more on boosting the traditional aspects of the Samoan economy.</P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1066
    10731067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not necessarily traditional. Our party is not bound to cocoa, or copra or whatever. But we are committed to improving our agriculture. It matters little whether it is traditional or other crops. But we need to break back into the New Zealand market. This is the best place to aim for. Australia has its own tropical sector and nothing that we can produce is needed by them. New Zealand is different. One of the biggest challenges we have to overcome in getting back into that market is our fruit fly problem. It would seem sensible for us to channel substantial resources into overcoming this hurdle so that we can sell to New Zealand again. There is a tremendous potential market-and not just for copra. There are also products such as flowers, and a whole number of other possibilities.</P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1068
    10751069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said,what emphasis would you place on sectors like manufacturing and tourism ?</P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1070
    10771071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think that tourism is an obvious way to go and this is where we are in agreement with the government. Of course, you will have heard of the debacle of the Air Polynesia finances. When you compare the losses that were run up with our foreign exchange reserves you get some idea of how enormous the problem was. It was a situation that went badly awry.</P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1072
    10791073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue aside, we agree that we need to get into tourism-but it must be within reason. Part of the explanation for people gravitating towards tourism is that they see it as the only available avenue-or at least the most visible way of making money.</P>
    1080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1074
    10811075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another economic point I want to raise concerns debt. Loans can be a quick fix, but when your whole economy is tied to indebtedness, you are creating something that is built on sand. You end 'A potentially secure agricultural base' up acquiring more and more capital items that are totally unrelated to your present or likely future resources. This is one of the most destructive things that can happen to a society, and it is very clearly happening here.</P>
    1082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1076
    10831077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a rich and vibrant living culture here in Western Samoa. Are you concerned that globalisation could ultimately pose a threat to this ?</P>
    1084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1078
    10851079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, I am not worried. You have to accept it as a natural development. The things that are distinctive in our culture have to find their place in adapting to the new realities. There is no point putting your head in the sand.</P>
    1086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1080
    10871081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political aspects, you now have universal franchise, but you still have to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament Does your party have any plans to change this ?</P>
    1088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1082
    10891083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Some years ago, we had a constitutional convention which led to changes in the system. Attached to that was a provision requiring a further constitutional convention to be convened in 20 or 25 years (I can't remember the exact period). So we are committed to that. We have to sit down and look at the overall picture. We have gone a long way in terms of universal franchise and it is possible that we need to go even further.</P>
    1090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1084
    10911085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But if one takes the United Kingdom as a model, I think the important lesson is that you should 'make haste slowly'. The genius of the Westminster model is that it involves careful evolution. I hope that this tradition will be followed by our country. The constitution, as it was put together some 30 or 40 years ago, has served its purpose very well but there are quite a few anomalies appearing now.</P>
    1092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1086
    10931087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view about regional cooperation in the South Pacific What future do you see in working together with the other countries of the region- perhaps presenting a more united front to the outside world ?</P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1088
    10951089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-There is a lot of sense in the SAS approach-I am referring here to the Scandinavian countries getting together to form an airline. It is sensible to take a common stand where we have a common interest. But there are obviously intricacies resulting from historical, economic and social factors. At the moment I am reading a book on lain Macleod, the British Conservative statesman. His experience in the failed attempt to form a federation in the Caribbean is very revealing.</P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1090
    10971091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you enter a common endeavour, there is always the pull of your own particular interests. And there can be a suspicion that the 'bigger boys' will use the others to promote their own interests. A lot of this may be perception rather than reality. Also, traditional rivalries can intrude. Sometimes you need to fall flat on your face before you Let me give you an example from the world of rugby. It took Rupert Murdoch to get Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa to realise that our fates are intertwined. He has come in with a commercial package that has taken over the entire rugby scene in the region- with a heavy emphasis on Australia and New Zealand-and this has hit us in a big way. For example, we find ourselves being cut out of traditional rugby tours. There is no point in us trying to claim that we are self-sufficient in this area. The big lesson is that we need to cooperate a lot more with the Tongans and Fijians in order to make an impact on the wider rugby scene._ </P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1092
    10991093<I><P></P>
    11001094<!--
    … …  
    11071101</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on utilities</P>
    11081102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mylanwy van de Velde</P>
    1109 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1103
    11111104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa's cooperation with the European Community began in 1975 with its accession to the Lom&eacute; Convention. From the start, the sector to benefit most from programmable funds (ECU 4.6 m under Lom&eacute; I and ECU 6m under Lom&eacute; II) was the energy sector, with the financing of the Samasoni Hydroelectric Scheme in the late 1970s and the Sauniatu Hydropower Scheme in the early 1980s.</P>
    1112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1105
    11131106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parallel, a programme of 260 microprojects was funded involving the development of poultry and pig farming, and fisheries, covering 96 villages on the main islands of Upolu and Savai'i. A further ECU 890 000 was allocated to the Western Samoa Development Bank, in the form of a credit line, to increase the Bank's lending capacity. In addition, at a time when copra exports were still considerable, the Community financed storage and handling facilities for coconut oil and copra pellets (ECU 900 000).</P>
    1114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1107
    11151108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On top of programmable aid, Western Samoa received 12 Stabex transfers totalling ECU 9.3m for export losses on copra, wood, bananas and cocoa in the period 1975-84.</P>
    1116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1109
    11171110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the development of the country's substantial hydroelectric power potential continued, and Western Samoa began to make considerable steps towards self-sufficiency in energy needs. While in 1980 some 78% of the electricity generated came from diesel plants, by 1986 this percentage had dropped to 26%. The volume of petroleum imports for electricity generation dropped to 36% in the period 1982-86. With the building of the Afulilo Hydropower Plant (Lom&eacute; III and IV), these volumes have decreased further, with positive benefits in terms of foreign exchange savings. The scheme (which was co-funded by the Asian Development Bank, the EIB, the World Bank and the Western Samoa Electric Power Corporation) involved the construction of a 10 million cubic metre reservoir, a penstock, a powerhouse, and the installation of mechanical equipment and transmission lines, and has contributed substantially to the quality of electricity supply on the island of Upolu.</P>
    1118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1111
    11191112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
    11201113 Community aid to Western Samoa</P>
    1121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1114
    11221115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Additional work has been done with Lom&eacute; IV funds to address the question of rural water supply: a water master plan and design study for a number of rural areas have been completed, and a public awareness programme on the rational use of water resources has been designed for implemention at such time as planned infrastructural work goes ahead.</P>
    1123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1116
    11241117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, an ECU 1 m microprojects programme has been initiated with the aim of financing the renovation of infrastructure for rural communities in the fields of water supply, health, education, tourism, agriculture and fisheries.</P>
    1125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1118
    11261119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabex payments under Lom&eacute; 111 (1985-1989) and Lom&eacute; IV (1990-1994) amounted to ECU 11.1 m and ECU 5.7m respectively. These were paid to compensate for losses in coconut oil and copra products, especially, but also for losses on exports of cocoa beans and of wood in the rough.</P>
    1127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1120
    11281121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, the EIB has provided a total of some ECU 9m in risk capital in the years since 1981, the bulk of which was used in connection with the Sauniatu and Afulilo Hydropower Schemes.</P>
    1129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1122
    11301123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further total of ECU 660 896 has been allocated in emergency aid to Western Samoa, in 1983 after a serious fire on Savai'i, and in 1990 and 1991 after the disastrous cyclones Ofa and Val.</P>
    1131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1124
    11321125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programming of the next tranche of EC funding under the eighth EDF has still to be completed, but the indications are that prominence will be given to extending and upgrading the water supply network. </P>
    11331126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.v.d.V.</P>
    1134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1127
    11351128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new health-centre for Tafua</P>
    1136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1129
    11371130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sight that greeted the people of Tafua when they emerged from shelter in 1990, following the passage of Ccyclone Ofa,was one of complete devastation. The tropical storm had been one of the worst in living memory and this village community on the island of Savai'i, together with many others in the Samoas, found themselves having to start almost from scratch. Homes had been swept away' crops destroyed and much of the essential infrastructure Iay in ruins.</P>
    1138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1131
    11391132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a testament to the resilience and determination of the people in these communities that there are few signs today of the havoc wrought by the winds just six years ago. In some places, rows of dead trees still stand in silent witness to the power of Mother Nature, although the scene is softened : by the new crops and lush vegetation growing beneath. But the villagers have rebuilt their houses and, with some help from outside, they have been able to re-establish i the essential community facilities as well. </P>
    1140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1133
    11411134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its micro-projects programme, the EC was able to offer a helping hand in the task of reconstruction. For the modest sum of just ECU 10 000, Tafua now has a new community health clinic adjacent to the site of the old one which was swept away by Ofa. In keeping with the rules of the scheme, the villagers were obliged to contribute 25% of the cost-which they provided in kind, in the shape of the labour for rebuilding the clinic. The Courier visited Tafua in June and was shownaround the facility by Nurse Agata Leuelu who provides primary health care for the 600 villagers. We also met local Methodist minister, the Rev. Siaosi Selesele, who explained how the people had taken shelter in the neighbouring school when the storm reached Samoa. It turned out to be the right choice as it was one of very few structures left standing in the neighbourhood. Villagers are obviously hoping that there won't be another 'Ofa' for a very long time' but if and when the next big wind does strike, the new ctinic-which has been built to withstand a lot more strain-should hopefully be able to weather the storm. In the meantime, it provides an important service in the delivery of health care to the people of the area. The European Community has also provided micro-project funding to help rebuild the health clinic at Taga on Savai'i. </P>
    11421135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
    1143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1144 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1136
     1137<B>
    11451138<!--
    11461139</Section>
    … …  
    11521145  </Description>
    11531146-->
    1154 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1147</B>
    11551148<B><P></P>
    11561149<!--
    … …  
    11601153  </Description>
    11611154-->
    1162 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1155</B>
    11631156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Augustine Oyowe)</P>
    1164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1157
    11651158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous editions of The Courier have dealt, separately and at length, with various aspects of human resource development, especially in the context of recent dossiers on population and social development, education and training, public health, women, and poverty. Our current dossier looks at the issue from the investment perspective.</P>
    1166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1159
    11671160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa in these days of constantly shifting development theories?</P>
    1168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1161
    11691162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labour or 'human capital' has long been recognised as a key factor of economic growth. As opposed to sustainable human development, which places human beings at the centre of economic activities (the recipient of the fruits of economic progess), 'human capital' places them at the beginning of the process. The difference of approach is thus evident even though the objective is the same. </P>
    1170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1163
    11711164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people is a concept which simultaneously combines 'human welfare' with the 'human capital' approach at the beginning of the economic development process. It encompasses nutrition, health and education, and should, under the right investment climate or conditions, enable any investor, whether State or individual, to reap an adequate return .</P>
    1172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1165
    11731166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After three decades of considerable efforts at investment in health and education by sub-Saharan African countries, the returns in terms of standards of living, economic grovvth and rate of development have been extremely disappointing. The conclusion which can be drawn is that the conditions necessary for adequate returns on these investments have been absent.</P>
    1174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1167
    11751168<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonial legacy</P>
    1176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1169
    11771170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa inherited from the colonial regimes, infrastructures in health delivery and education that were not only alien to its culture and traditions, but also totally inadequate for nation building. It is a well known fact that in 1960, there were no more than 1200 university graduates in Capital redefined</P>
    1178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1171
    11791172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important when thinking of investnent in human resources to understand the real concept of capital. Below is an extract of a definition given by Stefan de Vylder (taken from his UNDP discussion paper: 'Sustainable Human Development and Macroeconomics strategic links and implications' . </P>
    1180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1173
    11811174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child in the North is born wealthy. His or her share of the capital accumulated by earlier generations is worth a fortune. The higher wages and salaries in the North, compared with those in the South, largely reflect differences in endowment of the country, rather than of the individual. The fact that, for example, a nurse in Germany earns 30 times more than one in Bangladesh or Zambia has little to do with individual differences in training or skills; the higher salaries in the North simply reflect the higher dividend on the capital bestowed from the past. Part of this wealth or heritage is easily visible: factories, roads, schools hospitals, universities, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.</P>
    1182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1175
    11831176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there are other, less tangible, forms of capital that constitute a crucial complement to physical and infrastructural capital; parliamentary democracy, a free press, respect for human rights' norms for social interaction, systems of rapid dissemination of new ideas, trade unions and a myriad of other large or small social organisations, a judiciary system which, by and large, defends law and justice, and other institutions. This latter form of capital may be called institutional or social capital. It is also highly unevenly distributed in the world, with large differences both between the North and the South and within individual countries of the North as well as in the South the region as a whole. Indeed, some countries had no graduates at all and in others, they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In what was effectively a race against time, African leaders understandably responded by investing massively in human resource development. This was made possible partly by small, but steady rates of economic growth and partly by sustained foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1980, sub-Saharan African governments consistently allocated high proportions of their annual budgets to health and education. Households and individuals made similar efforts (accounting for nearly 75% of all spending on health). They made sacrifices and gave a high premium to the education of their children.</P>
    1184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1177
    11851178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results were tangible and very significant. By the late 1980s, sub-Saharan Africa was producing over 70 000 graduates a year. Major cities had hospitals and health centres and the rural areas, clinics and dispensaries. Amid a general improvement in nutrition and health-care delivery, the incidence of infectious disease, and maternal and infant mortality were considerably reduced.</P>
    1186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1179
    11871180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these achievements, the approach to manpower building by the post-independent African leaders was, to say the least, haphazard. As a result, a number of problems, such as the appropriateness of school curricula, under staffing and the long-term budget implications of recurrent expenditures, were overlooked (although reform efforts have since been attempted in some countries with varying degrees of success).</P>
    1188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1181
    11891182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The consequences were felt in the 1980s when Africa's economic crisis was only just beginning. Health and school infrastructures deteriorated for lack of maintenance. There were shortages of qualified teachers and teaching materials leading to falls in educational standards as well as in primary school enrolments. And health systems failed for lack of personnel and drugs.</P>
    1190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1183
    11911184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation has worsened as the continent's economic crisis has deepened-a crisis characterised by huge budget deficits, high inflation rates, sluggish growth rates and a heavy debt burden. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), introduced in response to this, have only served to undermine further the gains made in human resource development. SAPs have been aimed mainly at macroeconomic stabilisation, deregulation and privatisation of state enterprises, and the social sectors have lost out in the process. Subsidies on basic commodities, especially food, have been removed, civil servants and employees of state enterprises have been made redundant and cost-recovery has become the standard practice in medical services. These measures have all combined to produce a level of poverty never before seen in the region, a situation which has adversely affected nutritional standards, provoked malnutrition in many countries and reduced resistance generally to infectious diseases. Because of the rise in unemployment, large sections of the educated population have been rendered unproductive, a waste of several years investment by both the state and the individuals in question.</P>
    1192 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1185
    11931186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appropriateness of skills</P>
    1194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1187
    11951188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although sub-Saharan Africa produced a large number of graduates before the economic crisis began, few had the kinds of skills needed for industry and agriculture. The evidence of this lies in the unsuccessful attempts by some governments in the late 1970s to indigenise executive positions, most of which required high levels of technological knowledge or experience. The 1980s saw a dramatic increase in the number of foreign technical assistants working on the continent and, paradoxically, in the number of qualified African professionals leaving, mainly for Western Europe, the United States and Canada.</P>
    1196 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1189
    11971190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International technical assistance to, or cooperation with, subSaharan Africa has intensified. Organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, European Union and Commonwealth are all involved in one form or another. The effectiveness of this assistance varies, however. This dossier features articles on the work of three of these bodies (the Commonwealth, UNDP and VNESCO). The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation was set up more than 25 years ago to mobilise Commonwealth skills to meet the needs of member states as required. The UNDP's TOKTEN programme is designed to reduce the negative impact of the brain drain by getting highly qualified developing country expatriates to contribute their skills to the development of their home countries without necessarily having to return permanently. Finally, UNESCO's university twinning programme is designed as a mechanism for the rapid transfer of technology and sharing of knowledge. </P>
    1198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1191
    11991192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While international assistance or cooperation is indispensable, it is surely no substitute for Africa's own efforts at human resource development. Three years ago, Edward Jaycox, then World Bank Vice-President for the Africa Region, announced what appeared to be a change of policy at the annual conference of the African-American Institute in Washington DC. He said that the Bank would no longer pay for foreign technical assistants to help resolve African economic problems but would instead help African governments build their own capacity. Although the Bank has traditionally had enormous influence on development thinking and policy worldwide, the apparent policy change does not appear to have influenced other donors. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that the Bank itself is implementing it vigorously. The number of foreign experts being sent to Africa continues to grow. There were over 100 000 in 1988.</P>
    1200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1193
    12011194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rationality of investing in people</P>
    1202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1195
    12031196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the negative social impact, ten years of structural adjustment have not produced the sought-after stabilisation or the economic growth that was initally anticipated. Even the World Bank and IMF, who spearheaded the structural adjustment idea, have admitted that it has flaws and the need for a new approach to sub-Saharan Africa's economic problems could hardly be more urgent. In the Dossier, Giovanni Andreas Cornia argues for a new focus for structural adjustment, based on restoring adequate levels of public spending on health, education, social welfare and water supplies, so as to enable sub-Saharan Africa to restore and develop its human resources.</P>
    1204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1197
    12051198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of the impact of a healthy and educated population on economic growth and development abound. Studies on the economies of the East Asian 'tigers' have all concluded that big investments in education in the late 1950s and 1960s were largely responsible for the rapid growth they have experienced in recent years. Malaysia, although a latecomer, appears to be following in the footsteps of its neighbours. After nearly two decades of investment in human resource development, and the introduction of a foreign investment policy which requires some technology transfer, the Government now predicts Malaysia will achieve 'fully developed' status by 2016-twenty years from now.</P>
    1206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1199
    12071200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively well-educated workforce and a certain amount of physical capital or natural resources are all a country needs to succeed economically. Sub-Saharan Africa has sufficient natural resources as is often pointed out. The other side of the equation-a relatively well-educated workforce-is missing.</P>
    1208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1201
    12091202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in human resource development for a complex variety of reasons. The natural and political environment are not conducive to the delivery of social services: low population density and weak transport infrastructures make such delivery expensive and the achievement of economies of scale impossible. The region's climate favours a variety of diseases (such as malaria and sleeping sickness) and many areas have little or no access to natural water sources. Political instability and weak institutions also continue to cast a long shadow. Although these constraints are long-term, appropriate policy measures could reduce their negative impact significantly.</P>
    1210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1203
    12111204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giovanni Cornia analyses the distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education on economic growth. He suggests ways of making rational use of available resources for maximum returns and of mobilising funds through taxation, foreign aid and other sources.</P>
    1212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1205
    12131206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an age of increasing globalisation, where technology is more easily transferable across borders, a healthy and educated population is essential, not only for the absorption and use of new technology but also for meaningful participation in international trade.</P>
    1214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1207
    12151208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is insufficient, however, to have an educated workforce. Sub Saharan Africa must acquire the institutional and managerial capacity to make the right decisions, both in the public and private sectors. This is essential in the quest to eliminate poverty, achieve sustained and sustainable economic growth and ensure a realistic integration of the region into the global economy. </P>
    1216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1209
    12171210<B><P></P>
    12181211<!--
    … …  
    12241217-->
    12251218</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Giovanni Andrea Cornia </P>
    1226 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1219
    12271220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades, a clear consensus, supported by a growing amount of empirical evidence, has emerged on the growth and distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education, and on the rationality of investing in human resources to promote development in low-income economies, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. It is now clear that public and private rates of return on investment in primary and secondary education are substantially greater than those in most industrial sectors. Similarly, it is now well demonstrated that nutritional interventions in favour of workers at low levels of food intake has a very large impact on labour productivity. Also, provision of simple but adequate nutrition and health care at an early age has been shown to spare substantially greater health outlays over the longer term. While the number of these examples can be multiplied, the lesson is overwhelmingly clear: investing in people is a sound development policy.</P>
    1228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1221
    12291222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same two decades, a broad political consensus has also emerged on the need to establish realistic targets in these areas and mobilise adequate resources to achieve them. The latter decade, however, has also been characterised by a widespread and acute recession which has reached its lowest point in the African continent.</P>
    1230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1223
    12311224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While there has been a general recognition of the link between the deterioration of the social sector and Africa's economic decline, the interpretations of the causes of this decline and how best to address them vary considerably.</P>
    1232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1225
    12331226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980s also witnessed the advent of structural adjustment, an approach aiming at revitalising economies affected by severe crises and which calls, amongst other things, for a reduction in public spending, including on social services. With sharp falls in revenues, it was argued, African governments could no longer afford to provide health and education free of charge.</P>
    1234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1227
    12351228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments were to encourage instead the role of the private sector (since competition between state, private and non-governmental agencies fosters efficiency and enhances quality) and make households bear a greater share of the cost of publicly provided social services (as-it was alleged-households had a strong 'willingness to pay' for better quality health care and education).</P>
    1236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1229
    12371230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a debate characterised by an overwhelming concern for expenditure reduction, little thought was given to protecting the provision and effectiveness of basic health care and education for all. Nor was sufficient attention paid to the mobilisation of additional revenue through taxation, foreign aid or other measures Even the introduction of rationalisation measures, which would have allowed for use and preservation of limited resources, received scant attention. During this period, public policies often ignored a number of well-known public finance arguments concerning market failures, externalities, natural monopolies, etc. typical of basic health and education. It was all too often forgotten, for instance, that the market systematically undersupplies 'quasi-public goods' like education, safe water, immunisation and collective infrastructure (i.e. goods which produce benefits not only for consumers but also for society as a whole); that incomplete or non-existent markets alone are unable to provide complete insurance coverage against the risks of sickness and disability; that the free play of market forces can generate levels of poverty that are socially unacceptable, and that competition among many small providers does not allow for the realisation of the economies of scale which only the public sector can realise because of its size, administrative infrastructure and revenue raising ability.</P>
    1238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1231
    12391232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater and better government involvement</P>
    1240 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1233
    12411234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this paper, I will attempt to point out the main distortions in the social sector in sub-Saharan Africa and the major reforms, part of an alternative policy paradigm to the standard approach focusing on large expenditure reductions. My main line of argument is for more efficient and renewed but, in most cases, greater rather than less government involvement. I do not deny the important role of communities, nongovernmental bodies and private providers of social services, but the retreat of the state, which has been underway for several years in most of Africa, is palpably wrong: it may be a good survival strategy, it is definitely not a good development strategy.</P>
    1242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1235
    12431236<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any approach to revitalisation of the social sector in Africa must aim at increasing both the quality and the relevance of services to the life, health and productivity of the population; enhancing efficiency; reducing distributive biases in the use of public expenditure, and improving the flow of both public and private resources to the social sector. These sets of measures are briefly discussed here.</P>
    1244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1237
    12451238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising relevance, reducing unit costs and enhancing quality</P>
    1246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1239
    12471240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic initiatives are essential to the achievement of this goal. Firstly, it is necessary to adapt the content of services to the demands placed on the child, the adolescent and the family by the external environment. Secondly, in doing so, it is necessary to provide minimum resources, particularly recurrent inputs, for every unit of service offered.</P>
    1248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1241
    12491242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much can be done to improve the relevance of education in Africa. A key element in this is the wider use of African languages in the educational system. Admittedly such a step would probably encounter obstacles, but the results of pilot projects in the continent and experiences in several English speaking countries have been encouraging. The use of African languages should be expanded throughout primary and at least part of secondary schooling. And the curriculum of basic education should include basic health science, agriculture, food and nutrition, basic technological science, ecology and environmental studies as well as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and elementary civics.</P>
    1250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1243
    12511244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While responding more appropriately to the life and developmental needs of children and adolescents, these measures offer the potential to improve substantially the cost effectiveness of the educational system by reducing the number of drop-outs and repeaters, particularly if the measures are accompanied by school-based nutritional support programmes and by steps to ensure a steady, if basic, supply of teaching materials such as books, chalk, slates, pens, exercise books and so on. Minimum expenditures for the latter, estimated at $5-10 per child per year, have been shown to have a profound impact on the quality and attractiveness of education.</P>
    1252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1245
    12531246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving the relevance and quality of African secondary and higher education will require an increase in the number of courses in science, engineering, agronomy, management and other fields. Given the limited success of vocational training and yet the profound need for this type of education, a more flexible approach may be appropriate. Business associations and ministries of labour, rather than ministries of education, for example, could organise the type of vocational training that responds more closely to labour market conditions. Much needs to be done to gear university research to local and national needs. Rather than maintaining the model of independent residential universities, faculties could interact more with and rely upon local institutions and non-governmental organisations.</P>
    1254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1247
    12551248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the health sector, a more vigorous approach is necessary to implement the 'Health for All' strategy. In particular, more attention must be paid to the quality of the training imparted to village health workers, the provision of minimum supplies of essential drugs, adequate supervision, the mobilisation of communities and the strengthening of family planning services in the first tier of the primary health care pyramid.</P>
    1256 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1249
    12571250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater efforts are needed to contain unit costs through the mobilisation of community resources (such as materials and time) and the introduction of 'product standards' and 'production techniques' more in line with local factor endowments. With respect to capital expenditure, one major source of potential savings is the substitution of imported materials with local ones in the construction of schools, clinics and other public health facilities. Through this approach, capital costs per student could be more than halved.</P>
    1258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1251
    12591252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care, savings are also possible, in some cases, in wages and other recurrent expenditures. The potential for savings through increased efficiency in the procurement, management, storage, distribution and prescription of pharmaceuticals is substantial. </P>
    1260 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1253
    12611254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And there is a need for more carefully articulated manpower policies, with recognition of the cost implications of alternative skill mixes. Many tasks carried out by senior professionals can be performed by auxiliary personnel. In this regard, there is substantial scope for the application of nominal fees as a tool to guide demand for health care and thus increase efficiency.</P>
    1262 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1255
    12631256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar considerations are valid in the education sector. Despite considerable declines during the 1980s in both French-speaking and Eastern and Southern Africa, teacher salaries in the late 1980s were still considerably higher than per capita GNP in several countries. While a cutback may be possible in some countries, reductions below the 'efficiency wage' should be avoided as they affect the quality of teaching.</P>
    1264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1257
    12651258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, of course, other approaches to reducing unit costs such as using teachers trained on crash courses and- paid salaries lower than that of fully trained ones, multi shift education to increase teaching hours, multigrade classes to increase class sizes and the creation of regional training centres with donor support. In addition, in most of sub-Saharan Africa, all university students receive fellowships to cover living expenses while at school. In many cases these fellowships represent a substantial proportion of total unit costs at the tertiary level. They add, in effect, to the regressive nature of educational subsidies and should be suppressed for all except for those who are least able to pay.</P>
    1266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1259
    12671260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving distribution</P>
    1268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1261
    12691262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Substantial improvements in the distribution of benefits of public expenditure could be obtained through its restructuring towards basic services which benefit the poor more than they do the rich. This would mean, typically, the reallocation of part of the expenditure on hospitals to primary health care activities and part of the expenditure on universities to primary education. It would also mean that a greater share of investments in water supply and sanitation should be assigned to rural areas.</P>
    1270 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1263
    12711264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correcting existing misallocation, however, is not simple, as capital and labour resources are only partially mobile. This is particularly true of capital expenditure which has already been invested in physical infrastructure. Inter sect oral reallocation is easier for recurrent expenditure, particularly when budgets are expanding, and it can lead to the achievement of more efficient and distributive gains.</P>
    1272 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1265
    12731266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government subsidies need to be improved through effective targeting on 'merit goods' (such as food and shelter). Targeting is distributionally and administratively more effective when it is accomplished according to some objective criteria such as geography (the poorest areas), type of commodity ( low quality foods not consumed by the rich), easily identifiable population group (like pregnant women, young children, children in elementary school in poor areas, etc.) or season. It is less effective when carried out by means-testing or by targeting individuals.</P>
    1274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1267
    12751268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decentralisation of health care and education in the African context is likely to improve the geographical distribution of services. Poor communications and transport systems, population dispersion and the fact that the supervision of personnel, resource distribution and operations is easier at lower levels of administration, are all arguments in favour of such decentralisation. Nonetheless, where it means loss of control over the implementation of national policies (in curriculum development, manpower training, drug procurement and so forth) and excessive additional financial burdens on households and communities, decentralisation is potentially damaging. This was the experience of Kenya when the purchase of drugs was decentralised at the district level. It subsequently had to reverse this policy because of the problems.</P>
    1276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1269
    12771270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing the flow of resources to basic social services.</P>
    1278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1271
    12791272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the considerable scope for protecting and, in some cases, expanding the delivery of cost-effective and high-impact social services, even during periods of declining resources, there are limits to what can be achieved through the measures discussed above, particularly in countries where the share in GDP of public health and education expenditure is already low. Indeed in most African countries, the flow of resources to these sectors must be vastly increased. The options available include:</P>
    1280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1273
    12811274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the share of government expenditure on key social services.</P>
    1282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1275
    12831276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top priority should be given to a radical restructuring of government expenditure involving the shifting of resources towards those sectors with high social rates of return. Expenditure on defence can be cut substantially, while subsidies to chronically lossmaking public and private enterprises and interest payments on debt (the relief effect on foreign-debt interest payments of current provisions is utterly inadequate) should be reduced. If realistic expenditure restructuring like that proposed here were implemented, 1015% of overall public spending in many countries could be redirected to social activities with high rates of return. One half to two-thirds of these savings could be allocated to health care, nutrition, training, education and welfare, thus raising the share of these activities to about 30-35% of total expenditure.</P>
    1284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1277
    12851278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing taxation.</P>
    1286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1279
    12871280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, the average tax to GDP ratio for sub-Saharan Africa fell from 18% to 16-17%. (Only recently are there signs of recovery, but these are confined to only a few countries). This resulted mainly from the recession affecting the region and from the limited priority attached to revenue collection in most adjustment programmes implemented during the first part of the 1980s. In these 'first generation' programmes, the stabilisation of deficits was achieved mainly by cutting expenditure and raising excise duties. Increases in income taxes and progressive indirect taxes were far less frequent and land and property taxes were almost never introduced.</P>
    1288 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1281
    12891282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While taking effect rapidly, the measures implemented led to excessive drops in public expenditure on 'quasi public goods' and have had a regressive distributive impact. It is now widely recognised that a more active tax policy is needed. Such a policy should aim at improving revenue generation and enhancing the efficiency and equity of the overall tax system. This would permit a controlled rise in specific 'socially efficient' public expenditures, particularly basic health, primary and secondary education and public infrastructure.</P>
    1290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1283
    12911284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1980s, a number of countries, including Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe, initiated efforts to reform their tax systems. While the choice of optimal tax instruments has depended on specific country conditions, a few general principles of tax reform apply to all countries. First, colonial type tax systems emphasising the taxation of exports (and to some extent, of imports) should evolve towards systems which focus on income taxes, progressive and efficient indirect taxes and increases in the prices of such public utilities as telephone and electricity which benefit mainly the wealthier sections of society. Second, purchases of goods and services consumed by the poorest should be exempted from indirect taxes. Third, efforts should not concentrate on raising marginal tax rates but rather on broadening the tax base by reducing tax evasion and tax elusion, and fourth a low, uniform and broad-based tax on wealth (such as on land or other assets) should be introduced.</P>
    1292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1285
    12931286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A non-distortionary and equitably-spread increase in the tax ratio equivalent to 2-3% of GPD is technically feasible in a good number of African countries and would by itself add to the real flow of resources to health care and education by about 15%, even assuming no growth and no shift in priorities towards the social sector.</P>
    1294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1287
    12951288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Introducing 'earmarked' taxes or raising local ones.</P>
    1296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1289
    12971290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flow of tax resources to the social sector could be augmented more readily if the new tax revenue thus generated, or at least part of it, were directly earmarked for specific health and education activities (for which there are guarantees that tax money is spent efficiently), or if these taxes were raised directly by district and provincial authorities, who are usually entrusted with responsibility for social services at the local level.</P>
    1298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1291
    12991292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Mobilising additional resources from households and communities.</P>
    1300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1293
    13011294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sub-Saharan Africa, as in most other developing regions, households have long borne a substantial share of the national expenditure on health, education, water supply and so on by contributing resources (in kind, cash and time) for the construction of health and education facilities, covering direct and indirect costs (transport uniforms, fees, drugs etc.) associated with the provision of public services and making payments to private providers. Despite these already considerable contributions, user charges have been introduced or raised on a large scale in recent years in many countries to alleviate the burden on public expenditure imposed by the economic crisis.</P>
    1302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1295
    13031296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, while the small but significant contribution of user charges to health and education budgets should be acknowledged, the negative effects of the indiscriminate application of these charges should also be emphasised. Indeed, in many African countries the need for health care, education and other social services rarely coincides with the ability to pay. The implementation of user charges can have adverse effects in three ways. First, it may lead to a contraction in the demand for services. Second, in the health sector, it tends to discourage the use of preventive services for which potential patients may not see an immediate relevance (such as ante natal care and immunisation). Third, it may adversely affect a household's ability to meet other basic needs, such as the purchase of food, particularly if fees are charged simultaneously for health, education and other services and if the household's income declines. In addition to these problems, there is little evidence that the revenue from user charges is actually reinvested to improve the quality or expand the coverage of local services, as those who promote user charges argue. Despite recent attempts at keeping a share of the user fees at the local level (e.g. at the collecting facilities), in most cases revenue merely flows to the public treasury. Moreover, user charges usually generate a relatively small proportion of the total operating cost of the health care sector, with gross yields at around 5%. If the costs of fee collection are included, the yields are lower and, in some cases, negative.</P>
    1304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1297
    13051298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, health care, education and the provision of water include different types of services, some clearly geared to the needs of the poor and others catering more for middle and upper-income groups. While user charges are not well suited to primary education, disease control programmes, basic curative services and communal water supply, the same cannot be said of university education and other 'income elastic' services. For the latter, cost recovery measures would be advisable, although subsidised access for the deserving poor must be assured. For the intermediate category, which includes most curative health services and secondary education, selective cost-recovery measures might be desirable, with low income individuals exempted or charged only a nominal fee.</P>
    1306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1299
    13071300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While direct user fees (levied on patients at the moment of their treatment) are problematic from several perspectives, there are other indirect ways to mobilise resources from communities (generally before episodes of illness), such as various kinds of prepayment schemes, health insurance, lotteries, mutual funds and the sale of produce from community fields, in addition to their contributions in kind. These schemes have two main features which are attractive for health-care: they shift the moment of payment, so that individuals are not burdened with relatively more significant expenditure at the time of illness, and they spread the burden of costs (e.g. for drugs) over a larger group.</P>
    1308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1301
    13091302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the volume of international aid.</P>
    1310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1303
    13111304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been a considerable shift in official development assistance (ODA) in favour of Africa over the past two decades. Africa's share in total ODA rose from 19.4% in 1975/6 to 25.1% in 1980/1, and to 34.2% in 1988/9. However, the share assigned to human resource development has dropped, while- debt-service obligations have often absorbed a growing share of ODA. Greater flows are therefore needed. In the late 1980s, the World Bank estimated that additional annual aid of about $1 billion was required during the 1990s to halt social retrogression and ensure reasonable progress. But this flow of aid has not materialised on any appreciable scale. Indeed the trend in the 1990s has been towards an absolute decline in aid flows. The simplest and the most cost-effective way to effect such aid transfer would be through debt relief, although some increases in ODA are needed. Improvement in the quality of aid, including substantial shifts to programme aid, greater participation in the financing of recurrent costs and more focus on primary health care and education and on rural water supply are also required.</P>
    1312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1305
    13131306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What role for NGOs and private providers?</P>
    1314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307
    13151308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private providers, including church missions, have always been important in Africa, much of the market oriented literature tends to be very optimistic about the scope for expanding private services in order to replace government ones. Although a multiplicity of providers is desirable (and frequently unavoidable), there are several reasons why such optimism should be tempered. First, private sector services in Africa are typically concentrated in urban areas, and because of their cost, cater for upper-income groups. Although non-governmental providers (especially missions) are often located in rural areas, and they generally provide valuable services, they are seldom able to guarantee extensive coverage and in some cases may duplicate government services. Second, private providers are not without costs to governments; they often receive subsidies or preferential treatment in the allocation of foreign exchange and typically offer higher salaries and better working conditions which draw manpower away from the public sector. In Zambia, for instance, a teacher in a primary school run by the Consolidated Copper Mines can earn more than a lecturer at the University of Zambia. In countries with extremely limited numbers of doctors, certified nurses, qualified teachers and so on, greater privatisation would exacerbate the 'brain drain' from the public to the private sector and the undersupply of 'quasi public goods' for the majority, leading to harmful social differentiation. Third, quality is not necessarily an important incentive in the private sector in developing countries. The view that private institutions in health care and education are more efficient tends to be based largely on analyses in developed countries. Fourth, the growing pressure for pluralism in social service provision often gives scant attention to the problems of central coordination and planning and the development of an adequate 'regulatory framework' for private sector activities. While playing an important complementary role, the private sector and, to a lesser extent, the NGO sector, are thus affected by important objective limitations. Indeed, ironically, their proper functioning and social utility depends crucially on the existence of a stronger, not weaker, state able to regulate, coordinate and ensure that basic social services are provided - possibly through a multitude of public, NGO and private providers-to all citizens of a nation. G.A.C</P>
    1316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1309
    13171310<B><P></P>
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    1325 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1318</B>
    13261319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Franklyn Lisk</P>
    1327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1320
    13281321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development experience of much of sub-Saharan Africa in past decades provides ample illustration of the importance of capacity building in the development process. The importance is related to the ability to manage economic and social processes, including the analysis and formulation of policy options, for attaining development objectives such as employment generation and poverty reduction. The consequences of failures in domestic economic management, compounded by the effects of a prolonged economic crisis in the region have, inter alla, contributed to high and rising levels of open unemployment and underemployment, declining per Capita incomes and real wages, and an increase in the incidence and intensity of poverty in a number of African countries. The persistence of these adverse consequences, which represent a serious threat to economic growth and sustainable development, are somehow linked-either as a cause or an effect -to weaknesses and instability in the institutional framework for management and public administration.</P>
    1329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1322
    13301323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of weak institutional and general capacity for management in Africa today can be traced to the colonial legacy. This left many countries in the region, at the time of independence, with insufficient institutional and human capacity to cope with the transition from colony to independent sovereign state, particularly with respect to the responsibility for economic management. More specifically, this related to the unequal and disadvantageous manner of Africa's incorporation into the international economic system in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Lack of technological know-how, inadequate infrastructure and limited investment resources compounded the immediate post-independence problem of weak institutional capacity, and left many African countries highly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
    1331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1324
    13321325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was extremely difficult for the majority of African countries to break out of the old 'protected' colonial production and trade systems and rapidly to diversify their economies in line with the requirements of participating effectively in a competitive world economy. Since independence, institutional and human capacity for management in many African countries has not grown fast enough to keep up with the requirements of changing socioeconomic circumstances at the national level and to face the challenge of increasing globalisation. Critical skill shortages in public administration and private sector management in Africa can hardly be addressed in the context of the current economic crisis. The consequences of this crisis can be seen, for example, in underfunded and poorly equipped training and management development institutions, and in low-paid and demoralised civil services. At the same time, the 'brain drain' from the continent, partly as a consequence of poor pay and career prospects, has further undermined capacity in Africa. The interaction of foreign donors and African governments has not always served the interest of capacity building. It has been admitted, even by the World Bank that 'aid has done much less than one might have hoped to reduce poverty (in Africa)'. There is now more or less a consensus in the international donor community that expatriate technical assistance does not and cannot solve all kinds of development problems in the region. Far from solving problems, the imposition of foreign technical assistance has, in some cases, become a destructive force which undermines the development of domestic capacity that is critical to solving local development problems. Where donor assistance is inappropriate in terms of project concept and design, or there is a mismatch between design and domestic implementation and management capacity, technical assistance could end up becoming part of the problem rather than the solution.</P>
    1333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1326
    13341327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conceptual issues</P>
    1335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1328
    13361329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before examining the requirements for institutional capacity building in developing countries, and particularly African countries, it is necessary to clarify salient issues pertaining to the concept. Broadly speaking, capacity building in a development context refers to a comprehensive process which includes the ability to identify constraints and to plan and manage development. The process usually involves the development of human resources and institutions, and a supportive policy environment. Ideally, it aims at improving on existing capabilities and resources and using them efficiently to achieve sustainable economic and social development.</P>
    1337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1330
    13381331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narrowing the concept to focus on institution-building, the emphasis will be on the development of particular institutions, their human and material resources, their organisational management and their administrative capacities. More specifically, the aim of institutional capacity building is to improve significantly the outputs and impacts of institutions concerned with economic management, public administration (including project management), enterprise development and so on-in both the public and private sectors. </P>
    1339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1332
    13401333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that relevant development-oriented institutions within an economy can exert a decisive influence on economic growth and employment prospects, and indeed on the attainment of sustainable economic and social development. From a macro standpoint,planning and similar development institutions are required for better management of the economy including, more crucially, the ability to mobilise, allocate and utilise human and material resources in an efficient and productive manner. At the micro level, human and institutional capacity is critical to sound project management and public administration.</P>
    1341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1334
    13421335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The framework</P>
    1343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1336
    13441337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general situation in Africa today suggests that capacity building is required in relation to the following priority areas:</P>
    1345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1338
    13461339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- good governance, to ensure stability;</P>
    1347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1340
    13481341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-economic management, to maximise resource mobilisation and promote sustainable development;</P>
    1349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1342
    13501343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- human resource development, to support employment creation and income generation, and reduce poverty;</P>
    1351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1344
    13521345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- science and technology, to increase the efficiency of the population and facilitate infrastructural development;</P>
    1353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1346
    13541347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-enterprise development, to enhance the critical role of the private sector in overall development.</P>
    1355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1348
    13561349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The degree of emphasis given to each of the above in a given context would vary according to the level and complexity of existing human and institutional capacities, the economic and financial means to support capacity, the relative roles of the public and private sectors, and the degree of involvement of civil society in the decision-making process.</P>
    1357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1350
    13581351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The policy context for institutional capacity building should be multi-sectoral and flexible, but coherent in relation to the desired objectives of development. This is to ensure that the process of capacity building is adaptable to changing circumstances-an issue that is particularly relevant in the context of countries undertaking structural adjustment and economic reform programmes when there is a need effectively to nurture and utilise local skills and to mobilise investment resources efficiently.</P>
    1359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1352
    13601353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of the development challenge facing African countries, the process of capacity building in the region requires, above all, appropriate and adequate human and institutional capabilities to plan and manage economic and social development processes. These capabilities should include the means of assessing the achievements and impact of capacity building on poverty reduction, employment creation, etc. Existing public sector institutions for development planning and management could provide the operational framework for national capacity building, but the process should also include the participation of diverse social forces, the private sector and non-governmental institutions.</P>
    1361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1354
    13621355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the role of external donors and technical assistance agencies, the approach should be based on the concept of 'partners in development', which implies consultation and dialogue between donor and recipient on all aspects of project planning, design and implementation- with project 'ownership' resting with national authorities. Technical assistance from foreign donors should therefore go mainly towards developing the necessary domestic capacity, rather than contributing to the undermining of existing or potential capacity. Furthermore, assistance provided by external donors should be directed towards the building of capacity for promoting regional economic cooperation and integration through support for the development of viable African regional and sub-regional development organisations.</P>
    1363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1356
    13641357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support initiatives</P>
    1365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1358
    13661359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The issue of domestic capacity building in Africa has more recently been the focus of attention by the international community as a whole. Indeed, the former World Bank vice-president for Africa, Edward Jaycox, has described 'capacity building' es the 'missing link in African development' which is 'critical to the development effort (of the region) and the chances of success'. UN agencies, spearheaded by the UNDP, have been active in promoting capacity building as a major requirement for attaining sustainable development. </P>
    1367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1360
    13681361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1991, the UNDP Governing Council took a decision which resulted in the development of guidelines covering assistance to governments in the formulation and implementation of national capacity building strategies relating to all stages of the project cycle in the developing countries. The decision coincided with the introduction of the 'programme approach' by the UNDP which emphasised the centrality of national development programmes as the hub for the integration of UN technical assistance activities with national efforts. Emphasis on the use of national skills in the development process was consolidated within the general operational framework for 'national execution', which implied that overall responsibility for management of UN operational activities and accountability remained with the government and other national institutions and beneficiaries who 'owned' these activities. Under these new arrangements, a high priority was thus placed on the strengthening and sustaining of development management and administrative capacities on a long-term basis as an integral part of UNDP technical assistance.</P>
    1369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1362
    13701363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank's interest in capacity building in Africa has been more closely linked to the need for administrative and technical capacity at the national level to carry out policy analysis and economic management in the context of on-going structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. In a trailblazing address to the African American Institute Conference in 1993, Mr Jaycox came out strongly in favour of a new approach to lending to African countries which gave top priority to the development of critical human and institutional capacity. He admitted that the Bank's $4 billion a year lending programme in sub-Saharan Africa had not had the desired impact on development in the region because not enough attention had been paid to national capacity in the past. He went on to criticise the international donor community and financial institutions, including the World Bank itself, for designing and carrying out technical assistance activities which not only fail to solve problems but end up undermining the development of capacity in Africa. Mr Jaycox accordingly pledged to give direct support to capacity building in the Bank's lending programmes, mainly through human resource development and the creation of a 'demand for professionalism in Africa.'</P>
    1371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1364
    13721365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNDP, the African Development Bank and the World Bank, collaborated in the early 1990s to set up the 'African Capacity Building Foundation' (ACBF), based in Harare, Zimbabwe, with initial seed money of about $30 million and another $70 million attracted from bilateral donors and African governments themselves. The fund is to be used by the Foundation to support capacity building in Africa through training and institution building. Particular attention will be paid to the rehabilitation and strengthening of selected research and training institutions to meet the challenge of indigenous capacity building. Another initiative set up with foreign donors and African support, the Africa Research Consortium in Nairobi, is a good example of collaboration at regional level that is contributing to capacity building in the critical area of economic policy analysis and management. Similarly, the African Development Bank helped establish the African Business Round table which promotes entrepreneurship and enterprise development based on African ownership and control.</P>
    1373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1366
    13741367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role of the ILO</P>
    1375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1368
    13761369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For well over three decades the ILO, as part of its technical cooperation programme in Africa, has been involved in a wide range of management development, productivity and institution building initiatives at both national and regional levels. This is consistent with the need to strengthen African training institutions to play a crucial role in providing development managers with the necessary skills to analyse and formulate policy options and manage public and private enterprises efficiently.</P>
    1377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1370
    13781371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful initiatives undertaken by the ILO, in collaboration with the UNDP and the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank, is the UNEDIL programme for strengthening management training in Africa. Since its inception in 1987, the UNEDIL programme has proven to be a worthwhile initiative in institutional capacity building in the management field. Support for the programme has also come from national and regional management development institutes (MDIs) in Africa, regional and sub-regional organisations such as SADC and the Commonwealth Secretariat, and major bilateral donors such as USAID, CIDA, NORAD, the Netherlands and France.</P>
    1379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1372
    13801373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from aiming at strengthening institutional capacity, the UNEDIL programme has been instrumental in fostering networking among African development institutes and promoting professional contacts and the exchange of experience. One outcome of the programme has been the revival of three subregional MDI associations which enjoy the direct support of UNEDIL and serve as focal points for UNEDIL's subregional networking arrangements.</P>
    1381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1374
    13821375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Networking on a subregional basis has made it possible to optimise the use of scarce resources and talents, and this has helped to increase managerial capacity in the region as a whole. Collaboration has also permitted an exchange of experience among African institutions, and has brought together expertise both from within Africa and from outside to assist in the development of managerial capacity across the continent. This fits in with the goals of technical cooperation in general, and of South-South cooperation in particular. </P>
    13831376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.L. </P>
    1384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1377
    13851378<B><P></P>
    13861379<!--
    … …  
    13911384  </Description>
    13921385-->
    1393 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1386</B>
    13941387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing demands and diminishing resources in higher education</P>
    1395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1388
    13961389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Dumitru Chitoran</P>
    1397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1390
    13981391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we approach the end of the millennium, higher education world-wide finds itself in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, it is witnessing unprecedented growth. Enrolments are on the increase and so are the expectations placed on it by society. The correlation between investment in higher education and research, and the level of social, economic and cultural development of nations is well-established and is gaining increasing ground at a time when all development has become knowledge-intensive. On the other hand, higher education is in a state of crisis in practically all countries of the world, under the pressure of serious financial constraints. It has to compete for public funds with many other sectors and very often it is among the first to undergo severe cuts. These cuts have reached a dramatic threshold in the developing countries. As a result, the gap between the developing and the developed countries with regard to higher learning and research is wider than ever and it continues to grow.</P>
    1399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1392
    14001393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-university cooperation has emerged as a major tool for the support of higher education in the developing countries and as a flexible mechanism for the rapid transfer and sharing of knowledge, channelled via university links and exchanges. As emphasised in the Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education issued by UNESCO in 1995, 'the most pressing need for international cooperation in higher education is to reverse the process of decline of institutions in the developing countries, particularly in the least developed.' The internationalisation of higher education has advanced steadily, reinforced by current processes of economic and political integration and facilitated by the steady advances in information and communication technologies. But, as indicated in the UNESCO World Education Report (1993), it is increasingly subject to the competitive laws of the market. Universities have been urged to develop an entrepreneurial, commercial attitude and to regard international cooperation mainly as a source of additional income. Fees for foreign students have risen considerably in many countries. As a result, academic mobility is becoming more North-North and less South-North or South-South. The benefits of study abroad, of exchanges, networking and access to data are recognised, but the costs involved render them increasingly a privilege, restricted to those who can afford it.</P>
    1401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1394
    14021395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative programme</P>
    1403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1396
    14041397<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's response to these trends was the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, launched in 1991. While serving as an instrument to foster overall inter-university cooperation, it was aimed at giving a clear direction and goal, namely to support higher education in the developing countries. It was meant to mark a return to the spirit of international academic solidarity, through twinning, networking and other linking arrangements among universities. The programme was also designed as an innovative form for the rapid transfer of knowledge, and for institutional development in higher education, including the establishment of transnational centres for advanced studies and research, as a means of redressing the widening knowledge gap between industrially developed and developing countries. One other aim of the Programme was to alleviate the negative effects of the brain drain.</P>
    1405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1398
    14061399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme has seen steady and dynamic development from the very beginning, and has emerged as the major thrust of UNESCO's action in the field of higher education. The favoured institutional framework for carrying out activities is a UNESCO Chair. The programme's activities are extremely diverse. They include the appointment of visiting professors, provision of scholarships and fellowships, facilitating of staff and student exchanges and undertaking of joint research. The 'chairs' are typical of basic units of research and training, with a strong international dimension, since either the chairholder, or some of the professors or researchers associated with its programme come from abroad. Other projects involve complex inter university networks, varying in size from three to more than 50 institutions. Within networks, certain institutions serve as focal points, responsible for initiating activities and securing broad participation in their execution. Also included are cooperation programmes established by UNESCO with major university associations and networks in order to carry out UNITWIN-related activities.</P>
    1407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1400
    14081401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, there are 163 established UNESCO Chairs (a further 84 are under consideration) and 34 largescale networks (18 more are being developed). A total of over 750 teachers, researchers and other support staff are involved in their activities. It is estimated that 350 courses (mainly at the graduate level), attended by more than 7500 students, were organised by the established UNESCO Chairs during the 1992-1996 period. Also, 120 seminars, training workshops, symposia and colloquia were staged over the same period, attended by more than 6000 participants. Some 580 academics from developing countries spent short periods of time at partner universities in the developed countries to upgrade their training. In addition, 355 scholarships have been granted to students and young academics from developing nations within the framework of the Programme. Research has been encouraged through 240 projects (mainly joint ones) resulting, according to progress reports received so far, in the publication of 55 volumes, some 100 published articles and over 150 monographs and progress reports.</P>
    1409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1402
    14101403<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACPs in the programme</P>
    1411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1404
    14121405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of these projects (UNESCO Chairs and networks) concern ACP countries. Africa has been given top priority. Over 30 of the established Chairs are located there and 18 more are under consideration for subSaharan Africa, in order to reinforce the contribution of the programme to the development of higher education in this region. In addition, certain projects located at institutions in Europe and North America carry on activities which are designed to support African universities. A few examples illustrate this. Starting from its bilateral links with several African universities, the University of Utrecht proposed developing these into a broader, multilateral project under the umbrella of UNITWIN. For this purpose, it joined forces with three other European institutions: the University of Lund in Sweden, the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany and the University of Porto in Portugal. The result was the establishment of the Utrecht/Southern Africa/UNITWIN (USU) network. It includes, at its southern pole, the universities of Harare, Maputo, Namibia, and Western Cape, where UNESCO Chairs have been established in different fields. The aim is to develop each of them into (sub)regional centres of advanced study and research. This is well under way in the case of the UNESCO Chair in Mathematics and Science Education at Western Cape University in South Africa. A first step was to link its activities to those of the MESA (Mathematics Education in South Africa) project, a cooperation project between the Utrecht-Freundenthal Institute for Mathematics Education and the University of the Western Cape. A school for Science and Maths Education is to be established at the University of Western Cape.</P>
    1413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1406
    14141407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another large scale project is the Network of African Teacher Training Institutions, built around a UNESCO Chair at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Dakar. This is designed to serve as a regional centre for postgraduate training and research in the field of education. After several years preparation, activities were launched in 1995. The strength of networking is illustrated by a number of other linking arrangements in support of African higher education institutions. These include the network initiated by the NATURA Group of European universities in the field of agriculture, the ORBICOM Network in the field of Communication, which is a global network but pays particular attention to the needs of African universities, and the UNESCO/John Hopkins University Networking and Partnership in Adolescent Youth Health and Development. The last-mentioned focuses on HlV/AIDS-related research, and includes institutions such as Addis Ababa and Makerere Universities.</P>
    1415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1408
    14161409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreement signed by UNESCO with the Association of African Universities (AAU) within the framework of UNITWIN provides for support of the latter's staff development and management programme. A UNESCO Chair in Educational Management and Administration is to be established. It will function on a rotating basis at several universities in South Africa, Botswana and Malawi. There are also a number of 'tailor-made' chairs which respond to more specific needs of institutions, notably to develop training and research capabilities in areas such as human rights, democray and peace (at the Universities of Namibia, Addis Ababa and Fianarantsoa in Madagascar), or in the field of Water Resources and Water Culture (at the Universities of Malawi and Omdurman in Sudan). In the latter field, an interesting example is the UNESCO Chair established at the University of Nice, which, although located in France, carries out its activities in Mauritania and has produced the most comprehensive study so far on water resource management in that country.</P>
    1417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1410
    14181411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme has also made a good start in the Pacific and the Caribbean, even if achievements there are on a more modest scale. There are already 22 established chairs with 14 more under consideration. They cover a wide spectrum of priority fields, including the sustainable use of rain forest resources at the University of Guyana, higher education management and information technology at the University of Havana in Cuba, educational sciences in Fiji, and the use of drugs in Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.</P>
    1419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1412
    14201413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO works closely with the University of the South Pacific and the University of the West Indies, with which it has established four UNESCO Chairs. Moreover, it has signed a cooperation agreement, in the framework of UNITWIN, with the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Association of Commonwealth Universities for activities in both regions. There is great potential for the further development of the Chairs programme in the Pacific and Caribbean, given the existence of the two regional universities mentioned above and the strong interest of universities in a number of developed countries (such as Australia, Canada, Japan and Spain) in supporting the programme. It appears to be particularly well suited for the systems of higher education in the two regions.</P>
    1421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1414
    14221415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding</P>
    1423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1416
    14241417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of international cooperation in higher education has risen steadily and this is currently one of the major obstacles preventing the full use of the potential of academic links. New information and communication technologies help reduce costs, but universities in the least-developed countries would first need considerable investment in order to procure and maintain the necessary equipment. That is why UNESCO has based the Chairs programme on funding principles aimed at lowering costs and sharing them in a genuine spirit of academic solidarity.</P>
    1425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1418
    14261419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, UNESCO made it very clear that, since it was not a funding agency, it could not, by itself, assume the financial burden of such an ambitious programme, involving several hundred institutions and thousands of university teachers, researchers and students. However, it decided to make a commitment by providing some initial funds. Rough estimates indicate that, over the 1992-1995 period, UNESCO has contributed some $2.5 million (from its Regular and Participation Programmes, Fellowship Bank and Funds-in-Trust) to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. At the same time, it has pressed for increased international development aid for higher education, particularly from the developed countries, and from international organisations, including the UN specialised agencies. A strong case is made for the benefit of pooling resources and for involving directly the higher education institutions themselves </P>
    1427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1420
    14281421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITWIN-based projects, including UNESCO Chairs, are usually initiated through the direct contributions of UNESCO (the range is generally between $15 000 and $25 000 per individual project). This is meant to help prepare and launch projects and to secure further funding from other sources. The institutions themselves must include allocations for the respective projects in their own budgets and request their appropriate national authorities to make contributions. This applies equally to universities in the developing countries, however poor their resources may be. It serves to indicate that the project in question is indeed seen as a priority by them and by their national authorities.</P>
    1429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1422
    14301423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience of the UNITWIN funding formula so far gives cause for cautious optimism. Many projects have been able to secure funds by having recourse to the various sources mentioned above. Thus, the Utrecht/ Southern Africa/UNITWIN Project received a first UNESCO allocation of $50 000 in 1993, in order to launch its activities. The fact that it concerned a large-scale project (a network of eight universities, with four chairs established at four African universities and one at the University of Utrecht) explains the larger UNESCO allocation. This was followed by a second allocation of $70 000 in 1994 for the actual implementation of activities in Africa. The UNESCO seed money led to additional funding-$600 000 annually, for the 1992-1995 period, from various Dutch donors (mainly the Ministry of Development Cooperation, through NUFFIC) and from the European Union, and $450 000 from the University of Utrecht budget, including the total cost for the functioning of the UNESCO Chair on African Studies established at that university. The other three European universities participating in the network (Bochum, Lund and Porto) have also made contributions and are now looking for donor funding in their countries. It is important to mention that the four African universities belonging to the network have also allocated funds from their own budgets to the UNITWIN projects and are actively seeking additional resources from aid and development programmes established for their countries by various donor agencies.</P>
    1431 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1424
    14321425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be fairly argued that in terms of cost-effectiveness, efficiency and the ability to generate funding from various sources, UNITWIN compares favourably with existing cooperation schemes in higher education and research. But it is still too early to conclude that the Chairs Programme can continue and develop further on the basis of the present funding arrangements. The needs are arguably too big for the institutions and individuals involved, who may find themselves in a perpetual search for funds. An evaluation of the programme is under way and this will be submitted to the Member States for their decision. UNESCO is hoping that its efforts to revive academic solidarity, and its campaign in favour of higher education in the developing countries will receive the support of the international community. More than ever before, these countries need to develop their capacity for advanced training and research in order to achieve self sustainable development. The academic community has already indicated its willingness to join forces with UNESCO in this undertaking. </P>
    14331426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.</P>
    1434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1427
    14351428<B><P></P>
    14361429<!--
    … …  
    14411434  </Description>
    14421435-->
    1443 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1436</B>
    14441437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a highly qualified professional chooses to leave his own country for another, he does so for one or several legitimate political or economic reasons: peace and security for himself and his family, job satisfaction, better pay and conditions. a higher standard of living, etc. Throughout history, countries and centres of academic excellence which offer these attractions have received the largest numbers of professional migrants and these have, in turn, made substantial contributions, not only to the economic growth of their host countries, but also to the scientific and technological advancement of humanity. The wave of German scientists who moved to the United States after the Second World war, and their discoveries and inventions, come readily to mind. On a global level, therefore, the free movement and interaction of highly skilled people is a positive thing. But the costs to the home countries of losing their professionals is incalculable-in terms of both development opportunities and loss of investment.</P>
    1445 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1438
    14461439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas Western Europe was the main loser, especially to the United States, up until the 1960s, the developing countries have emerged in recent years as the biggest suppliers of qualified professionals to the industrialised world as a whole. Today there are more than a million and a half skilled expatriates from the developing countries settled in Western Europe, the USA, Japan and Canada. The USA's educational system and its research institutions are heavily dependent on them. These migrant professionals contribute in no small way to increasing the disparities between the world's rich and poor nations. And it is the developing countries that need them most.</P>
    1447 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1440
    14481441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa, which has serious shortages of manpower, has been worst hit. It is said to have lost 60 000 professionals (doctors, university lecturers, engineers, surveyors, etc) between 1985 and 1990 and to have been losing an average of 20 000 annually ever since.</P>
    1449 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1442
    14501443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than 21 000 Nigerian doctors practising in the United States alone. Meanwhile, Nigeria's own health system suffers a cruel lack of medical practitioners. 60% of all Ghanaian doctors trained locally in the 1980s have left the country, according to the UNDP's 1992 Human Development Report, while, in Sudan, 17% of doctors and dentists, 20% of university lecturers, 30% of engineers and 45% of surveyors have gone to work abroad.</P>
    1451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1444
    14521445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is difficult to calculate the cost of an expatriate professional in terms of the nutrition, health care and education provided by households and the State, it is clear developing countries are losing colossal amounts of investment annually to the developed countries.</P>
    1453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1446
    14541447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Congressional Research Service, for example, computed in 197172 that the USA gained $20 000 annually on each skilled migrant from the developing countries. If this rather conservative amount is extrapolated for Africa, then the continent lost more than $1.2 billion of investment between 1985 and 1990 on the 60 000 or so African professionals who emigrated during that period. Much closer perhaps to the truth today would be the estimate made by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), using 1979 prices, which put a cash value of $184 000 on each African professional migrant (and this only for those between the ages of 25 and 35).</P>
    1455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1448
    14561449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, expatriate remittances, particularly from skilled workers who earn higher salaries than the average migrant, constitute an important source of funds for development in their home countries. Throughout Africa, households are being maintained by remittances from relatives working abroad. Also, fine buildings are being put up and small-scale projects are financed in villages and cities across the continent with funds sent from overseas. But taken together, these will never be large enough to compensate Africa for the loss of investment suffered as a result of the 'brain drain'.</P>
    1457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1450
    14581451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious flaw in international cooperation</P>
    1459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1452
    14601453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration of highly qualified professionals from the developing countries is an extremely complex problem which presents the international community with a major dilemma. First, the 'brain drain' cannot be stopped by force nor can it be legislated against. It is linked to fundamental human rights- the right of individuals to move from one country to another, although the exercise of that right is governed by the immigration policies of individual countries. Second, it is fundamentally a national problem which can only be resolved at the national level by providing enough incentives for qualified nationals to remain at home. Third, some industrialised countries like the USA and Canada, have historically operated liberal immigration policies. Even European states, whose immigration policies tend to be more restrictive, have a good number of third world professionals, but there are over a million in the USA and Canada. It is arguable whether, under the circumstances, the liberalisation of the international labour market under the World Trade Organisation, as is being suggested (even by some developing countries), will actually be in Africa's interests.</P>
    1461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1454
    14621455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for Africa's brain drain problem are legion and easily identifiable, being both structural and economic. The most often cited cause is the continent's school curricula which many see as still largely modelled on the systems of the former colonial masters. This, it is argued, has led to the production of graduates in disciplines that have little or no relevance to the socio-cultural and economic milieux of the continent. This is a highly debatable assertion, given the large numbers of the technical assistants currently working in Africa who are products of the educational systems of the former colonial powers-at least some of whom are having a positive impact on the continent's development. This, however, must not distract from the fact that African higher schools systems are illequipped to produce the right skills for Africa's development needs. Because of shortages of both science equipment and teachers, the system instructs the vast majority of pupils in arts rather than in science and technology-and it is the latter which hold the key to economic growth and development. Thus, there is overproduction of graduates in areas where there are few employment opportunities. This results in high levels of migration, even, paradoxically among the few trained scientists because of the absence of an environment conducive to full professional expression and satisfaction. It is not uncommon for things as simple as electricity and water supply to provide reasons for emigration. Examples abound of frustrated African scientists who have had their experimental work of several years destroyed overnight through power failures.</P>
    1463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1456
    14641457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Powerful factors in the brain drain include Africa's poor rates of economic growth over the past 30 years (worsened by structural adjustment measures which have resulted in dramatic falls in living standards) and political instability (disturbances in Nigeria and Zaire, civil war in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia etc). Thousands of qualified professionals have been forced unwillingly into exile, and the majority of those left behind, in these times of serious economic crisis, are engaged in unskilled pursuits-in petty trading and taxi driving-far removed from their professional training. The loss of investment associated with this situation cannot be underestimated.</P>
    1465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1458
    14661459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa is in the paradoxical situation today of having large numbers of graduates in various disciplines -from medicine and engineering to architecture and accountancy-who have either emigrated or are simply unemployed, while it hosts a large army of foreign technical assistants. Indeed, Africa receives more advice per capita than any other continent. In 1988, there were more than 80 000 technical assistants, and today the figure is well over 100 000. These experts are believed to cost donors a total of $4bn annually to maintain, a figure which represents nearly 35% of Africa's total official development aid. This situation reveals a serious flaw in the operation of international development cooperation. Would it not be more efficient and cost effective to employ qualified African expatriates in the place of many of these foreign technical experts. The former, after all, have both linguistic and cultural links with the continent. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a programme in this area which points to a possible way forward. The article on that programme, TOKTEN, follows. </P>
    14671460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O.</P>
    1468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1461
    14691462<B><P></P>
    14701463<!--
    … …  
    14751468  </Description>
    14761469-->
    1477 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1470</B>
    14781471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the scale of the brain drain problem facing the developing countries, the UNDP's Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) project may not amount to much, but it has proved, in its 19 years of existence, to be a cost-effective way of getting highly qualified expatriates from the developing countries to contribute to the development of their countries of origin.</P>
    1479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1472
    14801473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It all started in Turkey in 1977 by pure accident. A Turkish mineral expert in Alberta, Canada, was asked by a compatriot if he would be kind enough to come over to Turkey and explain his innovative coal cleaning process to the staff and students of his old university in Ankara-the Middle East Technical University. He expressed his interest in the project. Soon afterwards he was contacted by the UNDP which offered to fund part of his trip to Ankara. The expert spent one month in Turkey giving a series of seminars, not only at the Middle East Technical University, but also at the Istanbul and Dokuz Eylul Universities. During these lectures, he made recommendations on resolving Turkey's specific coal utilisation problems. His impact was immense and such that the UNDP was inspired to set up the TOKTEN project along similar lines to help developing countries gain from the knowledge of their expatriate professionals.</P>
    1481 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1474
    14821475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is simple. Member States of the United Nations can apply to join the project. The latter is administered in each country by a National Working Commitee (NWC) which is made up of representatives from the government, local organisations, the private sector and the UNDP. Institutions of that country (government ministries and agencies, private and public sector enterprises, universities, research and development institutions, hospitals, etc) can apply for assistance in a variety of areas.</P>
    1483 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1476
    14841477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applications are processed by the NWC and recruitment of experts is usually in one or more of the following ways:</P>
    1485 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1478
    14861479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">— through consultants with lists of experts recognised by the Government as having extensive contacts within their expatriate communities;</P>
    1487 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1480
    14881481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">— through embassies and missions, alumni associations and research institutions;</P>
    1489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1482
    14901483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">— through prominent members of the country's expatriate community who identify and alert other high level expatriates of the opportunities to return home and serve their countries.</P>
    1491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1484
    14921485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Working Committee chooses a consultant, an offer of assignment is made. The beneficiary organisation and the consultant will then determine the timing of the mission and inform the UNDP.</P>
    1493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1486
    14941487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN assignments last between one and three months depending on the ability of the consultant and the needs of the beneficiary'. They are not meant to be highly remunerative. Consultants are only entitled to round trip economy fare tickets (by the most direct route) and a daily subsistence allowance at the prevailing UN rate. The costs are paid out of the beneficiary country's 'Indicative Planning Figure'(IPF) which is the amount of assistance the UNDP makes available to a developing country over a five-year programming cycle. Health insurance cover and accommodation is not provided. Usually these are the responsibilities of the beneficiary government or organisation. The salaries of the consultants during their absence are paid by their affiliated employers whose agreement is often necessary for the projects to go ahead.</P>
    1495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1488
    14961489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN consultants are thus not motivated by money but by a genuine desire (with a modicum of patriotism) to contribute to the development of their countries of origin to which they retain strong cultural and linguistic ties. And their impact on the ground is usually immediate and measurable. Pressures are not put on volunteers to return permanently to their countries, although many have chosen to do so since the programme began in 1977.</P>
    1497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1490
    14981491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is not only low-cost and cost-effective. It covers a great variety of specialised fields and enables programmes to be implemented with speed.</P>
    1499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1492
    15001493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conditions for success</P>
    1501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1494
    15021495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A UNDP assessment of the programme in 1987, ten years after it began, concluded that regular monitoring of its operation had enabled information garnered to be applied to increase its effectiveness. It had been found, for example, that short-term expatriate consultancies were especially beneficial when the problem tackled was specific and the consultant selected was of international standing, when both the requesting organisation and the expatriate were well prepared in advance, and when the initial mission was followed up by a series of measures, often including a return visit.</P>
    1503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1496
    15041497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1992, 35 countries were participating in the programme and over 3800 consultancies had been run. Since then, the number of countries has increased dramatically to 51 and con</P>
    1505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1498
    15061499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sultancies to 5000. In 1994 and 1995 alone, 28 countries reported over 700 consultancies.</P>
    1507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1500
    15081501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also become clear that, whereas the main recipient institutions have been government agencies, science and technology research institutions, universities and organisations, the private sector is increasingly showing interest in the programme. The number of female specialists is also increasing: in 1991, 40 consultants were women and last year this figure rose to over 100.</P>
    1509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1502
    15101503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the ACP countries participating in the programme are; Benin, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome &amp; Principe, Sierra Leone, St Lucia, Trinidad &amp; Tobago and Uganda.</P>
    1511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1504
    15121505<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success stories include a highly skilled Guyanese medical practitioner in the United States who returned home after 17 years to assume the post of minister of health. He had been sent to oversee the introduction of certain aspects of health care such as preventive medicine (immunisation, general child care and nutrition), treatment of trauma (victims of accidents and violence etc) and the establishment and management of the physical facilities for emergency patients. During his stint, his recommendation on the upgrading of the emergency room facilities was rapidly implemented and this contributed significantly to improving patient care. Another story involved a Guinean banker who, after a consultancy stint in Guinea, abandoned a lucrative job in France to return home permanently to work at the Central Bank of Guinea, helping to set up a new loan system for commercial imprt and export businesses. Guinea, in fact, has been one of the greatest beneficiaries of the TOKTEN programme with numerous consultancies involving the University of Conakry, covering more than 20 disciplines.</P>
    1513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1506
    15141507<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For very small sums the programme is ensuring that developing countries which have invested enormously in the education of their expatriate nationals have a return, at least, in the form of the knowledge they oquired.</P>
    15151508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O </P>
    1516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1509
    15171510<B><P></P>
    15181511<!--
    … …  
    15231516  </Description>
    15241517-->
    1525 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518</B>
    15261519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of the Commonwealth in the economic and social progress of its member states is neither widely known nor widely publicised. Yet for over 25 years, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has made significant contributions to the efforts of its developing member countries to accelerate the pace of their economic development.</P>
    1527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1520
    15281521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recognition by the Commonwealth that people are its greatest resource forms the basis of its approach to development assistance-providing, in the short term, specialist technical skills which are either not available or are in short supply to governments to enable them to fill key positions in areas as diverse as export and industrial promotion, high-level economic and legal services etc, and in the longer term, a wide range of training programmes in areas that are crucial for economic development.</P>
    1529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1522
    15301523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation is funded by voluntary financial contributions from member governments which, as has just been mentioned, can also draw on it according to their needs and priorities. As a pioneer of technical cooperation between developing countries, the Fund recruits its experts from these countries and encourages South/South cooperation. It is thus not uncommon to see West Africans serving, on short-term contracts, as legal officers in remote Pacifc island states or Sri Lankans or Indians advising on new agricultural techniques in Africa. The Fund is administered by four separate divisions within the Commonwealth Secretariat: the management and training division; the general technical assistance division; the export and industrial development division, and the economic and legal advisory services division. In 1994-95 the CFTC's financial resources stood at around f23.6 million (ECU 30m).</P>
    1531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1524
    15321525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human resource development</P>
    1533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1526
    15341527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly one-third of the CFTC's budget is spent on human resource development, helping enhance people's skills through a mix of training workshops, study visits and individual attachments.</P>
    1535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1528
    15361529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 4000 training fellowships were awarded in 1993-95 to enhance technical skills. These were given to middle and senior professional, technical and administrative managers to study at some of the Commonwealth's best institutions or to take up work attachments (63% of training takes place in less-developed countries).</P>
    1537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1530
    15381531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund also enables universities and other institutions to become centres of excellence and upgrade the tuition they offer by appointing academic and technical specialists. In 1993-95, for example, it helped five universities in Africa and the Caribbean to run applied Masters courses through collaboration with other Commonwealth universities.</P>
    1539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1532
    15401533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the CFTC is usually able to meet only 60% of the requests it receives for specialised training, its programmes are held on a regional and pan-Commonwealth basis to maximise impact, especially in topics such as administrative reform, financial management and strategic planning.</P>
    1541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1534
    15421535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund's training priorities include:</P>
    1543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1536
    15441537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- first and foremost, identifying needs (consultants are sent to countries to examine their development plans and help them to prioritise training needs).</P>
    1545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1538
    15461539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing education and training in key areas that reflect CFTC concerns such as well-managed economic and financial reform by government, sustainable development, participation of women and application of technology.</P>
    1547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1540
    15481541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ensuring an integrated package of consultancy, advice and training to help managers in government, and public and private sector enterprises to coordinate and manage reforms and restructuring.</P>
    1549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1542
    15501543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organising policy workshops and seminars that bring together senior government officials, executives and academics from Commonwealth countries to pool experiences, learn examples of best practice, discuss problems and reflect on emerging issues.</P>
    1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1544
    15521545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- giving support to institutions to offer new and specialised education and training programmes.</P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1546
    15541547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing technical and vocational training under the Commonwealth Industrial Training and Experience Programme (between 1993 and 1995, workshops were held in hospital equipment repairs, railway repairs and maintenance and computer-assisted manufacturing).</P>
    1555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1548
    15561549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing training in information systems, new technologies and environmental issues (governments are helped to develop management information systems and apply information technology). </P>
    1557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1550
    15581551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-setting up programmes for women with a particular focus on entrepreneurs and community managers (among other initiatives, the CFTC is helping three African universities develop specialised programmes in entrepreneurship for women in non-traditional sectors).</P>
    1559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1552
    15601553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-coordinating wider linkages among professional networks to facilitate exchanges of information and examples of best practice (the CFTC recently helped to set up the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management to assist in improving public service performance and in raising ethical standards).</P>
    1561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1554
    15621555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expertise on tap</P>
    1563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1556
    15641557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortage of skills is one of the biggest stumbling-blocks facing countries trying to raise the living standards of their people. Providing experts accounts for about one-third of the CFTC's budget.</P>
    1565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1558
    15661559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because its assistance is relatively small and carefully targeted, it avoids the potential waste associated with larger scale projects and poor technical planning. In 1993-95, the cost both of a typical long-term expert and an average project was around £50 000 (ECU 62 000) a year. Experts can be in place within three or four weeks of project approval.</P>
    1567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1560
    15681561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same period, over 200 long- and short-term experts were provided to 43 developing Commonwealth countries, six dependent territories and 18 regional organisations. The expertise requested is extremely diverse, from hydrography and agroforestry to tourism, statistics, legal affairs, health, social planning and computer science.</P>
    1569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1562
    15701563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assignments for short-term experts can range from a few days to six months. Their role is advisory, helping governments to introduce new systems or technologies. Long-term experts stay usually from six months to two years; others may stay up to four years. Experts assist in the development and implementation of policies or in the provision of managerial skills and the training of counterpart staff to take over in due course. Some long-term experts are trainers in specialist fields.</P>
    1571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1564
    15721565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC makes every effort to appoint women experts. In 1993-95, they made up 13% of experts that were sent to the field. These included a consultant anaesthetist in Ghana, an agricultural economist in Mozambique, an information specialist in Barbados, a fisheries development officer in Papua New Guinea and an environmental lawyer in Seychelles.</P>
    1573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1566
    15741567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A scheme to allow suitably qualified and experienced people to volunteer as short-term experts for a maximum of three months was launched in mid-1995. The scheme draws on experts from the Commonwealth who are willing to give their services on a voluntary basis to developing countries.</P>
    1575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1568
    15761569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entrepreneurs come first</P>
    1577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1570
    15781571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its help to small businesses, the CFTC focuses on those who manage the businesses and identify new entrepreneurial talent. Most assistance is given to small states, especially in the Pacific. The programme has three phases: the first relates to 'surveys of opportunity' which is aimed at identifying suitable entrepreneurs, investment opportunities and potential for expansion as well as specific problems. Next comes 'workshops on entrepreneurship development' during which business owners and operators are helped to think creatively, to become more aware of opportunities that are available and to act strategically when planning expansion. And the last are what we call 'business clinics' in which one-to-one counselling is provided to an entrepreneur at his or her business. This personal support has proved very successful in helping individual entrepreneurs to become more efficient and competitive and, by implication, adapt to changing world economic conditions.</P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1572
    15801573<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing exports</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1574
    15821575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC has pioneered the use of Contact-Promotion programmes and 'Buyer-Seller Meets' forums to help small exporters. These forums allow company representatives, often from small Commonwealth countries, to display their wares and meet prospective buyers from other countries. CFTC consultants plan these activities well ahead, short listing producers that are likely to succeed, identifying suitable foreign markets and advising on redesigning of products. Sometimes exporters and factory staff also receive training.</P>
    1583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1576
    15841577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC funds a special 'export development programme' for women entrepreneurs. This includes detailed country studies of women engaged in exporting as well as sales promotions abroad. Studies of this type have recently been conducted in Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Zambia.</P>
    1585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1578
    15861579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are helped, under the programme, to adapt their handicrafts for export, improve their manufacturing techniques and undertake sales missions abroad. Training is also given in export marketing, product development, costing and pricing. If necessary, changes to government policy are recommended. In 1994, the assistance given to Ghanaian women to develop markets for their basket ware and handicrafts is estimated to have helped generate sales worth US$3.1 million (ECU 2.4m). </P>
    1587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1580
    15881581<B><P></P>
    15891582<!--
    … …  
    15951588-->
    15961589</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Digby Swift</P>
    1597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1590
    15981591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's investments in human resource development-health, nutrition and education-in ACP states have regularly been covered in the pages of this magazine whether in the context of dosiers or of country resorts. Here we present a brief description of how the EU's policy in education and training evolved under the Yaounde and Lom&eacute; Convemntions.</P>
    1599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1592
    16001593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating all the people. This is not just a slogan. In a poor, underdeveloped country, there may be some short-term gains from supplying high quality education and training to an elite few. But, as the 'Asian Miracle' has proved, major long-term gains in development and wealth are possible only if the entire population possesses a reasonable level of education.</P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1594
    16021595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now for the problem. For many countries, notably those of sub-Saharan Africa, a large proportion of school age children receive no education at all. Of those who do attend school, many receive little benefit from their education because of the very low quality of provision. Only a small minority reach secondary education. And yet a higher proportion than ever of national budgets is now going to the education sector.</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1596
    16041597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is urgent because of the time it will take to resolve. Even if we could wave a magic wand to provide all children with a good primary education, it would take a decade to see the benefits.</P>
    1605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1598
    16061599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is European aid helping to tackle this problem? What have been the guiding principles of European aid to education in the past? And why is the problem still acute in, for example, subSaharan Africa, despite decades of investment in aid to education ?</P>
    1607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1600
    16081601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid mirrors developments</P>
    1609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1602
    16101603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid to education has mirrored developments in the education sectors of the countries concerned. For example, the low-income countries of Africa, which account for 73% of Africa's population, have seen a rapid expansion in their education systems followed by a collapse of funding. This has resulted in a serious decline in standards of provision. European aid, which began by providing piecemeal assistance to infrastructure and manpower, shifted to a 'project approach' to tackle these emerging problems and is now moving towards a coordinated sectoral approach to help tackle the reform of whole education systems.</P>
    1611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1604
    16121605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From 1970 to 1980, the number of pupils enrolling in the primary schools of developing countries more than doubled, and the numbers in secondary and tertiary education quadrupled. Even relative to the increasing population, there was a 90% increase in the proportion of primary-aged children in school, and a large increase in the proportion of girls. This growth was accompanied by a doubling of government budgetary resources made available to education.</P>
    1613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1606
    16141607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the massive general economic decline between 1980 and 1985, the money made available for education from the public purse fell by 40%, yet the education systems continued to grow. The result was that teachers' salaries plummeted, and funds for non-salary recurrent costs such as teaching materials and maintenance virtually dried up.</P>
    1615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1608
    16161609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1985, the financial situation has somewhat improved and funding is now at an all-time high. Nevertheless, for many African states, the education sector is in a state of crisis. Buildings are crumbling and inadequate; teachers are untrained or undertrained and often absent because of low incentives and weak supervision. There are few books and other teaching materials. Consequently, many pupils leave school virtually illiterate and innumerate. Moreover, because of the low quality of instruction and increasing costs to parents, many parents are no longer bothering to send children to school even when places are available. Primary enrolment fell by around 10% between 1990 and 1992. Thus in many countries, a fundamental reform of the sector is seen as the only way forward.</P>
    1617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1610
    16181611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evolution of aid</P>
    1619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1612
    16201613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early days of European aid, education and training were seen as suppliers of manpower for countries to modernise their economies. The priority themes of the 1970 Yaounde Convention for European Community aid were industrialisation, regional cooperation and international trade. Community support to education and training focused on the construction of colleges and university faculties to serve industrialisation and regional cooperation.</P>
    1621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1614
    16221615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1975 Lom&eacute; I Convention referred specifically to 'the establishment of regional institutions of advanced technology, in the context of training programmes to enable nationals to participate fully in economic development'.</P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1616
    16241617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980 Lom&eacute; II Convention introduced multiannual training programmes, and support in the form of training awards and courses/seminars; experts and instructors; teaching equipment; collaboration between training or research establishments and universities. The emphasis was still on vocational training for other sectors.</P>
    1625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1618
    16261619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant proportion of European bilateral aid to education and training took the form of European teachers for secondary schools, colleges and universities. These helped to cover the shortage of locally trained teachers, whilst educating an elite able to fill senior and middle positions in the public and private sectors.</P>
    1627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1620
    16281621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1985, problems were becoming all too apparent within the education systems being supported. As in other sectors, there was increased emphasis on the 'project approach' towards tackling these problems. Thus the Lom&eacute; Ill Convention includes support to education and training 'in the form of integrated programmes aimed at a well defined objective'. This could include, for example, 'assisting the ACP States' own efforts to restructure their educational establishments and systems and to update curricula, methods and technology employed, in order to step up the effectiveness and cut back the cost of all types of training'. A concern for under-represented groups, particularly women, was also becoming explicit.</P>
    1629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1622
    16301623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1990, the concept of investing in people through education and training had moved high on the donor agenda, and alongside it, a growing concern for sectoral reform. According to the 1989 Lom&eacute; IV Convention, 'Cooperation shall be aimed at supporting development in the ACP States, a process centred on man himself and rooted in each people's culture. It shall back up the policies and measures adopted by those States to enhance their human resources, increase their own creative capacities and promote their cultural identities. Cooperation shall also encourage participation by the population in the design and execution of development operations.' In a chapter entitled Operations to enhance the value of human resources, a section on Education and Training refers to supporting the ACP State's efforts to 'reform their basic education institutions and systems, in particular by providing overall primary education coverage and adjusting imported systems as well as building them into development strategies'.</P>
    1631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1624
    16321625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European states and the Community joined the World Bank in support of structural adjustment. In a 1991 communication to the European Development Council, the Commission stated that it 'will give absolute priority to the social dimension of adjustment, in particular ensuring that the health and education sectors are adequately covered, in conjunction with sectoral reforms introduced or planned in these two areas.'</P>
    1633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1626
    16341627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balancing this concern for system reform has been a growing appreciation of the importance of decentralised cooperation. An example is the cost-sharing microprojects for grassroots development first introduced in Lom&eacute; I with explicit mention of support to primary schools. Another example is the need to support the activities of nongovernmental organisations.</P>
    1635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1628
    16361629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new policy</P>
    1637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1630
    16381631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two events in the early 1990s have had a profound impact on European support for education and training. The first was the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting the Basic Learning Needs held in Jomtien in 1990. This emphasised the need for universal</P>
    1639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1632
    16401633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">primary education and adult literacy to be firmly placed on the political agenda, and has resulted in a profound swing of donor support away from higher education and towards primary education. The second important event was the 1992 Treaty of European Union which requires the coordination of Member States' policy and operations, particularly in the social sectors. Guidelines are contained in the 1994 Council Resolution on support to education and training in developing countries in which 'the Council emphasises that education, in particular basic education, is a fundamental right'.</P>
    1641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1634
    16421635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Resolution, 'the priority for the Community and the Member States must be both to maximise access to education within the limits of the resources available and to ensure that the quality of education provided is suited to the needs of the majority of students. 'This is to be achieved through 'a balanced, programme-based strategy, tailored to the specific circumstances of the individual developing country', with pride of place accorded to basic education. It should provide 'support to the developing countries' own policies and efforts', not acting as a substitute for local initiative, and should involve better integration of action under structural adjustment with education sector priorities and aid activities. The Council also recommends a special emphasis on coordination in a number of pilot countries.</P>
    1643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1636
    16441637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the outset, Community aid to education and training in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries has been in response to requests from the ACP states with an emphasis on ownership of the resulting programme by those states. What the new policy introduces into this process is a dialogue between government and all donors on needs, priorities and approaches set in the context of the education sector as a whole. Only through such a comprehensive approach can developing countries and European states reach a true partnership in realising the education and training needs of all citizens on which the future of their countries so crucially depends. </P>
    16451638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.S.</P>
    1646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1647 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1639
     1640<B>
    16481641<!--
    16491642</Section>
    … …  
    16541647  </Description>
    16551648-->
    1656 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1649</B>
    16571650<B><P></P>
    16581651<!--
    … …  
    16631656-->
    16641657</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Kenneth Karl</P>
    1665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1658
    16661659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1989 saw the end of the Yalta inspired twin-superpower dominance. Nations had to examine their priorities in their desire for integration in an international environment in which geostrategic and economic realignment would be unavoidable. The philosophy which had served as a basis and reference point for North/South relations throughout the Cold War period is now being called into question and necessary adjustments in ideas have been triggered.</P>
    1667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1660
    16681661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Lom&eacute; Convention, which governs the development-cooperation relationship between the EU and the 70 ACP countries, is a unique North/South cooperation agreement on account of its contractual nature, its durability, the funds it allocates and the fact that it provides for a permanent dialogue. But it is also now at a decisive point in its history.</P>
    1669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1662
    16701663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who regard the Convention as out-of-date and in need of renovation, and those more radical critics who believe that it no longer serves any useful purpose and must be phased out, both argue that a new direction is needed.</P>
    1671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1664
    16721665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Beyond all the criticism formulated against this system, the fundamental question remains as to whether the Lom&eacute; Convention will be able, given the necessary changes, to carry on after its fourth version expires.</P>
    1673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1666
    16741667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The years between now and the end of the century will, naturally, see the application of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, including the substantial improvements made to it. However, this same period must also be used to prepare the ground for ACP/KU development cooperation in the future, whatever form it might take.</P>
    1675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1668
    16761669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortly after his nomination as European Commissioner for relations with the ACP countries and South Africa, Professor Pinheiro commented, realistically, that the ACP countries are no longer 'in fashion'. The change of emphasis can be seen clearly if one looks at the EU's burgeoning relations with its eastern neighbours from the former Communist bloc (illustrated by the wide range of European programmes now benefiting these countries). One might also cite the strengthening of ties with countries in the Mediterranean basin. Economic and security concerns underpin this development, but it undoubtedly reduces the significance which was once accorded to the ACP states.</P>
    1677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1670
    16781671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the economic objectives of virtually all EU countries, as they seek to reduce budget deficits and deal with increasing internal social problems inevitably put pressure on the amount of development aid being granted to the Third World.</P>
    1679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1672
    16801673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is, of course, not restricted to the European Union - which in fact remains the world's main contributor of official development aid. At the instigation of a Republican dominated Congress, the United States is planning much more swingeing cuts in its contribution, both to certain international agencies and to certain regions (including Africa).</P>
    1681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1674
    16821675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This undeniable cutback in public development aid has been offset in recent years by net increases in private capital flows, but the geographical distribution is highly skewed. Only a few of the poorest developing countries have benefited from the trend, the main 'winners' being the emerging states of Asia. These include countries such as China, India and Indonesia which, it is worth noting in passing, do not have particularly good human rights records, in the sense that the term is understood in Europe. Despite the fact that ACP countries have identified potential for attracting foreign investment, they have not actually benefited from this change in resource flows.</P>
    1683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1676
    16841677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this climate, with official development aid in inaeasingly short supply, innovative methods for making optimum use of the available resources must be devised within the context of the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
    1685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1678
    16861679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current indications, it is quite possible that in the year 2000, the Lom&eacute; Convention will be filed away in the archives. ACP/KU relations will certainly have to be more in step with recent developments on the international scene. The initial reasons for the establishment of a cooperative relationship between Europe and the ACPs, following the signature of the Rome Treaty, are now outmoded. As Paul Valery has commented: 'One of the worst mental aberrations is to think that things can survive when the reasons for their existence have gone'. </P>
    1687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1680
    16881681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what type of development cooperation should the countries of the European Union and their ACP partners aim for in the future ?</P>
    1689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1682
    16901683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative trends</P>
    1691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1684
    16921685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has stated that it is in favour of a globalisation of aid within an innovative framework. One of the first questions to be asked is whether uniform cooperation with regions whose monolithic character is being increasingly called into question is still desirable.</P>
    1693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1686
    16941687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variable geometry in development cooperation relations is increasingly being seen as the trend to be followed.</P>
    1695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1688
    16961689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this option is chosen, there is a risk of the following scenario being created: The EU's relationship with the Caribbean could become diluted within its relationship with Latin-American countries and links with the Pacific countries could become confused with economic relations with Asia. What would then become of Africa, the continent needing most attention on account of the wide range of its difficulties and its increasing marginalisation ?</P>
    1697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1690
    16981691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, aware of the African question, adopted a new agenda on development in Africa, thus making that continent its number-one priority. Europe, on the other hand, must not simply focus on Africa but must invent new modes of action which are more concrete and more effective.</P>
    1699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1692
    17001693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondly, recent trends imply greater conditionality. This has been taken on board not just by EU Member States. A number of multilateral aid agencies have also included it in their strategy. The OECD's Development Aid Committee believes that future relationships between North and South will be greatly influenced by conditionality and, indeed, the Organisation goes so far as to advocate this approach.</P>
    1701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1694
    17021695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, conditionality in terms of development is a strategic element which must be handled with extreme caution. If cooperation, whether today or in the future, is to be based on conditionality, then it can only be rendered effective if aid recipients (both governments and the governed) are genuinely committed to the idea. They must be convinced, in a climate of resource-scarcity, than the approach is motivated above all by a desire for greater success.</P>
    1703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1696
    17041697<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union thus has a vital role to play, making full use of its advantages in terms of dialogue and consultation in order to prevent conditionality being perceived as a condescending mechanism. Thereby, it can help to prevent conditionality from generating the well-known perverse effects of 'tied' aid.</P>
    1705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1698
    17061699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, conditionality raises the thorny question of national sovereignty, but it is important to observe that modern international relations have moved on, both de jure and de facto, from a concept of absolute sovereignty to one of relative sovereignty. This is illustrated by the trend towards humanitarian intervention as a right, the requirements of the Bretton Woods institutions, supranationality in certain regional international organisations, and the very fact of world economic interdependence.</P>
    1707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1700
    17081701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that the developing states should sell off their sovereignty to the highest bidder but that conditionality should be the subject of negotiation. Donors must be more flexible in their demands and thereby give the country in question such room to manoeuvre as is necessary for programmes to succeed.</P>
    1709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1702
    17101703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thirdly, development of the private sector appears now to be approved by all parties. Since independence, the State has been omnipresent and omnipotent in most productive areas of ACP economies. Given the failures of the public sector, private enterprise is now being called in to help. Its development is one of the sector specific policies which will and must receive most support.</P>
    1711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1704
    17121705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the private sector must permit better distribution of the fruits of the growth that it generates and promote integration of the ACP countries into the market economy. There can be no question of pitting private enterprise against the public sector, because any Manichean approach in this sphere might prove to be risky. It is important also to stress that free market development cannot take place overnight and that it is subject to inescapable macro and microeconomic preconditions.</P>
    1713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1706
    17141707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the birth and expansion of a dynamic private sector depends on the politico-economic fabric. This includes reliable financial bodies, functioning financial intermediation, adequate infrastructures, technical qualifications and training, a suitable legal/ regulatory framework, institutions to support private businesses, the channelling of the informal sector and a public sector which is prepared to play fair, aware of its regulatory role. These, in short, are the necessary ingredients for the adjustment of the private sector to permit the development of a true enterprise culture.</P>
    1715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1708
    17161709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of a harmonious private sector will make it possible more easily to achieve the transformation and export objectives required by international competitiveness. It should, therefore, help to counteract the erosion of commercial preferences generated by the Uruguay Round. The latter's time limits should, in any case, be extended, because it seems clear that the ACP countries will be unable to fulfil their obligations by the end of the moratorium obtained by the EU during the negotiations.</P>
    1717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1710
    17181711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The notion of compensating for inequality that is found in international development law, implies the adoption of a normative system to counteract the weak trading position of developing countries vis-a-vis their competitors in the North. But in recent times, this idea has been losing ground and it is unlikely to cut much ice with the WTO authorities. Legal equality in a situation where there is structural inequality is not, in fact, equitable, and it is therefore necessary to find some other way of mitigating the adverse effects, looking at it in a global context.</P>
    1719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1712
    17201713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promotion of domestic and foreign investment should be better supported. People talk of the 'risk/ country' threshold that deters foreign investors. It may be that this can be measured objectively by looking at economic and other indicators, but even if this is not possible, it clearly exists as a psychological barrier. This is a problem for many ACP countries and it needs to be crossed, using measures which tackle the many obstacles to investment.</P>
    1721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1714
    17221715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing the culture of development cooperation</P>
    1723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1716
    17241717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides all the technical aspects, one could argue that the shortcomings of the Lom&eacute; Convention stem also from the perceptions of those involved in development cooperation. In short, it is the actual concept and culture of development aid which must be changed.</P>
    1725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1718
    17261719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, the colonial legacy has conditioned attitudes, imprinting on them a dominant patemalism which is prejudicial to the aim of development. This European concept of cooperation must be overturned. Moreover, development cooperation must not be seen as the art of the possible but as the art of making possible what is strictly necessary, by virtue of genuine negotiation with the countries which have resolved to move forward.</P>
    1727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1720
    17281721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, it is desirable to have a better developed policy of informing European public opinion about development cooperation. An effort is needed to counter false impressions, such as the one left by the French journalist who wrote: 'Official development aid is like taking money from the poor in rich countries to give it to the rich in poor countries'. Better information is needed to ensure that the public can decide such matters for itself.</P>
    1729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1722
    17301723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating the Union's policies with those of the Member States now presents an enormous challenge. The political obstacles are huge and development cooperation may well suffer as a result of them if the objectives of coordination, coherence and complementarity contained in the Maastricht Treaty are not achieved.</P>
    1731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1724
    17321725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the ACP countries, success in their economic development depends on many factors, cooperation being only one of them. Many political leaders in these nations have too often described cooperation with the North as the only way in which they can develop. In fact, this should be seen as nothing more than an additional factor - supporting the national effort and a genuine desire for development. It is pure fantasy to believe that development can be set in motion solely on the basis of an external impetus. To succeed, it must come from within a country. This is why future cooperation between the EU and the ACP countries must progress towards reinforcing the aptitude of the latter to devise, master and control their own development process.</P>
    1733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1726
    17341727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the future, the ACP countries must propose concrete and responsible solutions to their partners, doing so by means of the dialogue system. They must also promote development based on participation, particularly with the involvement of young people and women.</P>
    1735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1728
    17361729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that the ACPs can offer a credible prospectus for development must be acknowledged. It is undoubtedly a challenge, but it can successfully be overcome if a climate of stability, security and confidence is created, matched by an unambiguous political will.</P>
    1737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1730
    17381731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In KU/ACP relations, programmes must include the long-term vision necessary for sustainable development. Too often in the past, the strategy has been aimed at an immediate and ostentatious result. Successful development in the future will depend crucially on a change in such attitudes. </P>
    17391732<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. </P>
    1740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1733
    17411734<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us know what you think</P>
    1742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1735
    17431736<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The debate about the future of cooperation between the European Union and the ACP states is now beginning to gash' pace. Last year, we established the 'Analysis' section in The Courier to report on this debate-and give readers an opportunity to express their own views on the subject.</P>
    1744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1737
    17451738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The response so far has been encouraging, but it has come mainly from the European side. We are keen to receive contributions from ACP readers as well. If you have you own ideas or opinions about what should happen after Lom&eacute; IV expires, why not put them on paper and send them to us. Our address is on the inside front cover of the magazine. </P>
    1746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1739
    17471740<B><P></P>
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    17541747-->
    1755 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1748</B>
    17561749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the subject of a conference which took place in Maastricht from 12-14 June, under the auspices of the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM). It brought together participants from ACP countries and Europe, including representatives of civil society (NGOs, the private sector, etc.). Four major topics were addressed:</P>
    1757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1750
    17581751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can a new KU/ACP commercial relationship be constructed ?</P>
    1759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1752
    17601753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was agreement that some form of preferential trade regime should continue after 2000. Some participants stressed the need to Promote 'fair trade', which would contribute not only to growth but also to development. The impact of individual trade preferences is not always clear-cut, but obviously there cannot be a single solution covering all problems in all ACP countries. An analysis of negative constraints demonstrated the difficulties involved in reconciling the rules of the Lom&eacute; Convention and those of the World Trade Organisation.</P>
    1761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1754
    17621755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can the private sector become involved in development ?</P>
    1763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1756
    17641757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important aspect of this topic is knowing how to create a favourable and business-friendly environment which will enable the private sector to play its part-and the role the European Union could play in this process. The private sector was defined as both formal and informal, encompassing large, medium and small enterprises, whether local or foreign. The importance of a strong local private sector in guaranteeing long-term stability was particularly emphasised. In this respect, the view was expressed that the role of the state and its relationship with the European Commission should be redefined. There was also a call for time to be set aside time for effective dialogue, and to create the space for a partnership between the public and private sectors. It was felt that the role of Economic and Social Councils should be expanded and specified more clearly. As for the specific issue of privatisation, the point was made that this should not be seen as a panacea and that it should be approached on a country-by-country basis.</P>
    1765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1758
    17661759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards current instruments, it was noted that their objective is essentially to meet public-sector requirements. The role of the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) attracted some criticism. Speakers felt that the private sector should be more involved in the preparation and implementation of cooperation programmes with the European Community. Direct financial support to the private sector was seen as desirable, including backing from the European Investment Bank.</P>
    1767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1760
    17681761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What partnership ?</P>
    1769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1762
    17701763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The partnership concept was seen to have been eroded over the past two decades, with the pretext of efficiency resulting in a more paternalistic approach. Mechanisms needed to be found to enable EU priorities and the prerogatives of ACP countries to be reconciled. Reference was made to the political nature of the origin of the partnership and the need to find a new political raison d'etre for this type of relationship. The problems of cohesion within the ACP group and its relations with the EU were also raised, and there was a discussion about the possibility of giving the Convention a regional character-although a number of speakers expressed reservations about this.</P>
    1771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1764
    17721765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, two lacunae emerged, namely coordination between donors, and consistency between Lom&eacute; and other Community policies (including relationships with the Bretton Woods institutions).</P>
    1773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1766
    17741767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the principle of partnership, some participants were keen to stress the motives of solidarity and common interest that lay behind cooperation. It was not simply a matter of 'negative' interdependence. The appropriateness of the term 'partnership' was questioned, if this was only to mean financial and technical cooperation. The politicisation of Lom&eacute; appears to be on the agenda, involving a move from the current partnership to a genuine 'contractual approach' through political dialogue.</P>
    1775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1768
    17761769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the role of partnership in cooperation policy management, it was felt essential that civil society and the private sector be involved. There was also a discussion of the debt problem.</P>
    1777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1770
    17781771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can financial and technical cooperation be improved ?</P>
    1779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1772
    17801773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As usual, reference was made to the need to simplify and differentiate management of Lom&eacute; Convention instruments, particularly in the context of the programming process. As regards the role of non-state actors, a cautious approach was recommended. Finally, new instruments were called for to prevent conflict.</P>
    1781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1774
    17821775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conclusions</P>
    1783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1776
    17841777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This conference, coming after several others of the same type, was characterised essentially by private sector and NGO calls for greater participation in Community cooperation policy. Moreover, the need for 'politicisation' of the Lom&eacute; policy, shifting from purely financial and technical aid to a genuine cooperation contract, seems to have attracted the support of all participants. These questions are sure to figure in the 'Green Paper' on 'tome after 2000', which the European Commission plans to publish before the end of 1996. </P>
    1785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1778
    17861779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
    1787 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1780
    17881781<B><P></P>
    17891782<!--
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    1796 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1789</B>
    17971790<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 6 and 7 June, the Belgian Par/iament hosted a UN seminar on 'me future of international development cooperation: new communication challenges' 'Democratising Democracy' was the succinct, journalistic way in which one of the speakers at the meeting summed up his solution to the problem of underdevelop meet. He was Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former President of Haiti, who observed that democracy, as advocated by the developed world, and increasingly accepted by developing countries, does not prevent the latter's slide into even greater poverty. The Courier had the opportunity to interview Mr Aristide. We began by asking him whether his statement implied that democracy is failing in a world striving to 'globalise' it J-B.A.-The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos', meaning people and 'kratein', meaning to govern. In other words, it signifies government of the people, for the people by the people-but if we take a look at the world today, the impression we get is that not all so-called democratic governments are in fact what they purport to be. Hence the need to 'democratise democracy', so as to create a situation in which all citizens can help set governments on a course towards such a model.</P>
    1798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1791
    17991792<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts usually generate conflict and, therefore, when speaking of revolution, democracy or globalisation, it is necessary to be au fait with the subject matter so as not to become involved in a dialogue of the deaf. In the specific case of globalisation, my opinion is that this has a tendency to make what is an already precarious situation even more unbalanced. Concepts cannot be applied everywhere without thought being given to their harmful consequences. This does not mean to say that we should give up completely. It's one thing to speak of the globalisation of peace, as if an ineluctable need existed to promote peace on a world scale, but I'm not sure that everyone would define the globalisation of peace in the same way as I do.</P>
    1800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1793
    18011794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could we turn now to your own country, Haiti. How do you view the future of democracy there, bearing in mind the economic circumstances ? At the seminar, you mentioned several factors which demonstrate democracy's *agility.</P>
    1802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1795
    18031796<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Democracy is indeed fragile. 1% of Haiti's population owns 48% of the country's wealth and it is estimated that about 65% of the working population is employed in agriculture as against 5.1% in the 'industrial' sector. But is this really the true picture ? Reality for most people is poverty-unacceptable and sub-human poverty. A man needs work to earn his daily crust by the sweat of his brow, but unemployment has reached catastrophic proportions. When people are unable to earn their living, there is little point in discussing the positive influence of democracy. What is needed is for those with a great deal of wealth and those with less wealth to talk to each other; a dialogue between the private and public sectors, so that we can head off futile conflicts and devote all our efforts to economic growth coupled with human development. I do believe that this is possible.</P>
    1804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1797
    18051798<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the rich are so rich and the poor so poor. Is it not fantasy to think that the gulf which separates them, and their mutual mistrust, can simply be set aside so that genuine dialogue can take place ?</P>
    1806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1799
    18071800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is one of the challenges we have faced ever since 1960 and, although we have not yet reaped the harvest of this process, we have to carry on. It's not too late. We just have to approach the subject logically and with all the facts to hand, and we must have the intelligence to be patient. If we continue with dialogue, we will achieve real results. Only the citizens of Haiti can play a part in Haiti's development-this is not a task for outsiders. We, on the other hand, have to be more receptive to international cooperation, while maintaining mutual respect and dignity. But what we also need is for our own people to act together in order to enhance our own growth. This is not to say that geopolitical reality can be disregarded. Other countries have to be taken into account, but, as a starting point, we have to consider Haiti's human and material resources.</P>
    1808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1801
    18091802<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thereisdialogueata world level, but there are rules to be applied. I am thinking, here, of free competition. Haiti has to play by the rules, just like any other country.</P>
    1810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1803
    18111804<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since we gained independence, our history has seen a succession of coups d'etat and people have been over-eager in brandishing weapons to solve economic, political or social problems. Now that democracy has been restored in Haiti, weapons are not the solution to our problems-I cannot stress this enough. What we need is for those with money to sit down and negotiate with those who have none: for the government to get people round the table and devise a common plan to accommodate all interested parties- looking at both the nation's interests and the interests of investors. I do believe that it is possible to achieve this. We have, in fact, already begun to prepare the ground. I am not basing my words, here, on pure theory, but am speaking from experience. In concrete terms, we have to transcend class and racial differences to recognise that Haitian men and women, regardless of their colour and the country they might live in outside Haiti, regardless of their nationality, even, are still part of Haiti's indigenous population. The way must be kept open for dignified and balanced cooperation.</P>
    1812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1805
    18131806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other point you mentioned today was that there can be no development without the effective involvement of the population. Are you not leaving yourself open to accusations of having socialist or even communist tendencies ?</P>
    1814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1807
    18151808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-As I have just said, we have to be scientific in our approach and check our facts over and over again. I fail to see how anyone can claim to be working towards peace without looking at poverty which is the greatest threat to social cohesion. Of course, there are those who would deny this assertion, and that is their right. However, rational analysis of the situation can help us alleviate poverty and promote security. It needs to be underlined that security is also one of the essential factors in economics. The UN Security Council is called in to prevent or resolve conflicts. To my mind, we should also be talking about an economic security council to deal with the economic realities. The deeper one plunges into poverty, the greater one's feelings of insecurity-the two always go hand in hand. And insecurity can crop up anywhere in the world. Nor is it a question of charity. It is a real, rational question which must sharpen our awareness, stimulate our common sense and set us on a course to protect the world by alleviating poverty. That, at least, is one approach.</P>
    1816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1809
    18171810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, you have to recognise that politics is essentially a question of power while economics is influenced by interests. Everyone uses the means at their disposal to defend their personal interests and we know perfectly well that there are no free gifts. The so-called developed countries allocate just 0.3% of their GDP to development aid, yet we are losing our tropical forests at the rate of the area of a football pitch every second. In Haiti, forests now cover only a small area of the country. But in the final analysis, environmental catastrophe threatens us all, rich and poor alike, even if certain countries do not face specific ecological risks. We either deal with it as reasonable people, or we close our eyes to the 'cause and effect' realities.</P>
    1818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1811
    18191812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but are we reasonable people ?</P>
    1820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1813
    18211814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The crisis of ethics is indeed a reality and a great many values are now being called into question. These days, we have to love in order to prove we are not contradicting ourselves. If we believe in God, we might call this love 'God', just as we might call it 'justice'. It all depends on your philosophy, religion or beliefs. If I feel love, I cannot be indifferent to the situation of victims of injustice, both in Haiti and elsewhere. If a man is humiliated, crushed, exploited or marginalised, then 1, too, am humiliated, crushed and marginalised. It is love which makes us fight for justice everywhere. Either one is a demagogue revelling in big words or one is sincere and ready to die so that another might live-this brings immortality.</P>
    1822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1815
    18231816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. You were speaking just now of insecurity and economics. Is there a link, here, with one of your most recent decisions, the abolition of Haiti's army ? Could you tell us how you were able to pull off this 'coup'? </P>
    1824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1817
    18251818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I am perfectly happy to answer such an important question and would like to be able to give a clear and direct reply. But given that the struggle is still going on, I don't think I should go into too much detail. A decision was made. The Haitian people opted to rid themselves of the army. Supporting their democratic wish, it was our job to help bring about this dissolution. The army, it is worth recalling, had about 7000 men, absorbed 40% of the national budget-and had killed many of our compatriots. We have had to be logical and patient in achieving this goal, bearing in mind that the guarantors of the agreement which led to my return had their own views, which were different from ours. We also needed courage and wisdom and, above all, the determination of the people. My motto has always been that it is better to fail with the people than to succeed without them, and in this we did not fail. Our task now is not to bask in our own glory but to continue the work of structuring the police force, to prevent it becoming another army. To achieve this, we have to make steady progress and use sound judgment. </P>
    1826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1819
    18271820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
    1828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1829 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1821
     1822<B>
    18301823<!--
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    1838 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1831</B>
    18391832<B><P></P>
    18401833<!--
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    18451838-->
    18461839</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jean-Pierre Tilquin and Miguel Amado</P>
    1847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1840
    18481841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This tiny country tucked away at the heart of Africa has, as is well known, been convulsed over the last three years by an acute socio-political crisis. The tragic consequences have included loss of human life, damage to the economic and social infrastructure, and a movement of refugees to neighbouring countries. Burundi, already one of the most densely populated nations in Africa, also has high population growth. It could be argued that it is only thanks to the hard work and perseverance of the farmers (admittedly, 90% of the population) that the country manages to keep going at all.</P>
    1849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1842
    18501843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture in Burundi follows traditional lines and is based on a farming system divided between food crops for consumption by the farmer and his family, and cash crops (mainly coffee, tea and cotton). Although at the beginning of the decade the crops grown for food were sufficient to meet the population's needs, today demographic pressures are forcing farmers to increase food-crop production. It is these pressures that have prompted them to descend into the marshlands which cover approximately 110 000 hectares (8% of cultivable land in Burundi). These marshes are flooded during the rainy season and so allow rice to be cultivated.</P>
    1851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1844
    18521845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth has also meant that fields cannot be left fallow for long periods. This has resulted in more intensive use of marginal land and an increase in forest clearing. Such practices exacerbate erosion of cultivated areas. The loss of organic matter and nutrients leads to reduced soil fertility and lower yields. Although rainfall in Burundi is high, the soil is only moderately fertile, because of factors such as acidity, aluminium toxicity, and phosphorus immobilisation.</P>
    1853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1846
    18541847<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 20% of land suitable for cultivation is currently given over to growing dry beans-a staple in the Burundi diet - various factors now point towards farming the low-lying marshlands, with a particular emphasis on rice. This is one way of increasing the useful agricultural surface area of the country.</P>
    1855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1848
    18561849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The events of 1993 (democratic elections, followed by the assassination of President Ndadaye), have created a period of instability which has been highly damaging for the country's agriculture. Some people lost their property and livelihood, and are only now slowly re-establishing themselves. The environment has also suffered as a result of the sheer numbers of displaced people. They occupy areas, both urban and rural, which were completely unprepared for the flood of people. it is estimated that 50 000 hectares of forest have been destroyed as a result-with devastating consequences for the country's ecosystem. What is more, the rate of demographic growth has led to overfarming and to a reduction in the average surface area of farms (to 0.7 ha per household).</P>
    1857 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1850
    18581851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-a crop for the future</P>
    1859 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1852
    18601853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this background, the prospect of farming low-lying marshland offers some hope for the people of Burundi. In fact, the marshy valleys have long been used to grow beans, maize and sweet potatoes during the long dry season for later consumption during the short dry season. This practice, which was environmentally sound, provided a regular harvest, but also ensured the preservation of the marshlands.</P>
    1861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1854
    18621855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practice of growing rice during the rainy season, followed by a crop of maize and beans during the dry season, is a form of integrated agriculture. It should be economically viable and environmentally sustainable while ensuring product quality, delivering a good yield, limiting any risks involved and allowing a high degree of social integration. These are the criteria which need to be examined in determining whether high-altitude rice cultivation in Burundi succeeds or fails.</P>
    1863 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1856
    18641857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice crops have been grown in this region, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and in the Ruzizi valley (altitude 800 m), for more than 200 years, having been introduced by successive migrations of people travelling along the old slave route from Zanzibar. Certain varieties, known as 'pandabilima' (which in Swahili means 'he who climbs the mountain') can be grown on land up to a height of 1300 metres. They cannot, however, be planted on the higher central plateau because low temperatures at night render them completely infertile.</P>
    1865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1858
    18661859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not surprising that the new scheme to grow rice at high altitudes was greeted with interest. Indeed, it became almost a craze among farmers -to the extent that in 1990, rice crops covered more than 20 000 ha of Burundi. The area planted with rice fell subsequently, and in some regions the crop disappeared altogether. This was due largely to the appearance of the fungal 'rice blast disease', which can wipe out an entire crop, and to inadequate planning and misguided husbandry. The extensive planting of only one variety left the crop particularly vulnerable and once the disease did take hold, it was virtually impossible to eradicate. Needless to say, in a country where access to pesticides is non-existent, the introduction of a new crop cannot be based on a single variety; if it is to establish itself successfully, varietal diversification is vital. We should point out here that attempts were made in 1984 to improve varietal diversification </P>
    1867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1860
    18681861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in the framework of the EU's Scientific and Technical Programme run by DG XII of the Commission. At that time, it was necessary to familiarise farmers with the techniques for growing the new crop and this aspect of the programme was funded by the EDF, in particular through three integrated projects. These related to agriculture and pastoral forestry and were initiated during 198889 in three provinces of Burundi.</P>
    1869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1862
    18701863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without going into the technical details of the programme, it suffices to say that growing rice at high altitude in the tropics differs from rice-growing in temperate regions. The low night-time temperatures characteristic of high altitudes mean that the crop is subject to constant stress. In temperate regions, the stress caused by cold weather is a problem only at the beginning and end of the growing cycle. As for selection methods, rice varieties have been produced that are resistant to rice blast disease - which remains the main problem. Also, by mixing the varieties grown, the farmers have created a wide diversity which offers a stable basis for a sustainable crop.</P>
    1871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1864
    18721865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transformation of an ecosystem</P>
    1873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1866
    18741867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the viewpoint of development aid specialists, turning marshland into cultivable land means draining it (digging a ditch and fitting pipes). But this leaves the land open to erosion, causes silting in rivers and ultimately leading to desertification. By changing water levels in a region and disturbing the thermal equilibrium, marshlands cease to be marshlands. The method may have been justifiable before rice growing became possible. Indeed, it was employed in the natural marshlands of Buyenzi by some experts who specialised in upland rice. But it also resulted in large-scale destruction of one ricevariety-Yunnan 3-by rice blast disease in 1990.</P>
    1875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1868
    18761869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development projects which set themselves spectacular objectives can involve major alterations to the landscape. More often than not, these need to be rectified later. Thus, when it was decided to cultivate vast expanses of papyrus, the plants were moderately successful only thanks to constant artificial assistance. Put simply, the land could not sustain the crop on its own. In the process, the marshes were turned into floating peat bogs.</P>
    1877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1870
    18781871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The option chosen here was to adapt the small valleys for rice cultivation and teach the farmers the relevant techniques. Together with their families, they have eagerly embarked on the work needed to prepare the terrain for cultivation, although there are still some land tenure issues that need resolving. (Some people have refused to commit themselves to marshland reclamation projects as long as the land does not belong to them). It should be stressed that growing rice along a strip of water is an option which is in harmony with environmental needs. It promotes percolation of the water, thereby restoring underground water levels and preventing pollutants from being washed down towards the Nile or Zaire basins. It is therefore in keeping with global strategies for conserving resources and ensuring sustainable development.</P>
    1879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1872
    18801873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the marshlands, farmers traditionally plant beans and maize in banked-up beds during the dry season (from June to November). By skilfully selecting and growing different bean varieties, the farmer can stagger his crops and thereby ensure a continuous harvest from September until the time the maize is harvested. The marshes are then left fallow during the heavy rains which reach their peak in April. A rice variety which can be harvested in six months could thus be fitted in during this perriod with out disturbing the traditional hill-farming work schedule.</P>
    1881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1874
    18821875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since farmers on the high plateaux had not traditionally grown rice, it was necessary to teach them the techniques needed to produce a successful crop. They were also informed of the benefits that improvements such as dykes, water supply pipes and drainage pipes could have on crop productivity. They have since applied this knowledge in their cultivation. During the dry season, without disrupting the infrastructures on which their rice cultivation is based, they have rebuilt banked-up beds and grown the traditional bean and maize crop. The system has been in place for about ten years and no drop in yield has been recorded. The yield averages 4.5 t/ha for rice, 1 t/ha for beans and 0.4 t/ha for maize-figures which are quite remarkable when compared with the yields of crops grown on the hills in acid soil with increasing levels of aluminium toxicity.</P>
    1883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1876
    18841877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By alternating two different farming systems, the problem of weeds -and therefore hoeing-and of pests is greatly limited. The extensive mixing of the soil that takes place accelerates the recycling of biogenic material-and the marshlands stay as marshlands!</P>
    1885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1878
    18861879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manageable land development</P>
    1887 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1880
    18881881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main types of marshy valley, each requiring specific programmes. The first consists of valleys lying above 1400 m with a rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. These areas are characterised by a clay soil, are constantly fed with water (with a high iron content) from the mountains, and are often very rich in organic matter. They require drainage using ditches and filtration channels, with changes of gradient so that the mountain water tables can be tapped and the water levels controlled. This is important to prevent a build-up of ferrous toxicity in the soil, which is extremely harmful to rice. A farming system involving paddy fields and banked-up beds can be accommodated perfectly in these types of valleys. Then there are the valleys lying between 800 and 1400 m with a rainfall of between 1100 and 1500 mm. These are known as 'dambos' in Swahili, and they extend from Northern Kenya right down to Southern Zimbabwe. Strewn with giant termite nests, the land here is well-suited to rice cultivation as long as water levels are carefully controlled. All the available water needs to be harnessed via filtration canals dug into the hillside. These allow the paddies to be irrigated speedily and, during the dry season, they can also be used to irrigate between the rows of ridgeplanted crops. It would, however, be very difficult to irrigate the entire valley during the dry season and so it is pointless digging a drainage ditch. The third and final type consists of small alluvial plains tucked away between the hills and stretching along the escarpments. Here, the level of soil fertility is determined by the heavy erosion resulting from farming on burnt land, and the practice of setting fire to the hills in order to 'regenerate' pastures. To grow rice in such locations, a filtration canal needs to be dug into the hillside, into which water then collects from the water table. The paddy fields also need to be terraced. These alluvial plains lend themselves perfectly to a farming system in which paddy fields are alternated with banked-up beds. All these land-adaptation schemes can be easily implemented and maintained by the farmers themselves.</P>
    1889 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1882
    18901883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sociological revolution</P>
    1891 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1884
    18921885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rice grows quickly, it is highly labour-intensive. Thus, when</P>
    1893 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1886
    18941887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the young rice plants need to be planted out-which happens to coincide with the end-of-year school holidays-the whole family takes part. What is more, rice has become extremely important in sociological terms: reserved in days gone by for special occasions, it now forms part of the nation's staple diet, being mixed together with beans and dressed with palm oil and tomato sauce. The rice harvest is also a time for merrymaking and festivities which go on for the best part of a week.</P>
    1895 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1888
    18961889<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice cultivation has also engendered a vital sense of solidarity among farmers as far as sharing water is concerned, and rice-growing cooperatives have been a runaway success. These enable farming operations to be synchronised and running costs to be reduced, in particular by reducing the number of bird scarers needed. The crop, furthermore, can be harvested when fully ripe. On individual plots, farmers usually only allow the rice to mature to 75% before harvest for fear of theft. Finally, the cooperative helps to ensure that infrastructures such as drains and canals are properly maintained and that water supply installations are treated with respect. Each cooperative is run by a representative appointed by the group of farmers. These supervisors are then responsible for organising all operations: choosing and storing seed for the following season's crops, getting information about new varieties, consulting each other and pointing out any problems they may have to those in charge of research and advisory services. The area allotted to each cooperative depends on the number of households in the group and also takes into account the area available, with 10 ares per family being the usual maximum for planted-up paddy fields. Cooperatives may range in size from 5 to 25 families.</P>
    1897 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1890
    18981891<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperatives like this are just the beginning. Networks of rural organisations, in which the farmers club together to buy equipment and fertilisers, need to be developed on a larger scale and they could provide a springboard for the development of the secondary sector, which is vital to the development of the country as a whole.</P>
    1899 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1892
    19001893<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We would do well to recall that the cassava mills which have been so successful in Burundi and which still run today without any 'technical assistance' had equally humble beginnings.</P>
    1901 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1894
    19021895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
    1903 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1896
    19041897<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It must be acknowledged that the people who migrated to this 'wild frontier' of rice cultivation in Burundi also introduced into these regions diseases such as bilharzia and malaria (the mosquitoes carrying the parasite were transported in the luggage of people travelling from the capital to the provinces). Despite this, rice cultivation at high altitude has proved a veritable lifesaver for Burundi. In the year that the FAO plans to stage a summit on famine, it is appropriate to highlight the important role of rice-growing in the food production strategy of this country.</P>
    1905 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1898
    19061899<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, Burundi ensured that it had enough to feed its people through a delicate balancing act between growing food crops, leaving land fallow and rearing livestock which produced manure. At present, however, increased agricultural production is only possible by increasing the surface area of the country under cultivation-at the expense of fallow land and livestock farming. Such a move risks reducing soil fertility and could lead to the substitution of crops of high nutritional value, such as beans, with higher yield crops such as cassava or sweet potatoes which suck the subsoil dry of minerals and nutrients.</P>
    1907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1900
    19081901<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, traditional farming methods in Burundi are arguably now out of balance and the situation is getting worse. This may, indeed, be a root cause of the ethnic crisis. A systematic policy of re-establishing marshlands and organising rural communities around high-altitude rice cultivation would allow the country to look ahead with optimism to the next 20 years. Suitable varieties are currently available and the altitudes at which rice can be grown have been pushed back in Burundi as far as 1700 m. What is now needed is the funds! </P>
    1909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1902
    19101903<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J-P.T. &amp; M.A.</P>
    1911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1912 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1904
     1905<B>
    19131906<!--
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    1921 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    1929 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1922</B>
    19301923<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A view from UNESCO.</P>
    1931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1924
    19321925<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article which follows is an abridged version of a text compiled by Carlos Amaldo, who heads UNESCO's research into communication and the free flow of information. Mr Arnaldo highlights some of the main aspects of the UN agency's support for the development of a free press in the African, Caribbean and Pacific regions.</P>
    1933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1926
    19341927<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution passed by the ACP/KU Joint Assembly in March 1996 in Windhoek, Namibia, reflected the spirit of many of UNESCO's communication programmes in these regions. Echoing the principal tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the resolution declares: 'freedom of expression is a precondition for holding free and fair elections'; 'the monopoly of information media is a barrier to the development of democracy,'; 'there is a need to create a climate in which all part)" can participate fully in political life.' It further holds: 'communication media must not only inform the electorate in an impartial and objective manner' but also; 'freedom of expression and the existence of free communications media are vital preconditions for the development of a democratic society.'</P>
    1935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1928
    19361929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution was timely, responding to a need to remind political leaders, as well as civic society, of the relation between free communication media and truly democratic practices. Just five years ago, on 3 May 1991,</P>
    1937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1930
    19381931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African journalists and media adopted the Windhoek Declaration at the UN/ UNESCO seminar on promoting an independent and pluralistic African press. Likewise, journalists and media practitioners of each major region adopted the Declarations of Alma Ata (October 1992), Santiago (May 1994) and Sana'a (January 1996), all of which affirmed the unwavering belief of professional communicators in freedom of expression, press freedom, independence and pluralism of the media, and the contribution of such freedoms to democratic processes. At their 28th General Conference, UNESCO Member States further declared that, 'press freedom is an essential component of any democracy.' All these declarations contain action programmes to strengthen press freedom in these regions.</P>
    1939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1932
    19401933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
    1941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1934
    19421935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to look at some practical initiatives, a media project entitled 'Independent Press in Africa', which was put in place after the signing of the Windhoek declaration, soon attracted the interest of a number of donors (Italy, USA, France). Under this project, the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) organised four sets of courses for journalists in 1994. In April 1995, IPDC arranged a multi-theme workshop for 33 English-speaking journalists and editors from Central and West Africa on marketing, distribution techniques, managing mass media enterprises in Africa, new communication technologies, journalism and ethical issues.</P>
    1943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1936
    19441937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are now plans afoot to study the situation of the press in Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros, and to publish several handbooks about press enterprises. Efforts will also be made to attract increased donor contributions so that the successes achieved by these initial training activities can be strengthened and shared with other regions.</P>
    1945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1938
    19461939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further example of positive action in support of the media is the work of MISA (the Media Institute of Southern Africa-featured in more detail in the following article). This organisation has been receiving UNESCO support since 1994 under a funding arrangement with the Danish International Development Agency. The project seeks to strengthen links among the region's independent media so as to enhance the free flow of information. It also aims to boost cooperation and information-sharing with similar groups in developing and developed countries worldwide, to strengthen the ability of the region's independent media to stand on its own feet and to improve professional standards.</P>
    1947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1940
    19481941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA, which was set up in 1992, has been monitoring and safeguarding press freedom in the region, facilitated by an electronic network for distribution of information on press freedom issues. It has mounted seminars and training workshops for professional journalists on computer-aided design, strategic financial management, journalism ethics and advertising management. MISA's campaigning material includes a bi-monthly magazine, Free Press: the Media Magazine of Southern Africa and a booklet, So this is Democray, which is a compilation of its 'action alerts' curing 1994 and 1995.</P>
    1949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1942
    19501943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another UNESCO initiative is the 'Communication and Good Governance in West and Central African Countries' project, supported by Germany. This aims to strengthen the human and technical capacity of the media in these regions so that they can make a contribution to good governance. The three year project is to be implemented in 10 countries - Benin, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Sao Tome &amp; Principe and Togo.</P>
    1951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1944
    19521945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Together with other institutions such as legislatures, the judiciary and civic organisations, media bodies like MISA have a useful role to play. They can enhance transparency and accountability by systematic analysis and reporting of government programmes, policies and pledges, and by encouraging public discussions which help people to make informed decisions about public issues and about how their leaders discharge the power vested in them. Fulfilment of these functions requires access to the media, and qualified, well-trained practitioners who can effectively use the media for information, education and communication on good governance issues.</P>
    1953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1946
    19541947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean</P>
    1955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1948
    19561949<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning our attention now to the Caribbean, the question of media freedom recently came to the fore in Trinidad and Tobago when 13 editors and journalists on The Guardian lost their jobs following publication of a number of controversial articles (some reports said they 'constructively resigned'). The events cast a shadow over the famous Carnival. Indeed, as one journalist put it, the Carnival quickly ceded to the 'sacrificial rites' of Holy Week. Six of the paper's youngest reporters were among those who lost their jobs-but out of the furore, a new newspaper was born.</P>
    1957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1950
    19581951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'Comparative Study of Media Laws in the CARICOM countries' by Ainsley Sahai, commissioned earlier by UNESCO, became a reference in the debates that followed. The study highlighted that all Caribbean countries guaranteed freedom of expression in their national constitutions. Indeed, Trinidad and Tobago's constitution explicitly guarantees press freedom as well. The Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT) organised two meetings. The first of these, on 10 April 1996, was a public forum on issues of press freedom. Although a full cross-section of society was not present, and not all the issues at stake were fully debated, it was nevertheless a start. Those who took the floor came from many sectors of society -women, the unemployed, workers, community organisations and at least three different religious groups. About a quarter of those who contributed spoke as individuals. While many criticised the press for errors in reporting, all confirmed the need to uphold a free press vis-a-vis both political pressures and economic and financial interests.</P>
    1959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1952
    19601953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public gave strong support to MATT and demanded that the forum be replicated in other parts of the country. It was the first time that the public had been given the opportunity to speak out on these issues. It was not so much the content of the discussion which counted, but the very fact that the event took place, bringing the media closer to its 'customers'. The meeting gave the public an opportunity to put over their own perceptions of press freedom, impartial reporting and the strengthening of democratic processes.</P>
    1961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1954
    19621955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two days later, with support from UNESCO, the Media Association staged a journalists' symposium, moderated by George John, consulting editor at The Guardian. David de Caires, publisher of Guyana's Stabroek News was invited by MATT as an external consultant. Drawing on past and more recent examples of uneasy relations between a free press and governments, Mr de Caires concluded with a headlinehitting statement; the relations of the press with government should not be too cosy, the press must maintain its adversarial position.</P>
    1963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1956
    19641957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many journalists took the floor to stress Trinidad and Tobago's constitutional guarantees for both freedom of expression and press freedom. They also stressed the need to safeguard editorial independence, not only in the printed press, but also in broadcasting, and urged the repeal of 'antiquated' libel laws-a point also made in the Sahai study. The preparation of a Freedom of Information Act was strongly urged to ensure access to public information.</P>
    1965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1958
    19661959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These events appear to have strengthened the resolve of the jobless journalists. They grouped together to set up a new weekly newspaper, called The Independent. The new publication focuses on investigative articles, comment and reviews. In addition, a monthly called The Formatt was launched by MATT to disseminate specialised news on press freedom issues and to provide print support for future public fore. Both newspapers brought out their first editions in early May amidst the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day.</P>
    1967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1960
    19681961<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific</P>
    1969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1962
    19701963<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Pacific, issues of freedom of expression and press freedom are no less salient, although a key issue for practitioners there is the modernisation of infrastructures. This is needed to ensure that this vast island region does not find itself in the slow lane of the information highway.</P>
    1971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1964
    19721965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The computerisation of radio newsrooms, in places such as the Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, is a priority. The Cook Islands already has a fully computerised newspaper operation. Indeed, this is the first newspaper in the Pacific with the capacity to transmit photographs from various parts of the country to the newsroom electronically by phone.</P>
    1973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1966
    19741967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable concern has been expressed about the inadequacy of national television programming. There is a need for the people of the Pacific to see themselves and their culture, and not just the imported fare distributed by most international TV services. With UNESCO support, women media producers from seven island countries were able to meet to work out ways of cooperating on a series of television documentaries that they themselves produced and exchanged within the region. Preparations are now under way for the annual evaluation and awarding of prizes at the end of 1996. </P>
    1975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1968
    19761969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A.A. </P>
    1977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1970
    19781971<B><P></P>
    19791972<!--
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    19861979</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Nthengwe</P>
    1987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1980
    19881981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Media Institute of Southern Africa</P>
    1989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1982
    19901983<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officially launched in September 1992, the role of the Media Institute of Southern Africa is primarily that of coordinator, facilitator and communicator in the promotion of media freedom and diversity, (as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration). MISA operates in 11 of the 1 2 SADC countries and is currently investigating setting up a chapter in the twelfth-Mauritius- which joined the Community 1995.</P>
    1991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1984
    19921985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapters are serviced by a regional secretariat based in the Namibian capital, Windhoek. The secretariat is accountable to a policy-making governing council of elected representatives from each national chapter, while funding for MISA and its projects is channeled through the MISA Education and Production Trust, overseen by a board of independent trustees. The organisation is currently almost entirely donor-funded, with UNESCO, NORAD, SIDA, the KU, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, IBIS, and the Australian and German governments being the main contributors. Other income is generated through the sale of subscriptions to MISA publications and services.</P>
    1993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1986
    19941987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute's main work is in the field of advocacy; highlighting violations of media freedom and free expression, and exploring ways of ensuring that these fundamental freedoms become entrenched throughout Southern Africa. In 1994, MISA became a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in a bid to increase international awareness of media freedom violations in Southern Africa. Membership of IFEX has enabled MISA to distribute as well as receive information on media freedom issues in a quick and relatively cheap way via the Internet.</P>
    1995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1988
    19961989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Action alerts'</P>
    1997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1990
    19981991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994 and 1995, MISA issued via IFEX and its own electronic mail network, the MISANET (see below), more than 190 'action alerts' relating to media freedom infringements in Southern Africa, and effective campaigns against some of these violations have resulted. In August 1994, Lesotho journalist, Rabuka Chalatse, was shot by soldiers while covering a demonstration. An alert issued by MISA triggered a swift response, and within 24 hours, funds had been raised to pay for emergency treatment which saved the young journalist's leg. In November 1995, Angolan freelance journalist, Mario Paiva, had his life threatened by people who, it was alleged, were state security agents. MlSA's alert prompted protest from throughout the world, and resulted in several governments offering Paiva sanctuary in their embassies in Angola. The threat against the journalist was subsequently lifted.</P>
    1999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1992
    20001993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA's advocacy work has also shown that democratisation does not necessarily result in guaranteed media freedom and free expression. In Zambia, for example, which had a multi-party election in 1991, arcane laws inherited from previous regimes have been used against the private media in particular, and free expression, in general. As this article was being written, Fred M'membe, the Editor-in-Chief of Zambia's privately-owned daily 'The Post', and two of his colleagues, were starting an indefinite prison term for contempt of Parliament. The sentence was passed not by a court of law, but by the Speaker, under legislation inherited from British colonial rule. Their 'crime' was to comment on criticism made in Parliament of a Supreme Court decision which declared unconstitutional, laws requiring anyone wishing to stage a demonstration to obtain police permission first.</P>
    2001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1994
    20021995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five months prior to his arrest, M'membe received the MISA Press Freedom Award, which is presented annually to individuals or institutions considered to have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of media freedom in Southern Africa. M'membe was the third recipient of the award.</P>
    2003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1996
    20041997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free flow of information essential</P>
    2005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1998
    20061999<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Windhoek Declaration points out, 'the establishment, maintenance and fostering of an independent, pluralistic and free press' is essential to economic development, as well as for the growth of democracy. Accordingly, MISA argues that the free flow of information is vital to the development process. Effective communication within SADC-a 'development community'- has been hampered by the region's poor postal and telecommunications services. MISA considers that these logistical barriers to the free flow of information are a form of censorship. In a bid to break through the information voids which have kept Southern African media workers and their audiences isolated from each other for so long, it has made particular use of advances in information technology, including, most notably, the Internet.</P>
    2007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2000
    20082001<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two years, MISA has been linking member organisations up to electronic mail (e-mail). This allows members throughout the region to exchange news, photographs and other information. To date, 25 MISA member organisations are linked to this network, called the MISANET, although further growth has been hampered by members' unfamiliarity with e-mail, and the lack of local technicians to train people and provide user support. Nonetheless, computerised communications have proved to be an appropriate technology, and development of the MISANET remains a top priority. By making some services available to non-MISA subscribers, MISA also intends to generate income and thus reduce its current dependency on donor funding.</P>
    2009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2002
    20102003<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on training</P>
    2011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2004
    20122005<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coordination of training and material support to independent media is another area where MISA looks to develop media freedom and diversity. The region's independent media sometimes operates in politically and economically hostile environments. Its survival-and thus the sustenance and growth of media diversity-hinges on these organisations becoming highly professional, well-managed concerns.</P>
    2013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2006
    20142007<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working through training institutions based primarily in the region, MISA coordinates workshops and other training programmes aimed at improving the skills of media workers, particularly in the fields of management and finance. Workshops in strategic and financial management, project management, advertising, marketing, sales and subscription management, ethics, subediting, and computerised design were staged during 1994 and 1995. For 1996, training is scheduled in economic reporting, project management, photography, advertising sales, circulation and sales management, computer-aided design, developing world and financial and strategic management. Instruction will also be provided to media workers without formal training. Meanwhile, research is to be carried out into setting up a media ombudsman for Southern Africa, printing press initiatives, media training needs, and the difficulties faced by women media workers in the region. The last-mentioned is in line with MlSA's policy of encouraging gender awareness and equality within the Southern African media.</P>
    2015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2008
    20162009<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private and community-based media organisations face constant problems securing adequate finance. As businesses, they often do not qualify for donor support, while banks are reluctant to lend them money. Therefore, MISA is looking to set up of a Media Development Fund to which independent media can apply for loans, credit guarantees and grants. A study is currently being conducted into the feasibility of such a fund, which MISA hopes to have up-andrunning by early 1997.</P>
    2017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2010
    20182011<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcasting in Southern Africa is still largely state-controlled. Moves by some of the region's governments to 'deregulate' broadcasting have been erratic, and many private broadcasting licenses granted in the process have gone to organisations or individuals closely linked to the authorities. MISA is now drawing up a policy aimed at seeking the effective liberalisation of broadcasting legislation covering public, private and community broadcasting throughout the region.</P>
    2019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2012
    20202013<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this process, MISA will, this year, stage a conference on broadcasting and community media, to coincide with its Annual General Meeting-which has become one of the largest gatherings of media workers on the African continent. </P>
    2021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2014
    20222015<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N.</P>
    2023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2016
    20242017<B><P></P>
    20252018<!--
    … …  
    20312024-->
    20322025</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Thomas M. Neufing</P>
    2033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2026
    20342027<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have become a major component in international development efforts. They make up a significant proportion of the total human resources available for development cooperation (up to a fifth of the skilled international personnel serving in developing countries). In the early days, volunteer service was strongly influenced by the idea of oneway technical assistance. Specialists, mainly from the North, served in developing nations where their expertise was desperately needed but not yet found among local citizens. Much has changed since.</P>
    2035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2028
    20362029<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the US Peace Corps, the UN Volunteers Programme (UNV) ranks as the second largest volunteer-sendina agency with some 4000 professionals in the field every year. Its universality and internationality is reflected in the high number of UNV specialists (74%) who come from developing countries. The scope and size of the international volunteer contribution to development cooperation (notably areas such as HIV/AIDS and the environment), has increased significantly over the years as a result of the changing development challenge. The re-thinking of the role of technical cooperation is equally central to the volunteer debate and this has led to much greater flexibility in the ways in which volunteer services are provided. The important role volunteers can play in peace building efforts with a long-term development dimension, complementary to humanitarian relief, is increasingly being recognised.</P>
    2037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2030
    20382031<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with rather than for people</P>
    2039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2032
    20402033<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the UNV's 25th anniversary, and the relocation of its headquarters to Bonn this summer, it is an appropriate time both to assess and to acknowledge the contribution made by these volunteers. Since the programme began in 1971, some 14 000 professionals have dedicated a period of their lives to serve as a UNV. The programme is administered by UNDP, and is therefore intimately linked to its structures, particularly in the field. Regarding community-based initiatives, the comparative advantage of UNVs is that of working with rather than for people over an extended period, thus facilitating their initiatives. The experience of many development agencies shows that in promoting socio-economic change at the village level, the type of person needed is one who-through long-term commitment and sensitivity -can learn as much from local partners as offer advice to them.</P>
    2041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2034
    20422035<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International volunteers are engaged mainly in rural development tasks. Those working through specialised NGOs such as the Red Cross, and Medecins Sans Frontieres have proved to be highly effective agents, supporting governments faced with disaster situations. In the case of UNV, the value of using volunteer specialists from other developing nations, as a way of encouraging technical cooperation amongst developing countries, is particularly recognised. Most volunteers- perhaps two-thirds - serve in least developed and small island countries. And about three-quarters serve in rural areas, working mostly in programmes of agricultural and community development, health, education and the supply of basic services. Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number have been deployed in emergency relief, refugee and rehabilitation programmes. UNVs make up 10% of the UN's civilian component in Cambodia; 4096 of the field staff of the World Food Programme and almost 100% of outreach workers attached to the UN Mission in Guatemala. UNVs are increasingly involved in human rights promotion, the organisation of elections and conflict resolution.</P>
    2043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2036
    20442037<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a consensus among the main international humanitarian and development actors that their programmes should be mutually supportive. For example, development efforts must respond to humanitarian crises by remaining on the scene and supporting immediate needs, as well as aiding in the prevention of crises which are known to be looming. Emergency humanitarian assistance should also pave the way for longer term development by viewing the immediacy of the moment through the lens of future sustainable rehabilitation. Both sets of activities should, ideally, be launched and implemented in tandem with local bodies.</P>
    2045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2038
    20462039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">External assistance efforts must include strengthening local capacity to cope with problems. Empowerment strategies which inform, educate and facilitate the people's own vision of peaceful and sustainable living environments (including respect for human rights) are fundamental to the future of communities coping in the aftermath of crisis.</P>
    2047 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2040
    20482041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Relief, rehabilitation and development?</P>
    2049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2042
    20502043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNV programme has been active in exploring the efficacy of volunteer support to communities in crisis in order to bridge the gap between immediate needs and longer term developmental goals. In 1994, the UNV held its 4th Special Consultation, entitled, Between Crisis and Development - Volunteer Roles and UNV's Contribution. At this event, donor governments, UN agencies and cooperating partners from civil society had an indepth discussion of the issues surrounding volunteer efforts, and the complementary nature of emergency interventions and follow-up measures. The participants reconfirmed the need for local capacity building. They also affirmed the usefulness of the UN Volunteer contribution in crisis prevention, emergency rehabilitation and 'building bridges' to sustainable development. The work of UNVs in preventive action and promoting post-conflict development was highlighted. There has been a significant increase in demand for specialist volunteer services in all types of crisis. These may be economic, natural or man-made, but they all have in common the need to provide essential relief and rehabilitation services for basic survival (to refugees and resident populations). In many countries, disasters and internal strife have put so much pressure on essential public services that the longterm capacity of the people to recover may be threatened. Governments in developing countries and donors both believe it is fully justified to use volunteer specialists to help provide such services during the adjustment period.</P>
    2051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2044
    20522045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Mixed' teams</P>
    2053 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2046
    20542047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The contribution of both international and national volunteers is often essential to link immediate relief efforts to future long-term development. National volunteers-people working in their own countries within the UN framework-complement the international approach by providing the key grassroots perspective. UN Volunteers who speak local languages, live and work in remote communities, are familiar with community structures and are known to local leaders, play a key part in facilitating preventive action and providing follow-up in the aftermath of a crisis. UNV specialists are well-placed to build effective partnerships with national and local actors. In the last two years, some 2000 UN Volunteers have worked in various parts of the world in prevention and preparedness, peacekeeping, electoral support, human rights, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and humanitarian relief.</P>
    2055 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2048
    20562049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi offers an example of an initiative designed to stem a crisis through local capacity-building. The UNV is financing a project there which supports the mediation and dialogue efforts of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative (SRSG) through the recruitment of UNV peace advisers and conflict resolution facilitators. This project is being run successfully out of the SRSG's office, extending public awareness of the reconciliation process. It includes use of the mass media to promote understanding, and brings local actors together to work for peaceful solutions.</P>
    2057 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2050
    20582051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tasks undertaken by UN volunteers all fit into the spectrum which has 'crisis' et one end end 'development' at the other. The work, moreover, is undertaken in partnership-with civil society (NGOs and community-based organisations), government departments, UN agencies and regional international organisations (such as the KU).</P>
    2059 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2052
    20602053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through efforts that aim to link relief, rehabilitation and development, new productive partnerships are emerging to enhance coherence, coordination and complementarily.</P>
    2061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2054
    20622055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growth of professionalism</P>
    2063 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2056
    20642057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 years ago, the typical profile of an international volunteer was that of a generalist graduate from an industrialised country seeking first-time experience abroad before settling down to a career. Over time, the governments of developing countries made clear their need for practical and often specialised skills aimed at giving them the ability to manage their own programmes. They increasingly expressed impatience at hosting untrained volunteers. Professionalism became the key word. Unfortunately, the word 'volunteer' is still a source of confusion: it is often equated with 'amateur'. This is a perception that now needs to be corrected. The personnel sent out by most agencies that supply volunteers are likely to be in their thirties, with post-graduate qualifications and several years' practical experience in their fields. The typical UNV specialist is an example par excel/ence of this trend: 39 years of age, holding a Master's degree and with more than ten years of experience in a particular discipline.</P>
    2065 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2058
    20662059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not just the dedication, but also the professionalism of the hundreds of UN Volunteers serving in Mozambique that impressed Aldo Ajello, the former UN Special Representative in Mozambique (now EU Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region). 'If I were to run another mission,' he said, 'I would ask immediately for volunteers.' In terms of monitoring-which was vital in building up the trust and confidence needed to ensure the election results were accepted-'UNV electoral officers were our only real presence and they proved to be extremely professional.' ~ T.N. </P>
    20672060<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study by the World Wide Fund for Nature</P>
    2068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2061
    20692062<B><P></P>
    20702063<!--
    … …  
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    20772070</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Reed</P>
    2078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2071
    20792072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 May, David Reed of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was in Brussels to present the results of a study undertaken by the WWF, with the support of the European Commission, the longterm consequences of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on the environment and the use of nature/ resources. Conclusions were drawn from nine country case studies from Cameroon, Mall Tanzania, Zambia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Venezuela, Vietnam and Pakistan. We publish here an abridged version of Mr Reed's general presentation.</P>
    2080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2073
    20812074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAPs, often implemented at the instigation of the international financial institutions, have responded to the pervasive economic problems of the 1980s and to profound changes in the economy in recent decades. The programmes have generally been successful in improving macroeconomic indicators in developing countries. The marketorientation of economies has been increased through liberalised trade and capital flows, privatisation, reductions in regulation and price setting, and cuts in government budgets and programmes. For most developing countries, these changes were essential to economic recovery and adjustment to the new global marketplace.</P>
    2082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2075
    20832076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development in the social, economic, and environmental sense, has, however, been ignored in SAPs. Many reform programmes have been accompanied by increases in poverty and unemployment, worsening income distribution, and the collapse of social services, environmental protection and state institutional capacities. These immediate costs of adjustment inhibit countries' long-term ability to expand productivity and employment opportunities, as natural resources are exploited indiscriminately to meet short-term needs.</P>
    2084 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2077
    20852078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental impacts</P>
    2086 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2079
    20872080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environmental effects of structural adjustment vary from country to country depending on the specific components of the reform package, the structure of the economy, and the implementation process. The WWF's country case studies reveal particular mechanisms through which structural adjustment has altered resource-use patterns. Some more general patterns also emerge from the studies. Everywhere, cuts in government institutions and funding have reduced the state's capacity to facilitate the transition process, to compensate for market failures, and to provide for long-term and social sustainability.</P>
    2088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2081
    20892082<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforms associated with structural adjustment have the potential to improve both environmental and economic outcomes. However, the failure to implement complementary environmental policies or strengthen institutions and regulations, has created a very mixed environmental record. Increases in poverty, greater production incentives, and the loss of government regulatory capacity, have all aggravated patterns of poor resource use.</P>
    2090 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2083
    20912084<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extractive and agricultural economies generally increased production in response to greater exposure to global markets. Without proper policies in place, this increase has put a strain on fragile ecosystems. Environmental pressures include increased land degradation and deforestation for agriculture, livestock and timber production; increased production of non-renewables without long-term investment of the proceeds or environmental safeguards; and increased pollution and damage to the ecosystem from unregulated tourism.</P>
    2092 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2085
    20932086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burden of fiscal retrenchment and price changes under structural adjustment have fallen most heavily on the poor, particularly women. The strong association between poverty and environmental degradation has been revealed, as efforts to maintain livelihoods have led to deforestation, land degradation, overhunting and other pressures on endangered species, as well as the unmanaged extraction of nonrenewable resources. Increasing poverty and unemployment associated with adjustment has also added to population pressures in urban areas with insufficient infrastructure exacerbating problems of pollution, disease and congestion.</P>
    2094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2087
    20952088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implications of disregarding the environmental and social impact of adjustment are examined in the various case studies. Structural adjustment has been sustained by the promise that market-orientation and export-led - growth will raise living standards. Evidence from the studies, however, strongly suggests that long-term productive capacity is being destroyed by short-term exploitation of natural resources. Not only environmental but also economic and social sustainability are threatened by the loss of environmental goods and services. Drawing down natural capital has been encouraged by government policies that promote exports and open resources up to international markets. And the process is accelerated by the growing population of poor and unemployed who rely on natural resources for survival.</P>
    2096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2089
    20972090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations</P>
    2098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2091
    20992092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following its study, the WWF offers a series of recommendations to reduce the environmental costs of structural adjustment and economic integration, and to reorient structural adjustment aims towards sustainable development. Most urgently, environmental issues must be integrated into structural economic reforms - environmental assessments must become part of the programmes. A strategic vision of the role that natural resources and environmental goods and services could play in the transformation of developing economies is essential to designing appropriate strategies. Efforts to industrialise economies must include consideration of the environmental implications. Social services and environmental institutions must be maintained during the adjustment process to prevent increases in poverty and environmental degradation that have both short-term and long-term consequences for development. Essential services include credit and marketing support to small farmers, income-generating opportunities for women, food-assistance programmes, and promotion of distributional equity. The state's role in providing services which neither the private sector nor civil society can provide, must be maintained.</P>
    2100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2093
    21012094<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the great variety in economic structures and in the capacity of markets and civil society among developing countries, adjustment strategies and government roles must be tailored to each case. Everywhere, countries must implement national institutional reforms for environmental management. Civil society must be strengthened to allow participation in the adjustment process. International financial institutions promoting and designing SAPs must reform their policies and approaches to implementation in the light of the clear evidence that macroeconomic reforms are having a profound effect on the environment and on the possibilities for sustainable development. Continuing failure to correct these problems on a national level accentuates the concern for addressing issues of sustainability on a global level. </P>
    2102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2095
    21032096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. </P>
    2104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2105 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2097
     2098<B>
    21062099<!--
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    2114 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2107</B>
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    2122 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2115</B>
    21232116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dak'Art 96</P>
    2124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2117
    21252118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first World Festival of Negro Art, held in 1966, was essentially a political exercise. In the post-independence period, it was felt necessary to show the world that the people of Africa (both the continent and the diaspora), had a rich culture which had long been suppressed. The festival - which has never been repeated-is viewed with a great deal of nostalgia by supporters of modern African art and black intellectuals. The better, brighter future, which seemed at the time to be just over the horizon, never quite lived up to expectation. Even before financing problems had surfaced, the festival's fate had already been sealed by petty political rivalries and a greedy pursuit of the limelight. Years later, attempts to relaunch the event met with a lukewarm reception. It was already the beginning of the end as far as ideologies were concerned. In complete contrast, Dak'Art 96 (Dakar, 915 May 1996) set its sights firmly on the market place, nowadays the yardstick by which all success is measured. Its goals were simple: to break into the art market and overcome the generally held prejudice that contemporary African art lacks modernity.</P>
    2126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2119
    21272120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international market for African art does exist, but it concerns itself solely with ancient art- and Africa itself profits little from such trade. Indeed, it would be more accurate to speak of plundering than of trade. The seminar, organised last year by the Terveuren Museum in Brussels on the looting of African works of art, revealed the true extent of the phenomenon. Despite the fact that pirated works fetch considerable sums on the black market, contemporary African artists are faced with a 'Catch-22' situation. Major galleries in Europe, America and Japan do not exhibit their work because African art is ignored by the leading art periodicals; and their work never appears in these publications because it is never exhibited. One reason for the fact that African art is not put on show is that virtually no funds are allocated by international institutions to sponsor exhibitions by the artists in question.</P>
    2128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2121
    21292122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many third-world governments do not dare, are unwilling or are unable to include culture on their list of priorities within international cooperation agreements. One exception is Burkina Faso which now boasts a cinema industry as a result. Senegal is trying to follow in its footsteps. But there are not many places in Africa where artists are promoted for the quality of their creative output. The majority of initiatives have, in fact, been on a voluntary basis. The magazine Revue Noire is one of the most significant examples of this approach. A group of aficionados of contemporary African art - indeed with a passion for art pure and simple, whether African or European-decided to try and break the vicious circle. They looked at two options: the establishment of an art gallery of worldwide renown or of an equally prestigious arts publication, and came down in favour of the latter. Thus Revue Noire was born. However, its success was generally given very slim odds: it was seen as too glossy, too expensive and too intellectual. The sub-text here of course, is that a publication about African art had no right to be glossy, expensive or intellectual, especially since the money could have been used for something far more 'useful' to the development of these countries.</P>
    2130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2123
    21312124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others, such as Marie-Claire Mwanza from l'Espace Alizes in Brussels, have attacked the problem from a different angle-by exhibiting contemporary African art. Prior to her initiative, there was not a single gallery in Brussels that specialised in this sector of the market, and there are still none that figure on the shopping lists of the world's great collectors. Whatever the price set for a contemporary African work, it is generally perceived as being too high. The contrast with the prices demanded for works by even the youngest European or American artists, even for their very first exhibitions, speaks volumes. African art is too expensive in relation to what exactly ? The answer is in relation to the status accorded to it, which is of course determined by the art world. In other words, a big fat zero if one considers the fact that African art is never exhibited.</P>
    2132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2125
    21332126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to Revue Noire, African art has been brought to the major galleries of the Western world. Similar projects have been launched or are in the process of being launched in various countries of the West, such as the magazine NKA in Brooklyn, for example. Exhibition organisers, museums, galleries and those looking to stage art festivals now know on whose door to knock, and the last few months have proved extremely promising. The Guggenheim Museum in New York is currently hosting a major exhibition of African art, and Africa 95, held in London, was swiftly followed by Copenhagen 96. The Guggenheim Museum, moreover, is in a completely different league to the Museum of African and Oceanic Art in Paris or the Museum of Central Africa in Tervueren, Belgium (formerly the Colonial Museum)-it is one of the world's most prestigious temples of modern art. What is more, London's Africa 95, which was so disparaged by African art specialists, who considered it nothing more than a meeting place for traders, did, whether we like it or not, act as a significant catalyst. And what about pirated works of art, such as those plundered from the Niger Valley ? These have found a 'home' in public as well as private collections, pointing to a real need to 'clean out the Augean stables'.</P>
    2134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2127
    21352128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few African artists are beginning to get themselves known within 'the market', but there are still not enough of them. It was with great foresight that the organisers of Dak'Art placed these artists at the top of their invitation list. Another shrewd move was to invite the art market's arbiters of taste to select those African artists who should present solo exhibitions, and to ask celebrated art critics and collectors to form part of the international panel of judges.</P>
    2136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2129
    21372130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably true to say that Africa has rarely known such a dynamic period of creativity which places it at the forefront of global aesthetic trends. The aim of the Biennial Festival was to underline this fact beyond any doubt. Among those artists who are currently in a position to break into the market, the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, probably heads the list. Paradoxically, however, Ousmane Sow's work was not presented at Dakar although he himself was there, his tall, striking figure standing out from the crowd. Despite the fact that he lent his support to Dak'Art 96 and that the opening gala was partly dedicated to him with the magnificent film of Beatrice Soule, Ousmane Sow resolutely refused to display his own work. He has no wish to take part in gatherings of 'African artists'. He is an artist and he is African, but he is not an 'African artist'. 'A Japanese artist is a contemporary artist in this universal world', he argues, 'so why should I allow myself to be pigeon-holed in a ghetto ?' No matter how satisfied and pleased champions of contemporary African art may be with the organisation behind the Biennial Festival, they cannot deny that Ousmane Sow has a point. Having said this, there is no contradiction here, but rather a complementary vision. Sow's stance and the idea behind Dak'Art are part of a two-pronged attack, to borrow a military term. The organisers of the Biennial and Sow himself doubtless saw it in this way, and decided to join forces.</P>
    2138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2131
    21392132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each time Beatrice Soule tackles the work of an artist, she explores it in a very unusual way, reinventing the arts documentary. Her films are reminiscent of the music of Nino Rota in Fe//ini's films, Rota subjugating himself to the service of the director's work, sublimating his own originality through this extreme humility. It is impossible to picture the images of Federico Fellini without Rota's haunting music. Beatrice Soule saw in Sow's work a love affair between an artist and his sculpture, coming up with the idea of placing Sow's sculptures in the savannah and imagining the intimate interaction between Africa's natural world, which is at the heart of the artist's inspiration, and his works, which the natural world is able to absorb back into itself. The result of this juxtaposition is that the physical work of art is eclipsed by sheer creative force and spirit. The genius behind the work becomes the work, merges with it and is reincarnated in it. The one thing that Soule did not film was Ousmane Sow himself, her images concentrating solely on the creative act. It would be illusory to attempt to explain a Beatrice Soule film, especially this film. When she unveils how the artist tames physical matter, reinventing materials in order to create a work of art, technique simply recedes into the background, becoming blurred and intangible. Whereas others would have adopted a scientific or factual approach, her camera perceives the abstract aspects of the piece-and its gestation. The film was due to be broadcast on the international FrancoGerman arts channel Arte. </P>
    2140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2133
    21412134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If Ousmane Sow's sculptures are characterised by their gigantic proportions, then those of Georges Adeagbo, a Beninois artist whose name is also beginning to be heard in the commercial art establishment, are characterised by their 'fugacity'. Adeagbo's artistic constructions are as fleeting as puffs of smoke, like voodoo symbols scratched out in the sand. His art is symbolic and ephemeral. Once one of his works has been exhibited, all that remains of it is a hollow shell which he has to reinvent over and over again. Adeagbo constructs ideas, using a host of assorted materials which he painstakingly selects over months, even years. Yet despite the meticulous care with which they are put together, as far as the artist is concerned, the materials per se are of no importance. He could convey exactly the same idea using other elements. An Adeagbo piece is not merely a pile of objects. It is neither conceptual art, nor scrap art. It consists rather of 'installations' which rise and spread outwards. Sometimes, he uses specially constructed sculptures. At other times he employs everyday objects- shoes, saucepans, stones, spectacles or footballs. He also works with written material; manuscripts, parchment, pieces of newspaper and books, portraying the written word as both a creative force and a deceptive screen. Adeagbo himself is a man of few words. Perpetually crouched on the ground, he constructs, modifies, touches and observes his creations. Why should these constructions remind us so much of paintings? They are as much a pile of objects as a painting is an accumulation of layers of paint. It is by forgetting the paint that we are able to admire the picture and it is by looking beyond the materials used by Adeagbo that his work truly reveals itself. Indeed, it is a sign of his genius as an artist that the materials never intrude upon our contemplation of his work. In Dakar, Adeagbo's work was shown in the AIDS exhibition organised by Revue Noire. </P>
    2142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2135
    21432136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another artist who took part in the AIDS exhibition, and whose art could well be the impetus behind the new universal aesthetic, the avant-garde (if such a concept has a meaning), is Pascale Marthine Tayou from Cameroon. He was given the honour of presenting one of the five solo exhibitions. Tayou was sponsored by Yakuyi Kawagushi, the curator of the Setagaya Museum in Tokyo, who exhibited his work at the forum organised within the overall framework of the exhibition. While the term 'installation' may best describe the works of Georges Adeagbo's, Tayou's work falls unquestionably under the heading of sculpture. This is despite the fact that the two artists use virtually identical materials. Tayou sculpts from wood, covering his pieces with all manner of manufactured and salvaged objects such as shoes, nails, plastic bags and enormous condoms, or with natural objects such as bits of roots and stones. He then paints the arrangement. The work is dense, unyielding and mesmerising, often etching itself into the onlooker's mind. His sculpture lacks heavy ornamentation, yet its starkness has a rich quality, the theme encompassed by a jumble of material standing out clearly, like the outline of a silhouette. Take his work 'Fight against AIDS'. The piece consists of a wooden frame in the shape of figure-of-eight, with each horizontal line doubled, defining a key element in a tragic body with bulging eyes and a Pere Ubu belly. In contrast to this suffocatingly tragic figure, the brightly-coloured shoes of a Harlequin with a faded costume offer a comical note.</P>
    2144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2137
    21452138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were other creators who could well ruffle a few feathers in the art market that ultimately makes or breaks an artist: Tamsir Dia of Cote d'lvoire (whose screaming figures are reminiscent of Munch), Cheikh Niass of Senegal, Mathilde Moro of Cote d'lvoire and Abdoulaye Konate of Mali. The last mentioned was honoured with the highest award of the festival.</P>
    2146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2139
    21472140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision was taken that Dak'Art 96 should encompass other areas of creativity, such as music, design and fashion, in addition to the visual arts. At the gala evening held to inaugurate the Festival, there was a fashion show choreographed in the manner of a ballet. The staging of this can only be described as mawkish. The audience were treated neither to a real performance, nor to a good fashion show. The second fashion spot, which was supposed to present an overview of African design, was also quite pitiful. If the event's organisers decide to keep these parallel areas of creativity in the Festival, then their decision will be solely thanks to the success of the International Design Exhibition. Apart from two or three 'exotic' pieces, this was generally of a very high standard.</P>
    2148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2141
    21492142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's choice in awarding the prize for creativity to a designer, Vincent Amian Namien from the Cote d'lvoire, was particularly revealing. This artist strips everything down to its bare essentials, creating a line that is so purified as to leave only the quintessence of form. Thus, he creates a chair that is nothing more than a perfect metal triangle, with four boards and four metal wires-and yet offers perfect comfort.</P>
    2150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2143
    21512144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Kane, a fashion designer of Franco-Senegalese descent, had the verve to go it alone and show her collection at the prestigious Salon of Design. Her clothes are characterised by the rejection of all superfluous detail, achieving a fluid line that stylises movement. Following an aesthetic code that has been decanted from the melting pot of the collective costume heritage of the entire continent, Claire Kane is directly involved in the creation of her designs, from the weaving of the cloth to the last finishing touches. In fact, she admits that her true passion is fabric rather than fashion, her favourite material being woven pagne. She often uses silk-screen printing to introduce pattern. She then adds words to the patterns in her designs and, abracadabra, one would think that this is the way it has always been done in Africa. A subtle modernity, combining both past and future, seems to be a recurring motif in African creativity. International artists, still few in number, travel from Dakar to be dressed by her.</P>
    2152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2145
    21532146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in the future, the Festival's organisers decide to concentrate solety on the visual arts, this would come as no surprise. On the other hand, it would also make sense to continue to include design and fashion. A country's cultural heritage should be considered one of its raw materials and a source of economic wealth, and unimaginative accountants may have to resign themselves to this fact. Herein lies a possible answer to the question: 'why hold a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?'</P>
    2154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2147
    21552148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegei Goutier</P>
    2156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2149
    21572150<B><P></P>
    21582151<!--
    … …  
    21642157-->
    21652158</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Robert Rowe</P>
    2166 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2159
    21672160<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many ways of raising money to fight AlDS have been tried, but one of the most unusual must surely be the approach taken by an official of the European Commission. Robert Rowe, who until last year was an assistant editor on The Courier, put on a oneman show in Brussels and then rook it to the other side of the world to raise money for a voluntary organisation working on AIDS prevention and care in Malaysia. Here is his story of fighting the virus with the power of the theatre.</P>
    2168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2161
    21692162<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'By the year 2000, South-East Asia will be host to the majority of the world's AIDS cases.' So runs a stark prediction from the World Health Organisation, quoted in a recent paper from a grouping of NGOs affiliated to the Malaysian AIDS Foundation. It goes on to predict that 'the region faces a potential HIV spread of titanic proportions.' In Thailand, a country with a large population and a sad reputation for prostitution, the HIV threat was recognised relatively early and effective public awareness campaigns have successfully reversed the rise in the incidence of infection. But in neighbouring Malaysia, where stricter religious and social attitudes have inhibited wide public discussion of the disease and its methods of transmission, over 13000 people were HIV-positive at the last count-and that is just the figure derived from the small percentage of the population who have been tested. Activists say the true number is certainly higher and it is growing every day.</P>
    2170 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2163
    21712164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first cases of HIV in Malaysia were found among intravenous drug users and sex workers, and one of the earliest organisations to begin working with people engaged in these high-risk activities was Pink Triangle. This is a voluntary, non-profit-making body which started up in 1987 by setting up AIDS prevention and support programmes for and with the general public and the gay community. Its name, in fact, refers to the pink triangle badge which men sent to concentration camps in Nazi Germany for homosexuality were made to wear. The group has always depended heavily on volunteers to plan and carry out its programmes, which now also involve running a support group for people with HIV or AIDS and a street outreach programme and drop-in centre providing AIDS information, basic medical care, temporary shelter and food for sex workers, injecting drug users and transsexuals. The centre can also provide legal referrals for members of these groups summonsed to appear in court. For the general public, talks, workshops and poster and photo exhibitions are held in schools, hospitals, factories, youth and corporate organisations and other NGOs. Pink Triangle trains its volunteers, too, to provide counselling and information about AIDS and sexuality to anyone who calls up on a confidential telephone line.</P>
    2172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2165
    21732166<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work is serious and vital, but the atmosphere is far from gloomy in Pink Triangle's premises in a lively part of the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur. Though funding comes from several sources at home and abroad, including the European Union, the organisation still has to generate a lot of its own money, and one successful method they have used is to put on imaginative events where fund-raising can be combined with an opportunity to raise public awareness. Last December, for example, they marked the week surrounding World AIDS Day with a string of shows, dance parties, talk-ins and street activities called Pinkfest '95. In venues all over the town, and on television and radio, well-known personalities joined a hundred of Pink Triangle's own speakers and performers to provide education without moralising. The aim was to personalise the issue of AIDS by showing how anyone could be at risk, but at the same time dealing in facts, not fear. Thousands of attractively designed and very frank leaflets and posters put across the virus-busting message in catchy graphics and pithy phrases in several languages.</P>
    2174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2167
    21752168<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I happened to be in Kuala Lumpur around New Year and saw a video of some of the Pinkfest highlights which set me thinking how admirable an impression of solidarity and self-help the anti-AIDS struggle in Malaysia conveys, and to wondering whether, back in Brussels, it might not be possible for us in Europe to do something to help. It particularly impressed and touched me that while Pink Triangle delivers its message to every single member of Malaysian society, it makes quite clear, even by its name, that it has a special care for some of that society's most downtrodden members, people for whom no one else had ever ventured to speak. Public silence, opprobrium and ridicule make it especially hard to get the safe-sex message through to gay men, especially the young, to transsexuals and sex workers, and as long as there is no cure the only way of containing the spread of infection is by education- and by changing social attitudes. The many women whose husbands or partners are careless about infection also stand to benefit from greater openness and more factual information. But organising all this takes money.</P>
    2176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2169
    21772170<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It happens that among the multinational English-speaking expatriate community in Brussels there is a thriving amateur theatre scene-in fact they say that if two British people found themselves on an otherwise deserted island, one would immediately put on a play for the other, and the same seems to hold true of the Irish and the North Americans. However, it was less certain that anyone apart from me would want to exert themselves, for the many weeks required to stage a production, on behalf of an AIDS charity in a remote Asian country, so l decided to go ahead by myself and perform a one-man comedy. The play was Brief Lives; it has nothing whatever to do with AIDS, but in its day it was a huge success in London and New York. Adapted in the 1960s by the British actor Patrick Garland from the dusty old memoirs of a real historical figure, John Aubrey, it depicts a day in the life of this 1 7th-century English scientist, historian and wit. As he potters about, an extremely old man, in a garret full of manuscripts and curios, he reminisces about his contemporaries in hilarious and touching vignettes, the potted biographies which give the play its name. Aubrey died in penury, but the picture he gives of a vanished age is now reckoned to be the equal of the record we find in the diary of the better-known Samuel Pepys.</P>
    2178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2171
    21792172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also a great deal funnier, and when I showed the script to various friends I was astounded and moved to discover how many of them wanted to be involved in the project. Eventually we put together a team headed by the director, Anne Wilkinson, a music impresario married to a coal expert from the European Commission, with production, design, stage management, lighting, sound effects, costume, music and offstage voices-not to mention publicity and box office-provided by other friends from the European institutions or the private sector. The five performances were given in June in a small theatre just adapted from a pottery workshop, and altogether the Brussels showing made a profit of some 110 000 Belgian francs.</P>
    2180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2173
    21812174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We had expected just to send this donation to Pink Triangle through the post, but to our immense pleasure they said they would like to see not just the money but, if possible, the play too. By ingenious compression the designer, Burt Baum, managed to cut the essentials of the set down to three sheets painted to give a three-dimensional effect, we put the voices and music on cassette, rolled up the costume tightly and worked out that the whole play, thus reduced, could be got into one suitcase. There is a little theatre company in the Pacific ACP state of Vanuatu called Wan Smol (One Small) Bag which actually gave me this idea. So off I went to Kuala Lumpur with this bag, and did the play another five times there.</P>
    2182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2175
    21832176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The staging in Malaysia was done by an adventurous outfit called Instant Cafe Theatre. This young company has a reputation for pushing forward the boundaries of public discussion with topical plays and supports Pink Triangle's aims and work. Brief Lives was well outside their usual repertoire, as well as being spoken in the English of 300 years ago. My worry was that bringing such a Western and Eurocentric entertainment might be resented as cultural imperialism in a country with three great and fascinating cultures of its own, Malay, Chinese and Indian, each with its own style of drama. But it turned out there was a local tradition of amateur dramatics in English, particularly Shakespeare, and that English is the usual lingua franca for speakers of different Asian languages. What went down unexpectedly well was the depiction of an old man nearing death and reviewing the best moments of his life; as the character puts it in the play, 'When a boy, I did always love to converse with old men, as living histories,' and Maiaysians have a particular regard and affection for the elderly. </P>
    2184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2177
    21852178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I came away from Kuala Lumpur with many charming memories: the unfailing, sweet-natured enthusiasm of the audience; the relief on the first night as I stood on stage in a floor-length costume of three layers, designed to suggest London in midwinter rather than to cope with the equatorial heat of the Malay peninsula, and realised that the stage was air conditioned. The night when this air conditioning blew out a vital candle on the stage, and a man in the front row lent me his highly un-17th-century lighter to get my clay pipe going. The Chinese friend who gave me a genuine antique opium pipe to add to John Aubrey's collection of exotic curios. The delicious succession of Asian chicken dishes which the stage manager produced for me to eat on stage, cooked in very un-English coconut milk or glazed with rice wine. The work permit which specified I could perform as an artiste but must not 'sit out' or dance with the audience! The theatre's resident singer asking if she could add the play's Elizabethan theme song, with lute accompaniment, to her repertoire.</P>
    2186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2179
    21872180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking this play to another continent was a fascinating cultural experience for me as a European, and I hope for the audiences too it was something more than just a painless way of being relieved of money in a deserving cause. At any rate the theatre asked if they could have another play soon, one in which Malaysian actors could be incorporated as well. As for Pink Triangle, some of its leading lights were packing their bags to go to Vancouver for this year's International AIDS Conference, but before they left it was a pleasure to hand over the proceeds of the whole venture and to hear that the organisation will use the money to develop a drop-in centre for people approaching them in person for the first time. Some first-timers are understandably timid about coming to the unfamiliar (and clearly signposted) premises for help or information, and a private space where they can talk in confidence is something Pink Triangle has always wanted to provide but could never find the funds for, as the project or programme money they get from their regular donors is invariably tied to what outsiders might think were more urgent priorities. It is not only the headline grabbing schemes which have useful effects: a quietly welcoming space where someone can be himself or herself may do more to dispel an individual's fear and ignorance than publicly visible campaigning, especially where religious and social pressures against certain types of nonconformity are strong. In fighting HIV/AIDS, we must try whatever works. And empowerment must begin with the self. It was a great privilege to be welcomed in like any other volunteer wanting to help bring about a necessary change. </P>
    2188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2181
    21892182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. </P>
    2190 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2191 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2183
     2184<B>
    21922185<!--
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    2200 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2193</B>
    22012194<B><P></P>
    22022195<!--
    … …  
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    22072200-->
    2208 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2201</B>
    22092202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials, techniques and knowledge at the service of new architectural applications</P>
    22102203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hugo Houben and Hubert Guilland.</P>
    2211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2204
    22122205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major building material</P>
    2213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2206
    22142207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance - both in quantity and quality- of unbaked earth constructions in the world is very little known. Believed to be of ancient origin, (it is associated with the early civilisations of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Huang He), nowadays, earth is not usually regarded as a major building material. This is despite the fact that it continues to leave an undeniable and distinctive imprint on the architectural landscapes, both rural and urban, of many countries. Unbaked earth is still, in fact, a major building material, being used extensively by people to erect homes and other buildings. Although sites of human occupation have seen constant regeneration with the passage of time, unbaked earth construction has persisted. Excavated from the soil itself, and moulded by the hand of man (or trampled by beasts of burden), the result is a building material which is used in all forms of construction-from simple huts and modest homes, to farm buildings, large houses, urban blocks, religious edifices, castles and palaces. The skills employed are based on knowledge acquired and refined over a long period of time.</P>
    2215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2208
    22162209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A contemporary building material</P>
    2217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2210
    22182211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the use of earth in so called 'advanced' countries has declined in the 40 years since the end of the Second World War, in the developing countries it has continued unabated. In the former, the industrialisation of construction and other sweeping changes have rendered obsolete ancient techniques based on the use of local skills and materials, and on mutual help within communities. In the latter, various factors have dictated the continuing use of locally available solutions, materials and knowledge. These include shortages of processed materials (which are costly in both foreign currency and imported energy terms), the widening of the development 'gap', the accumulation of debt contracted within the international monetary system and the survival of local life-styles in which people are accustomed to coming to get her for mutual help for survival. In these countries, which have no industrial means, and which are to be found in various latitudes across the world, earth remains the main-if not the only- building material. Do these circumstances mean that it is a poor material, fashioned using outmoded techniques and unsuitable for promoting the development which is so necessary? The answer to this question is a clear 'no'. On the contrary, the materials and techniques involved are generally of a high standard. They can ensure true architectural quality, allowing communities to continue creating their private or public living environments, and to integrate their buildings into a coherent framework of self-generated development which makes the most of the resources available, both human and material. In fact, scientific and architectural research into earth as a building material, and on related building techniques, has made considerable progress in recent decades. Combined with investments made by industrialists and construction companies, the result is that we now have a wide range of properly mastered production procedures and technical solutions available. These offer great flexibility in meeting a wide range of possible applications.</P>
    2219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2212
    22202213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a mark on world architecture</P>
    2221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2214
    22222215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent global surveys, although partial (covering about 30% of the world's housing), have given us an indication of how extensively earth is used in construction. In developing countries alone, 50% of the rural population and 20% of those living in urban areas are believed to be concerned. The figures, which are drawn from the combined data of statistical surveys in various areas, and from bibliographical information, almost certainly underestimate the true position. They show, for example, that 60% of the housing in Peru is in moulded bricks or rammed earth. 83% of the houses in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda, are made of earth. More than 70%of India's housing stock is constructed out of moulded earth bricks or using successive layers of earth, and these buildings provide shelter for nearly six hundred million people. In France, many rural dwellings are built from unbaked earth and one finds, for instance, that in the Dauphine region, up to 90% of the buildings in certain villages are made out of rammed 'pise' earth. Finally, in California, there were estimated to be almost 200 000 'adobe' (sun-dried earth brick) dwellings by 1980 and the use of this material was growing at the rate of 30% a year.</P>
    2223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2216
    22242217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closer examination reveals that the whole world bears the indelible stamp of earthen architecture. Earth is used in Africa-in humble shelters built on leased land and in the great granaries of the continent. It is found in the palaces of the Hausa emirs of Nigeria, the ksours and kasbahs of Morocco and the mosques of Mali. In the Middle East, you come auoss it in the tightly-packed neighbourhoods of Ispahan and Iran, the fortified dwellings of Najran in Saudi Arabia, the multi-storey earth blocks of Shibam and the valley of the Hadramaut in Yemen. In Europe, there are the mouded brick farms of Aquitaine and the baroque and neo-classical castles of the Saone valley. And bringing in other parts of the world, we might mention the pueblos of the New Mexico Indians, and the houses built by the Hakkas in the Chinese province of Fujian, laid out in their characteristic concentric circles. The use of unbaked earth in building may be seen as a vestige of past history, but it is actually a living framework for history in the making.</P>
    2225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2218
    22262219<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realistic uses for the future</P>
    2227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2220
    22282221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronted with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oil-dependent industrialised countries were forced to look again at tried and tested technical solutions which were now proving to be too 'energy-greedy'. The building sector did not escape this reappraisal and the search began for ways of reducing energy consumption both at source (covering the production and use of building materials) and further down the production chain (maintenance). Research on biomass and solar energy ran in parallel with experiments to update traditional materials and to attempt to rationalise the production process. Earth again became a focus of interest, with government institutions supporting a considerable amount of new research and experimentation. This covered applications in both the industrialised world and in developing countries, research for the latter being undertaken in the context of bilateral or multilateral cooperation. With the threat to the ecological balance posed by pollution, degradation and the plundering of natural areas, this interest in developing materials and techniques that are inherently friendly to the environment has not lessened. In many places, people are becoming increasingly involved in controlling and managing their living environment. The field has been opened up by qualitative research, a new awareness of the available options and an increase in leisure time. With techniques now at hand that are easy to use and economical, a greater measure of (partial or complete) selfhelp building is now possible. The USA, Australia and Germany all encourage new forms of intervention in building which give greater responsibility to the occupier in the creation of his living environment. Viewed from this perspective, earth as a building material has definite advantages and plays an important role.</P>
    2229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2222
    22302223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries, burdened by debt and confronted by an urgent need to build on a scale unprecedented in history, imported materials, techniques and energy are largely inaccessible to the majority of people, and their use may contribute to promoting 'bad' development. Building with earth emerges as an efficient shortterm way of producing houses or public buildings such as schools, which are both economical and of high quality (being culturally and climatically suitable). Decision-makers in these countries are well aware of this and have mobilised 'upstream' feasibility studies in their education and public housing programmes. The research covers local resources and knowledge, and the use of labour intensive techniques that generate employment and enable the population gradually to become 'monetarised'. The days of costly experimentation, often with no practical result, are now over. A new confidence in the resources that are available must be encouraged. There needs to be an increase in building completions and those who built them need more training. Today, this is happening in Mexico (850 earthen houses recently built in the state of Zacatecas) and in Burkina Faso (6000 school classrooms constructed by 1995.) No fewer than forty million homes will have to be built between now and the year 2000 for the urban population of Africa alone.</P>
    2231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2224
    22322225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies show that for most of the people involved, there is no choice but to employ local materials, most often earth. One can thus predict that at least 20% of urban and pert-urban housing in African countries (about eight million units), will be built in earth over the next ten years, at a rate of eight hundred thousand units per year. If demand from rural areas is added to this, one gets some idea of the scale of the task facing decision-makers and builders. The use of earth and other locally available materials is unavoidable, and should be encouraged.</P>
    2233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2226
    22342227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental advantages</P>
    2235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2228
    22362229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is particularly important to enumerate the many advantages of building in unbaked earth from the point of view of the environment. This issue, one of the contemporary problems facing society, is increasingly moving centre-stage, and in the future, it is sure to play a greater part in political, economic, social and cultural strategies linked to the planning and improvement of the quality of life. Here we refer to the concept of the environment in the widest sense of the word, ecological, economic, technical, health-wise and psychological, cultural and human.</P>
    2237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2230
    22382231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the ecological environment</P>
    2239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2232
    22402233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of pollution and degradation, unbaked earth offers a highly positive picture:</P>
    2241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2234
    22422235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the deforestation which results, for example, from the use of organic resources for firing baked earth materials.</P>
    2243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2236
    22442237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not consume any nonrenewable energy (oil, gas, etc.) at source for the processing and production of materials, or further down the production line in their application. This is in sharp contrast to the production of cement, lime and other conventional binding materials, and steel.</P>
    2245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2238
    22462239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By exploiting strata on construction sites, it allows a considerable saving in energy for the transport of materials.</P>
    2247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2240
    22482241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to a degradation of the landscape as does the extraction of minerals and ores which hollows out hillsides and creates open cast sites. A great deal of the earth excavated in the course of large public works (notably roads and motorways) can be recycled and used in building (allowing very easy decentralised distribution).</P>
    2249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2242
    22502243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the diminution of resources of aggregates such as gravel and sand, excavated either from quarries or from water courses, in insular sites or lagoons. The latter can endanger the ecological balance of these natural environments.</P>
    2251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2244
    22522245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It uses very little water which is essential for the life of the people.</P>
    2253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2246
    22542247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It produces no industrial or chemical waste and has the additional advantage of being almost entirely recyclable.</P>
    2255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2248
    22562249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the economic environment</P>
    2257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2250
    22582251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It is often comparable in cost with, or indeed more economic than competing technologies and requires no major financial mobilisation for its generally light production infrastructure. </P>
    2259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2252
    22602253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It guarantees rapid amortisement thresholds for bankable investments thanks to its low infrastructure requirements for usable production.</P>
    2261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2254
    22622255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contribution to local flexibility, being readily susceptible to a decentralised approach.</P>
    2263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2256
    22642257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Throughout the production process, it creates employment and monetary added-value which can be injected for development purposes into other sectors of the economy.</P>
    2265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2258
    22662259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By allowing savings in energy and foreign currency, it contributes at the macro and micro economic levels of the building sector, to a considerable reduction in developing countries' debt and to the balance of payments.</P>
    2267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2260
    22682261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the technical environment</P>
    2269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2262
    22702263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It has thermophysical and hydric properties (good conductivity, energy retention capacity, thermal differential, delayed temperature differences etc.) which help ensure comfortable temperatures:</P>
    2271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2264
    22722265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It normally only requires simple production and application tools (moulds, presses, light shuttering, normal masonry tools, etc.) which are widely accessible to masons and self-help builders.</P>
    2273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2266
    22742267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of health and the psychological environment</P>
    2275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2268
    22762269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Not only non-polluting in its use, it also guarantees the absence of harmful effects in the context of daily life (no gaseous emissions or other toxic chemical components, radioactive emissions etc.)</P>
    2277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2270
    22782271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contributes to psychological wellbeing by the architectural exploitation of its inherent characteristics; these include the surface texture, colour, form and luminosity of the material. It thus makes an active contribution to the beauty of the living environment.</P>
    2279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2272
    22802273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the cultural and human environment</P>
    2281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2274
    22822275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It maintains the traditional architecture heritage of the area in question through the use of local materials and thus plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival and updating of, cultural, architectural and urban environments.</P>
    2283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2276
    22842277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It allows local populations to take charge of the production of their built environment and thus contributes to the expression of the democratic rights of all to control their living environment.</P>
    2285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2278
    22862279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of earth on the move</P>
    2287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2280
    22882281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her work entitled 'A Fate Worse than Debt' (Penguin Books, 1988), the famous political commentator, Susan George, analysed the debt situation of developing countries and attempted to determine the basis for a positive resolution of the problem. Her approach focused in particular on solutions involving repayment in creative values or 'in kind' rather than in strictly monetary means. At the end of her analysis, she put forward eleven potential solutions to allow this repayment in kind and to launch a coherent approach for the development of less advanced societies. One of these recommendations was that it would be necessary to develop 'the study and survey (and if necessary the improvement) of local building techniques, in particular earth architecture ('pise' or 'banco').' Ms George argued that new buildings, particularly public ones, should be constructed using these techniques.</P>
    2289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2282
    22902283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that various solutions are being considered for the future: one in which building with earth, using a wide range of local techniques, will have a new technological, social, cultural, ecological, economic and political role of paramount importance.</P>
    2291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2284
    22922285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various methods of utilisation</P>
    2293 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2286
    22942287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical, constructional and architectural possibilities of earth are very extensive. The study of popular traditions and of traditional knowledge throughout the world has enabled some 18 different methods of utilisation of the material to be identified, each in itself capable of being applied in a wide variety of ways. This wide construction potential has enabled the building of modest shelters, village houses, urban blocks, religious edifices and palaces. This is not to say that other traditional materials do not have an important role, but the sheer diversity and flexibility of earthen architecture probably cannot be equalled.</P>
    2295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2288
    22962289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As was indicated earlier, the use of earth as a building material has given rise to numerous applications using a wide variety of production and construction techniques. Some of these techniques are still used in traditional construction many countries, some have been abandoned, while others have only recently been the subject of developmental experimentation. It is worth noting that there is a register of the principal techniques, mainly associated with processes using moulds, shuttering and direct shaping. The six most widely used techniques are: 'adobe', 'rammed earth', 'straw clay', 'wattle and daub', 'cob' and 'compressed blocks'.</P>
    2297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2290
    22982291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these six, three (wattle and daub, straw clay, and cob), are highly traditional, while the others (adobe, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks) have recently been the subject of spectacular evolution linked to the modernisation of production machinery and methods of application. </P>
    2299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2292
    23002293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
    23012294 The use of earth</P>
    2302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2295
    23032296<B><P></P>
    23042297<!--
    … …  
    23092302  </Description>
    23102303-->
    2311 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2304</B>
    23122305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plea for African solidarity</P>
    2313 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2306
    23142307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank you sincerely for your report on the second plenary of the Global Coalition for Africa which appeared in the March-April 1996 edition. As a 'displaced' Liberian, I would like to comment on some of the issues reported in the article.</P>
    2315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2308
    23162309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, I hope that Africans recognise and appreciate all that former President Jimmy Carter has done and continues to do for our beloved continent.</P>
    2317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2310
    23182311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, I support the view of Ms Johnson-Sirleaf and President Afwerki of Eritrea that we, as Africans, must invest in ourselves and in productive endeavours in our own countries. However, given the number of civil wars, that have resulted in displacement of our peoples and migration of the labour force, it is imperative that we also begin to think of and recognise each other as Africans first - and only then as members of whatever ethnic group we belong to. As a Liberian with professional qualifications who relocated to Ghana in 1992, I met with opposition and resentment because of my nationality and sex. I subsequently went to the Caribbean where my acceptance as an African was easier.</P>
    2319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2312
    23202313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is a population movement, the psychological impact associated with feelings of rejection and intimidation is severe. Sub-Saharan Africa will never develop or reach its fullest potential until we begin to think and act as a united, yet diverse group of people.</P>
    2321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2314
    23222315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I agree that it is important to develop our homelands first, but in the case of Liberia, Burundi or Rwanda, where no one seems to understand the concept of peace or the idea of having a future, it is crucial that the displaced be respected and accepted as fellow Africans. It would be even better if we were afforded the opportunity to integrate and assimilate into society.</P>
    2323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2316
    23242317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ciata A. Bishop, Grand Cayman.</P>
    2325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2318
    23262319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What about Guinea-Bissau ?</P>
    2327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2320
    23282321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am a student from Guinea-Bissau reading international law and political science at the Social Science University in Toulouse. I have also been a faithful Courier reader for more than seven years. In the March-April issue of 1996, you published an article on fisheries by Anthony Acheampong entitled 'A vital food source in West Africa'. You gave the figures for fish production in 16 West African countries-but did not mention my native country! I should point out that Guinea-Bissau consumes and exports a great deal of fish, and the product is an important source of foreign exchange to the country.</P>
    2329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2322
    23302323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.J. Alves d'Almada, Toulouse, France.</P>
    2331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2324
    23322325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Media and democracy in Southern Africa</P>
    2333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2326
    23342327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I refer to the article with the above title by Francis Caas which appeared in issue no. 154 of The Courier (November-December). I enjoyed reading the text which examined the emergence of a free press due to the advent of political liberalisation in the Southern African region. However, I wish to make a correction as to what I think is a misrepresentation of fact. The author said, and I quote: 'The installation of a democratic regime in 1994 (in Malawi) enabled the MBC to begin broadcasting in all languages spoken in the country'. This is not actually correct although the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, apart from broadcasting in English and Chechewa, has since introduced Tumbuka on the radio. I felt it was important to put the record straight on this.</P>
    2335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2328
    23362329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disher G.DJ. Pindani Lecturer in Public Administration, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi.</P>
    2337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2330
    23382331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrigenda </P>
    2339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2332
    23402333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue no 157, a number of 'author' footnotes were inadvertently omitted.</P>
    2341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2334
    23422335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pascal Dotchevi, author of 'Togo: the victory of the taxi. bikes' (p.11) is a journalist on Kpakpa Desenchante, a satirical weekly published in Lom&eacute; </P>
    2343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2336
    23442337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piritta Sorsa, author of 'Banking and securities' (p.13) works at the IMF office in Geneva.</P>
    2345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2338
    23462339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yves Delafon, author of 'Developing consultancy work in the ACP countries' (p.15) is the director of a consultancy and President of the Federation of External Trade Associations in Provence/ Cote d'Azur.</P>
    2347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2340
    23482341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Gone Fall, author of 'Fashion; Out of Africa.. the breath of inspiration' (p.53) is a journalist.</P>
    23492342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in issue 157, some errors appeared in the article entitled 'Sparks fly in Namibia'. </P>
    2350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2343
    23512344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the introductory section it was stated that secret harlots were held on resolutions relating to Nigeria, Niger and Sudan. This should have read Nigeria, Niger and Equatorial Guinea; a resolution on Sudan was passed by normal, open vote procedure.</P>
    2352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2345
    23532346<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the heading 'The future of Lom&eacute;' the ACP Generai Rapporteur vvas refered to as Mr Firmin, which is the forename. The General Rapporteur's surname is Mr Jean-Louis.</P>
    2354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2347
    23552348<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the fifth paragraph under the same heading, there was a reference to Helena Torres Couto. This should have read Mr Jose Manuel Torres Couto. </P>
    2356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2349
    23572350<B><P></P>
    23582351<!--
    … …  
    23632356  </Description>
    23642357-->
    2365 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2358</B>
    23662359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Afrique est-elle protectionniste- Les chemins buissonniers de la liberation exterieure</P>
    2367 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2360
    23682361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Is Africa protectionist ? Greater economic freedom via the maze)</P>
    2369 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2362
    23702363<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Beatrice Hibou. Karthala Publications (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013 Paris). 1996. 334 pp. ISBN 286537-633-8.</P>
    2371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2364
    23722365<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume offers a clearsighted analysis of the foreign trade policies of African states, fraud, smuggling and the way in which the franc zone operates, giving a definitive, reformulated account of structural adjustment.</P>
    2373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2366
    23742367<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her approach, the author is critical of both the liberal political economy and the new trends (the 'new political economy' end the neoinstitutionalist trends) which perpetuate the division between the economy and society. She refers to K Polanyi for whom Man's social relationships include economics and in whose opinion the economic system is managed as a function of non-economic motives.</P>
    2375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2368
    23762369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From this starting point, Beatrice Hibou demonstrates the part played by the unexpected and the unintentional in economic policies as they currently exist, revealing that coherence in foreign-trade policies on the part of African countries is not an economic priority but a socio-political one. In this connection, she shows that structural adjustment programmes have been unsuccessful in making any real impact on protectionist practices, at least in terms of their political and historical bases.</P>
    2377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2370
    23782371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After an overview of (legal or illegal) foreign-trade practices in contemporary Africa, protectionism is clearly alive and well, although much less widely applied and effective than about a decade ago. The reduction in the State's legal powers has meant increased freedom for 'informal networks', various types of dispensation, and an increase in fraud and smuggling.</P>
    2379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2372
    23802373<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of Jean-Francois Bayart's opinion, dating from 1989, the author suggests that the explanation is to be found in the specific nature of Africa's economic history, which is one of independent means, a lack of production and management of dependency without the way in which it operates being affected. </P>
    2381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2374
    23822375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
    2383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2376
    23842377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid</P>
    2385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2378
    23862379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent review of international aid. Pub.: J. Randel and T. German. Earthscan Publications Ltd. (120, Pentonville Road, UK London N1 9JN). 1996. 244 pp. ISBN 1 85383 292 8.</P>
    2387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2380
    23882381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid (now an annual publication) compiled by two NGOs; Eurostep and ICVA, aims to highlight the extent to which donor aid helps developing nations, looking beyond the official publications of governments, banks and inter-governmental bodies. It contains a useful critique of the European Union's various aid policies and the respective bilateral policies of each of its 15 member states, as well as those of other Western nations like Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. This year's review highlights, in particular, the need to mount more projects to alleviate poverty, despite aid commitments becoming more scarce.</P>
    2389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2382
    23902383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says, for example, 'Too much aid is being squandered by governments on projects which have more to do with commercial and political advantage than poverty eradication. Rigorous evaluation needs to identify those programmes which can make an impact -and aid must increasingly be directed only to these areas.</P>
    2391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2384
    23922385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid to developing nations has fallen off over the years. In 1994, members of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee-21 of the world's richest countries-allowed their aid to fall to just 0.3 % of GNP, the lowest level for more than 20 years. The review stresses the need for donors to address in particular; policy coherence (environment, agriculture and consumption policies are all linked to poverty), the effectiveness of aid, the failure thus far to invest in people and the fact that the amount of assistance going to health and education is stagnating.</P>
    2393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2386
    23942387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The review also features analytical case studies of various donor activities in selected developing nations (India, Fiji, Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe) and looks at Western assistance to post communist countries in transition.</P>
    2395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2388
    23962389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chapter on the European Union's current development policies, edited by Mirjam van Reisen, a Brussels-based Eurostep researcher, criticises the lack of coherence of EU aid with its Member States bilateral programmes-an issue which is likely to come more to the fore as other European nations join the Union in the next millennium. Ms van Reisen also claims that there are too few staff running the EU's development policies and suggests, in particular, that there is a lack of expertise in the social and poverty areas. She stresses the importance for the EU's political leaders of giving more political clout to the EU's development policies at the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is currently engaged in revising the EU's treaties. </P>
    2397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2390
    23982391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
    2399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2392
    24002393<B><P></P>
    24012394<!--
    … …  
    24062399  </Description>
    24072400-->
    2408 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2401</B>
    24092402<I><P></P>
    24102403<!--
    … …  
    24142407  </Description>
    24152408-->
    2416 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2409</I>
    24172410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trafficking of women</P>
    2418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2411
    24192412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner for immigration policy and legal affairs, Anita Gradin, will set to work with fellow Commissioners over the coming months to draw up a European Union action programme to clamp down on the trafficking of women which she describes as, 'the modern slave trade'. This comes hot on the heels of the Vienna European conference on trafficking of women, held on June 10 and 11, which was co-hosted by the European Commission, the Austrian government and the International Organisation for Migration.</P>
    2420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2413
    24212414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin told journalists on June 12: 'I will put forward to the Council and the European Parliament a communication on the trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. This will cover migration policy, police and judicial cooperation, and social aspects to support and protect the victims. It will also consider European relations with the source countries, where the women are recruited.'</P>
    2422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2415
    24232416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Vienna conference highlighted the need for cooperation between Member States and third countrie from which women are lured into prostitution in Western Europe. Recommendations, which are expected to be part of the EU policy, include setting up central national units in each Member State to exchange information.</P>
    2424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2417
    24252418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner told the participants in Vienna: 'The slave trade in women is growing, a slave-trade that aims at sexual exploitation. No part of the world seems to be free from this degrading treatment of women. Women are bought and sold like cattle or commodities. They are deprived of their rights and their dignity. And the direction of the trade is the same all over-it is women from poor conditions that are forced into a deplorable life by men in richer countries.'</P>
    2426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2419
    24272420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">She cited a typical case of one woman from the Dominican Republic from the book 'Stolen Lives' by Sietske Altinks: 'One day I went to visit a friend who was going to discuss job opportunities in Europe. I went with her and met a schoolteacher who knew somebody called Juan who could get me a job in the Netherlands. When I went to see him, his associates told me that I would easily find employment in a beauty parlour.' She ended up in prostitution.</P>
    2428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2421
    24292422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin continued: 'The consequences for the women are dreadful. Often, they find themselves deprived of their freedom to move and decide for themselves; they are often locked up and subjected to violence and sexual exploitation. And should they be able to free themselves, they are regarded as illegal residents and expelled.'</P>
    2430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2423
    24312424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
    2432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2425
    24332426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Aid for development in the field of communication</P>
    2434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2427
    24352428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar was held under the auspices of the United Nations in the Belgian Parliament on 6 and 7 June, on 'the future of international development cooperation: new challenges for communication'.</P>
    2436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2429
    24372430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union was represented at the event, among others, by Colette Flesch and Steffen Smidt, the directors general respectively of DG X and DG VlII of the Commission. Mrs Flesch gave a presentation at the opening session in which she highlighted the various communication approaches adopted by the European Community in its efforts to counter what appears to be a growing lack of interest in development aid on the continent.</P>
    2438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2431
    24392432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Smidt, who spoke in the second session of the seminar, began his presentation with an anecdote, citing a text displayed at the entrance to a Federal building in Washington. This states: 'Taxes are what we pay to have a civilised society'. Paraphrasing this sentiment, the Director-General argued that, 'development assistance is what we pay to have a civilised European Union.' The question, he went on to pose, was whether we were paying enough ?</P>
    2440 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2433
    24412434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of the participants painted a discouraging picture of the situation facing the world's poorest countries in a world of advanced communications and increasing globalisation. Almost all were pessimistic about the impact of the socalled 'information super highways' on the least-developed nations.</P>
    2442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2435
    24432436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most striking interventions came from Mabbub Ul Haq, the former Finance Minister of Pakistan, who spoke just after Mr Smidt in the plenary meeting, as well as at one of the discussion workshops. Mr Ul Haq urged the creation of a UN Economic Security Council, arguing that the main risk of global conflagration lies in the disparity that exists between rich and poor, now that the dangers associated with the Cold War have receded. One of the most acute issues under discussion was the growing challenge to the received wisdom that technical assistance is essential for consolidating national capacities. The evidence of 40 years of technical assistance would suggest otherwise (with 95% of funds set aside for this purpose going to foreign experts). Indeed, it was argued that those countries receiving most technical assistance per capita, had 'benefited' least from the system.</P>
    2444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2437
    24452438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his second contribution, Mr Ul Haq painted a somewhat more encouraging picture, pointing out that the shaky 0.3% share of GNP allocated to development aid by the industrialised countries had achieved miracles in terms of increased life expectancy (up by 17 years) and the doubling of school enrolments in the countries of the South.</P>
    2446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2439
    24472440<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
    2448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2441
    24492442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round one of the South Africa-EU talks</P>
    2450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2443
    24512444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa gave no immediate response to the European Union's proposals for a bilateral trade agreement at the first round of high level negotiations in Brussels on June 20. The talks were headed by Dr L. T Links who is South Africa's new Ambassador in Brussels and for the KU, by the Director General for Development, Steffen Smidt. </P>
    2452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2445
    24532446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most difficult subject to negotiate will be future terms of access for South Africa's farm produce. The European mandate, which was agreed by EU Member States on March 25, foresees the exclusion of 39% of South Africa's farm produce currently sold to the EU from the planned free trade area. Applying World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, the EU wants a scaled dismantling of barriers to trade in both farm and manufactured goods over a 10-year period, with a maximum of 12 years for a few highly sensitive items. But the EU has agreed to 'asymmetry' whereby, in some areas, it will open up its market to South Africa at a faster pace than vice versa. </P>
    2454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2447
    24552448<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Minty, deputy Director General at the Foreign Affairs Department in Pretoria, who is one of ,the chief negotiators, explained that South Africa had not yet responded to the terms because it is still consulting internally with the National Economic Development and Labour Council and with its partners of the Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Lesotho). </P>
    2456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2449
    24572450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a recent visit to Brussels, South Africa's former agriculture minister, Dr Kraai van Niekerk and his deputy, Mrs Thoko Didiza, told reporters that as it stood, the EU's mandate was 'anti-developmental'. Dr van Niekerk said he would like to see citrus fruit, in particular, removed from the list of exclusions. He also sought to dispel the fears of some EU Member States who wish to omit a larger proportion of South Africa's farm produce from the FTA, for fear of competition with equivalent EU produce.</P>
    2458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2451
    24592452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr van Niekerk stressed the 'complementary' nature of South Africa's farm production. He pointed out that his country's growing season was at the opposite time of year to that of the EU and noted that South Africa's output of farm produce could only increase by about 2%.</P>
    2460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2453
    24612454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU spokesman, Joao Vale de Almeida, said that progress had been made during the Brussels talks on aspects of South Africa's 'tome protocol'. This is aimed at giving South Africa certain benefits from the Lom&eacute; Convention- some eligibility for South African companies to tender for Lom&eacute; contracts and the partial extension of the Lom&eacute; rules of origin to South African exports. It was originally planned that the Lom&eacute; protocol should be implemented at the same time as a bilateral trade accord, (on January 1 1997). Mr Vale de Almeida spelt out that although it would not be technically and legally impossible for the Lom&eacute; protocol to come on stream without the bilateral pact, it would be more practical if the two could be implemented at the same time. A second round of talks is expected to take place in the autumn.</P>
    2462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2455
    24632456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P</P>
    2464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2457
    24652458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Echo Media Awards</P>
    2466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2459
    24672460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 June, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) launched a Television and Radio awards scheme to reward high-quality coverage of humanitarian affairs. Prizes will go to programmes produced or co-produced by independent production companies and/or broadcasting stations in the 15 EU countries which have been transmitted in a Member State on terrestrial or satellite television or radio between January 1 1995 and September 1 1996.</P>
    2468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2461
    24692462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judging by a panel made up of NGOs, environmentalists, politicians and the media will be in six categories:</P>
    2470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2463
    24712464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People on the move-a television documentary on the humanitarian consequences of sudden or forced population movements; </P>
    2472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2465
    24732466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the minds of the people-a TV documentary on the psychological trauma in crisis situations; </P>
    2474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2467
    24752468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forgotten conflicts-TV coverage of a long-running crisis forgotten by the mainstream; </P>
    2476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2469
    24772470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vulnerable groups-TV coverage of the hazards encountered by women, children and the elderly in rebuilding their lives; </P>
    2478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2471
    24792472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcast commitment-to a radio or TV station for consistent, high-quality coverage of humanitarian issues; </P>
    2480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2473
    24812474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio award-for the most incisive and analytical coverage of an emergency or humanitarian crisis. </P>
    2482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2475
    24832476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Announcing the scheme, EC Commissioner, Emma Bonino, said: 'These awards give us an opportunity to acknowledge the vital role that broadcasters play in raising awareness of the issues at stake in imaginative, accurate and moving ways. They also serve to remind us of some of the basic European values such as solidarity and humanitarianism that have sometimes been eclipsed by barrages of headlines about mad cows and fish wars.' </P>
    2484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2477
    24852478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entries for this inaugural year must be submitted by September 19, 1996. Details can be obtained from: Mandy Duncan-Smith, Media Natura (UK), tel: (44 171) 240 4936 fax: (44171) 240 2291 E-mail: [email protected]</P>
    2486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2479
    24872480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posters featuring contemporary Bantu art</P>
    2488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2481
    24892482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the framework of its cooperation programme with the Commission, CICIBA (Centre international des civilisations bantu-B.P. 770-Libreville- Gabon) has recently launched a series of large format reproductions featuring contemporary Bantu art. Thirteen works have been chosen, displaying a representative selection of art forms-painting, sculpture, engraving and moulded leather. The posters, more than 5000 of which have been printed in quadrichromic colour, have a 40 x 60 format. They are also available as postcards.</P>
    2490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2483
    24912484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artists featured are Marcela Costa (Angola), Assouambo (Cameroon), Daikou (Central African Republic), Mouanga Nkodia (Congo), Abdou Moeou (Comoros), Pambou Boulaz (Gabon), Jose Menan (Equatorial Guinea), Protais Hakizimfura (Rwanda), Protasio Pina (Sao Tome &amp; Principe), Silu Kinanga and Munyenz Tshibangu (Zaire) and Mulenga Chafilwa (Zambia).</P>
    2492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2485
    24932486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CICIBA has also put together a similar series on ancient Bantu art. The fourth bi-annual exhibition of contemporary Bantu art, which has received some support from the European Commission, was due to be staged in Luanda (Angola) during July and August.</P>
    2494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2487
    24952488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between technology and society</P>
    2496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2489
    24972490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 50 years, technological innovation has been regarded by many writers in the field as the motor of economic development.</P>
    2498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2491
    24992492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, with rapid developments in the media sector and the emergence of 'information super-highways', the whole world is talking about the emergence of a new society dominated by 'smart' technology linked with research and creativity. This trend gives rise to many questions. Will the information be made available to all, and if so, when ? Will it lead to a change in North-South relations? Can we imagine what a world of 'tale-working', 'tale-education' and video on demand will be like ? What will the cost of all this be? Will biotechnology rescue the world or be the cause of its downfall ? What will the consequences be for the environment ? And in a globalised world, what standards and norms will be used ?</P>
    2500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2493
    25012494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, what is the real nature of the relationship between technology and society; between science and humankind ?</P>
    2502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2495
    25032496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifteen universities of the EEA (European Economic Area) from Oslo to the Basque country and from London to Athens (taking in Roskilde, Maastricht, Louvainla-Neuve, Namur, Strasbourg, Lausanne, Sienna, Bari, Madrid, Valencia and Lisbon), have come together to offer a multidisciplinary course focusing on these key questions. During the first term, classes in theory and seminars are offered (in the local language of the institution) by experts from the academic world and the public and private sectors. Visits are also planned to multinational companies and laboratories. For the second half of the course, the students gain a wider European dimension by 'changing' university (with grants from the Socrates programme). The bulk of their time at this stage will be spent preparing a research dissertation in English on a topic which fits in with the specialisation of the host institution.</P>
    2504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2497
    25052498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information on the ESST</P>
    25062499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">programme, contact:</P>
    … …  
    25092502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. T. Nguyen (FUNDP-Belgium)</P>
    25102503<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 081-72.49.09</P>
    2511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2504
    25122505<I><P></P>
    25132506<!--
    … …  
    25182511  </Description>
    25192512-->
    2520 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2513</I>
    25212514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common foreign and security policy</P>
    2522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2515
    25232516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
    2524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2517
    25252518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antipersonnel mines</P>
    2526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2519
    25272520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 13 May 1996</P>
    2528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2521
    25292522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the closure of the Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the European Union recalls that it has, in recent years, redoubled its efforts to combat the severe consequences caused to civilians by the indiscriminate use of land mines, in particular anti-personnel mines.</P>
    2530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2523
    25312524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, which adopted joint action in May 1995 in order to reconfirm its commitment to the objective of an overall strengthening of Protocol 11 of the CCW, considers that the achievements of the Review Conference (such as the extension of the scope of Protocol II; the strengthening of restrictions on the use of mines; the new and immediate prohibitions regarding transfers; the provisions on technological cooperation and assistance; the regular review mechanism, etc), taken together, are significant steps forward, both in terms of the land mines protocol itself and of the development of international humanitarian law.</P>
    2532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2525
    25332526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, however, underlines that the resuits of the Review Conference fall short of its expectations and of some of the goals set out in its joint action. In particular, the EU should have liked an effective and binding verification mechanism and no periods of deferral of compliance, or at least much shorter ones.</P>
    2534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2527
    25352528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that the conclusion of this Review Conference is only the beginning of a challenging process which requires constant and widespread efforts and persistence in order to fully achieve its basic humanitarian objectives. The EU will continue to seek solutions to the problems caused by antipersonnel land mines and will strive towards the goal of their eventual elimination as stated in UN Resolution 50/70 (O). In the meantime, the Member States of the EU will seek early ratification of the amended Protocol II, as well as of the new Protocol IV on blinding laser weapons, and will take urgent steps to ensure their compliance with all the provisions of these two protocols pending their entry into force.</P>
    2536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2529
    25372530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will also continue to make active efforts with a view to achieving universal adherence to the CCW, since its objectives can only be effectively attained through implementation of its provisions by the widest number of states and parties to conflicts.</P>
    2538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2531
    25392532<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, the EU recalls its determination to pursue its contribution to the international mine clearance efforts. The EU has already contributed to the UN Voluntary Trust Fund, financing, in particular, projects in Angola and Mozambique as well as in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. In addition, the EU will consider the possibility of conducting specific demining actions and will continue to seek to that effect the contribution of the WEU to the elaboration and implementation of such actions.</P>
    2540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2533
    25412534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta, as well as the EFTA country members of the EEA, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, align themselves with this statement.</P>
    2542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2535
    25432536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region and the situation in Burundi</P>
    2544 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2537
    25452538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 24 June 1996</P>
    2546 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2539
    25472540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU's objectives and priorities with regard to the Great Lakes region are to secure peace, to consolidate the process of national reconciliation in the countries concerned, to facilitate a return to normal democratic life, in particular by restoring the rule of law, and to encourage economic and social recovery.</P>
    2548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2541
    25492542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aware as it is of the close links between the various political, economic and humanitarian problems in the region and of the serious risk of destabilisation which remains, the EU would emphasise the need for a comprehensive approach and a regional dimension in the search for lasting solutions to the crisis.</P>
    2550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2543
    25512544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It considers that the presence of over a million and a half refugees in the region constitutes a major factor of destabilisation and that their return to their countries of origin in safety and with dignity is essential if peace is to be restored.</P>
    2552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2545
    25532546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals to the Heads of State who signed the Cairo and Tunis Declarations to comply with the undertakings they gave, so as in particular to stop trafficking in arms and the training of the various militia and armed groups which serve only to increase insecurity in the region. It would point to United Nations Resolution 1053 in this regard and also the measures in the plan of action adopted by the Bujumbura Conference (12 to 17 February 1995) for the prevention of subversive activities in countries of asylum. The EU also emphasises the importance of deploying United Nations observers in airports and at frontiers.</P>
    2554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2547
    25552548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is increasingly concerned at the deteriorating political and human rights situation in Burundi and at the increase in violence. The persistent clashes, spreading over different parts of the country, and the killings and atrocities committed against the civilian population could well involve Burundi in a spiral of permanent conflict.</P>
    2556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2549
    25572550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU strongly condemns all recourse to violence, which will never bring about a solution to the country's problems, and appeals to all the factions in the country to begin negotiating a resolution of their differences and to agree on an immediate, general cessation of violence. It supports the initiatives taken by the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity to restore peace, as well as former President Nyerere's current efforts in this area.</P>
    2558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2551
    25592552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It fervently hopes that the talks taking place will result in a national dialogue open to all factions within the country. It also expresses its support for the ongoing efforts made by various bodies and eminent figures such as former Presidents Carter and Toure, and Archbishop Tutu.</P>
    2560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2553
    25612554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU would point out that it too has taken initiatives aimed at resolving the crisis and recently appointed a special envoy for the Great Lakes region, Mr Aldo Ajello, to assist the current efforts of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity and other bodies and individuals, and specifically to lend support to the organisation of a regional conference under the joint aegis of the UN and the OAU to examine and resolve the deep-rooted causes of the crisis.</P>
    2562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2555
    25632556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU remains convinced that such a conference must be convened as soon as possible.</P>
    2564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2557
    25652558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist with specific measures to promote peace and reconciliation in Burundi, in particular the organisation of a national dialogue, support for action to promote human rights and the restoring of the rule of law. It is furthermore willing to continue funding the presence of OAU observers and United Nations human rights observers in the country. It is also prepared to help with the economic and social recovery of Burundi as soon as political and security conditions allow rehabilitation programmes to be set up in the country.</P>
    2566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2559
    25672560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: progressive restoration of aid</P>
    2568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2561
    25692562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 28 June 1996</P>
    2570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2563
    25712564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union takes note of the fact that the regime in Niger has announced the results of the country's constitutional referendum and has lifted the state of emergency and the ban on political parties.</P>
    2572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2565
    25732566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU takes the view that Niger has thus met the conditions set out by the Council on 13 May 1996 for the progressive restoration of cooperation. In the first instance, this will take the form of: -support for the electoral process; -aid for structural adjustment which, at present, needs to be focused exclusively on the most pressing needs in the social sectors.</P>
    2574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2567
    25752568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council will continue to follow closely the situation in Niger, in particular as regards the preparation and conduct of the presidential and legislative elections.</P>
    2576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2569
    25772570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arusha summit on Burundi</P>
    2578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2571
    25792572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 5 July 1996</P>
    2580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2573
    25812574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declaration of 25 June 1996, the European Union congratulates President Mkapa on the organisation of the Arusha regional summit, which has produced constructive proposals on the conflict in Burundi. It expresses appreciation for the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and reiterates its support for his peace initiative.</P>
    2582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2575
    25832576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU encourages the region's Heads of State and the Organisation of African Unity to commit themselves resolutely to supporting and giving substance to the Arusha recommendations and to contribute to the restoration of security in Burundi.</P>
    2584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2577
    25852578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU expects the President and the Prime Minister of Burundi to fulfil the undertakings they gave at the Summit to overcome the crisis in Burundi and, with the help of the countries of the region, to put an end to the violence which is destroying the people of Burundi.</P>
    2586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2579
    25872580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all the political forces of Burundi to seek a political solution and to give a favourable reception to regional initiatives to restore peace to their country. It calls the attention of all the parties to the conflict in Burundi to the fact that it condemns all forms of violence and that it will not recognise a government that has taken power by force of arms. Only peace, a peace consolidated at regional level, can guarantee the security of all and lay the foundations for economic and social development.</P>
    2588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2581
    25892582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is prepared to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It reiterates its readiness to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
    2590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2583
    25912584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates the need to convene the Conference on Peace, Security and Stability in the Great Lakes Region under the joint aegis of the United Nations and the OAU.</P>
    2592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2585
    25932586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: support for the OAU Resolution</P>
    2594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2587
    25952588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 15 July 1996</P>
    2596 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2589
    25972590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its previous Declarations and Common Position on Burundi and, in particular, the Declarations of 25 June 1996 and 5 July 1996, the European Union warmly welcomes the Resolution on Burundi adopted by the Organisation of African Unity's Assembly of Heads of State and Government in Yaounde on 8 -10 July 1996.</P>
    2598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2591
    25992592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Union particularly welcomes the reaffirmation by the OAU of its support for the Mwanza Peace Talks under the facilitation of former President Nyerere and its encouragement to him to continue with his efforts based on and incorporating the principles of sustainable democracy and security for all the people of Burundi and an all-inclusive negotiation process. The Union reiterates its appreciation of the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and its support for his peace initiative in this context.</P>
    2600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2593
    26012594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration in the Resolution of the OAU's full support for the outcome of the Arusha Summit of 25 June 1996, especially the acceptance of the request by the Government of Burundi for security assistance in order to complement and reinforce the Mwanza peace talks, as well as creating conducive security conditions for all parties to freely participate in the Mwanza process is also welcomed by the Union.</P>
    2602 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2595
    26032596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reaffirms its willingness to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It remains ready to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
    2604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2597
    26052598<I><P></P>
    26062599<!--
    … …  
    26112604  </Description>
    26122605-->
    2613 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2606</I>
    26142607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of Haiti</P>
    2615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2608
    26162609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Republic of Haiti, Rene Preval, visited the Commission on 11 June. He met with President Jacques Santer, Commissioner Joao de Deus Pinheiro (responsible for relations with the ACP States) and Commissioner Emma Bonino (responsible for humanitarian aid).</P>
    2617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2610
    26182611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Preval thanked the European Union for all the support it had provided both for the restoration of democracy in Haiti and for the country's economic development. He spoke in particular of the discussions that are currently under way with the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at restoring Haiti's economy. The President indicated that an economic recovery programme would need balance of payments support to the tune of $119m during 1996, as well as assistance for a range of economic sectors amounting to a billion dollars over a three-year period.</P>
    2619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2612
    26202613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For his part, Professor Pinheiro expressed satisfaction at being able to welcome the President at a time when the democratic process in Haiti was functioning normally and institutional consolidation was taking place. In a statement to the press, he said it was an appropriate moment 'to evaluate our cooperation and to strengthen it in a way that will contribute to economic and social development' in Haiti. He added that it was essential for the Haitian people to recognise that democracy was worthwhile. Professor Pinheiro also welcomed the normalisation of relations between Haiti and its neighbour, the Dominican Republic.</P>
    2621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2614
    26222615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Dominican Republic</P>
    2623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2616
    26242617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-elected President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernandez Reyna, had a working session at the Commission on 15 and 16 July.</P>
    2625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2618
    26262619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trip to Brussels was the President's first overseas visit in his new capacity, following his election on 30 June. Indeed, he had not yet formally assumed office at the time of his visit. His inauguration was due to take place on 16 August and the President-elect extended an invitation to the Commission to attend the ceremony. Mr Fernandez Reyna's subsequent itinerary included visits to Spain, France and the United States.</P>
    2627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2620
    26282621<I><P></P>
    26292622<!--
    … …  
    26342627  </Description>
    26352628-->
    2636 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2629</I>
    26372630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently approved the financing of the following projects under the budget line 'Human Rights and Democracy in the Developing Countries):</P>
    2638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2631
    26392632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
    2640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2633
    26412634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 120 000 for a project aimed at actively involving members of the National Assembly in the institution's functioning, and in the democratisation process taking place in the country.</P>
    2642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2635
    26432636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 72 000 for a human rights training programme in schools in both urban and rural areas.</P>
    2644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2637
    26452638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 118 000 for a human -rights training programme to be run in educational establishments and through itinerant projects in regions lacking education infrastructures. </P>
    2646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2639
    26472640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji: ECU 119 000 for a project to support a non-partisan, multi-ethnic civic forum, aimed at contributing to the achievement of a consensus among various social groups.</P>
    2648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2641
    26492642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
    2650 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2643
    26512644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 59 112 to safeguard texts which are essential to the preservation of Tibetan culture. </P>
    2652 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2645
    26532646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 30196 for the archiving of slides and photographs depicting art objects in order to preserve the culture and traditional techniques of Tibet. </P>
    2654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2647
    26552648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines: ECU 61 750 for a mission to identify the areas in which strategies for human rights and democracy could lead to positive and lasting changes. </P>
    2656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2649
    26572650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka: ECU 84 314 for a programme of information in the field of promoting equal opportunities and non-discrimination </P>
    2658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2651
    26592652<I><P></P>
    26602653<!--
    … …  
    26652658  </Description>
    26662659-->
    2667 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2660</I>
    26682661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to finance the following projects in developing countries affected by serious civil disturbances or natural disasters:</P>
    2669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2662
    26702663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 847 000 for an integrated programme covering the rehabilitation of agriculture and basic infrastructures, training in demining, hygiene and self sustaining development in Kipungo. </P>
    2671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2664
    26722665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 185 000 for the rehabilitation of basic infrastructures (water, health, education and housing) In the province of Luanda. </P>
    2673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2666
    26742667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 353 947 to support the rehabilitation and development of basic </P>
    26752668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">health care services in the south-west of the country.</P>
    2676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2669
    26772670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 575 197 for the rehabilitation of water supplies and community development in the town of Hagaz. </P>
    2678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2671
    26792672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 515.685 for the rehabilitation of primary care and water supplies in the Warder area. </P>
    2680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2673
    26812674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 455 630 to help the rehabilitation of repatriated people and displaced persons in the Borena area. </P>
    2682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2675
    26832676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 308 475 for the rehabilitation of health care and water supplies in the Hararghe area. </P>
    2684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2677
    26852678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 848 000 for a programme of support to upgrade medical infrastructures. </P>
    2686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2679
    26872680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 590 000 to consolidate the water sector and rehabilitate livestock infrastructures in Maputo and Gaza provinces. </P>
    2688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2681
    26892682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 for the second phase of a programme to help reestablish and reintegrate displaced people in Milange. </P>
    2690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2683
    26912684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 241 259 for a project designed to revitalise livestock producer groups, make available essential veterinary products and support cattle production in the landward prefecture of Kigali. </P>
    2692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2685
    26932686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 411 751 to provide professional training in primary health care. </P>
    2694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2687
    26952688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 805 475 for an environment rehabilitation project in the prefecture of Kibungo. </P>
    2696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2689
    26972690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 437 622 for the rehabilitation of primary schools in the southwest of the country. </P>
    2698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2691
    26992692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 94 650 to train laboratory technicians. </P>
    2700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2693
    27012694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 626 439 for the rehabilitation of wells and water points in the Nugal region. </P>
    2702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2695
    27032696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 423 687 for the creation of enterprises involved in making bricks and earth blocks in order to assist in the rehabilitation of rural habitats. </P>
    2704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2697
    27052698<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 1 491 117 for a tree-planting project around the Virungas National Park as part of a rehabilitation programme directed at Rwanda's immediate neighbours.</P>
    2706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2699
    27072700<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 213 536 for operational and methodological support for rural development projects. </P>
    2708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2701
    27092702<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 645 120 for technical assistance in the follow-up and evaluation of rehabilitation projects. </P>
    2710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2703
    27112704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 551980 for a programme to rehabilitate schools and provide support for the education sector. </P>
    2712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2705
    27132706<I><P></P>
    27142707<!--
    … …  
    27192712  </Description>
    27202713-->
    2721 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2714</I>
    27222715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
    2723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2716
    27242717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
    2725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2718
    27262719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1.9 million for the rehabilitation and construction of customs facilities. </P>
    2727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2720
    27282721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 11 million for resurfacing and improvements to the runway at Lusaka international Airport. </P>
    2729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2722
    27302723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji ECU 1.8 million for the rebuilding of three bridges.</P>
    2731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2724
    27322725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
    2733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2726
    27342727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of SADC (Southern Africa), ECOWAS (West Africa) and ECOCAS (Central Africa): ECU 500 000 for a follow-up pilot project relating to industrial fore in different sectors. </P>
    2735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2728
    27362729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 1.9 million for a tourism development programme. </P>
    2737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2730
    27382731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 4.1 million to support the 1996-97 structural adjustment programme. </P>
    2739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2732
    27402733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands Antilles/Aruba: ECU 5 million for a tourism promotion programme. </P>
    2741 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2734
    27422735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/ rural development</P>
    2743 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2736
    27442737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million to support professional organisations in the field of rural credit. </P>
    2745 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2738
    27462739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.4 million to build a bridge at Maphobeni, to facilitate rural development in this area. </P>
    2747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2740
    27482741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.5 million to improve the storage and commercialisation of maize. </P>
    2749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2742
    27502743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
    2751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2744
    27522745<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin: ECU 700 000 to enhance the security of blood supplies in the Oueme, Mono and Atlantique departments. </P>
    2753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2746
    27542747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
    2755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2748
    27562749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 15 million for a training programme directed at SMEs, independent operators and the unemployed. </P>
    2757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2750
    27582751<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 1.05 million for a programme designed to strengthen training and research capacity in the economic field. </P>
    2759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2752
    27602753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of IGAD (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda): ECU 1.9 million for a training programme for the commercialisation of cereals. </P>
    2761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2754
    27622755<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
    2763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2756
    27642757<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 1.3 million for a community reforestation programme in the Lesotho Highlands. </P>
    2765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2758
    27662759<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
    2767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2760
    27682761<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 250 000 to provide technical support for the computerisation of the National Bank's accounting system. </P>
    2769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2762
    27702763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 1.8 million to support the electoral process.</P>
    2771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2764
    27722765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.7 million for an assistance programme for the National Authorising </P>
    27732766<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officer covering the management of funds allocated by the European Community.</P>
    2774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2767
    27752768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for the first phase of a tourism development programme. </P>
    2776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2769
    27772770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariforum countries-Antigua &amp; Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &amp; the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad &amp; Tobago): ECU 725 000 in technical assistance for the programming unit of the Cariforum General Secretariat. </P>
    2778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2771
    27792772<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
    2780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2773
    27812774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All ACPs: ECU 5 million to strengthen fisheries management and biodiversity. </P>
    2782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2775
    27832776<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 1.5 million for a pilot project in the field of decentralised cooperation. </P>
    2784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2777
    27852778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 12.5 million for a community development programme in the battle against poverty. </P>
    2786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2779
    27872780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 47 million for the second rehabilitation programme. The focus will be on productive activities (livestock, agriculture and fisheries), the social sectors (health, water, sanitation systems and education), the private sector (revenue generation, job creation, SMEs), the public sector (training, establishment of institutions), demobilisation, and the integration of former combatants </P>
    2788 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2781
    27892782<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.6 million for a programme to combat poverty including, in particular, the provision of credit to micro-enterprises. </P>
    2790 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2783
    27912784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 2 million to support the integration of displaced people in Kasai. </P>
    2792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2785
    27932786<I><P></P>
    27942787<!--
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    27992792  </Description>
    28002793-->
    2801 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2794</I>
    28022795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa: A loan of ECU 56 million for Eskom, the public electricity company, for the modemisation of part of its electricity distribution network.</P>
    2803 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2796
    28042797<I><P></P>
    28052798<!--
    … …  
    28102803  </Description>
    28112804-->
    2812 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2805</I>
    28132806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
    2814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2807
    28152808<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 14 million for a global assistance programme covering food and medical aid, the distribution of equipment and demining operations. </P>
    2816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2809
    28172810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 500 000 for the distribution of essential food products and to meet the special nutritional needs of children in the north of the country.</P>
    2818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2811
    28192812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cote d'lvoire: ECU 340 000 to help combat cholera and yellow fever among refugees from Liberia. </P>
    2820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2813
    28212814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 140 000 towards the setting up of a camp for 'boat people' arriving from Liberia. </P>
    2822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2815
    28232816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 160000 for the distribution of food to refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone. </P>
    2824 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2817
    28252818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal: ECU 250 000 towards the fight against cholera, notably in the town of Touba.</P>
    2826 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2819
    28272820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 4.2 million for food and emergency medical aid (to combat cholera) for people displaced by the civil war. </P>
    2828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2821
    28292822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.5 million for a measles vaccination programme and for medical and food aid for victims of the internal conflict. </P>
    2830 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2823
    28312824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan: ECU 13 million to finance ECHO flights, and for food, medical aid and the provision of water supplies, for civilian victims of the conflict, notably in Khartoum and its environs and in the refugee camps in the north of Uganda.</P>
    2832 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2825
    28332826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non - ACP countries</P>
    2834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2827
    28352828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 1.5 million for medicines, essential provisions, drinking water supply equipment and training actions in the area of epidemic prevention. </P>
    2836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2829
    28372830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru: ECU 800 000 for shelters and medical assistance to people in the process of reestablishing their homes having fled from the violence that has occurred over the past ten years.</P>
    2838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2831
    28392832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ex-Yugoslavia: ECU 102 million for various emergency operations. The breakdown of this aid, by country, is as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina-ECU 77.45 million; Croatia-ECU 11.95 million; Serbia-Montenegro-ECU 12,6 million.</P>
    2840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2833
    28412834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russian Federation: ECU 900 000 for street children in St Petersburg and homeless people in Moscow. </P>
    2842 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2835
    28432836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 7 million for a coordinated aid programme covering public health measures, the provision of drinking water, hygiene and refuse collection. The aid will be directed both at the people of Kabul and at other provinces of the country. </P>
    2844 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2837
    28452838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirghizistan: ECU 3.6 million for the purchase and distribution of food. </P>
    2846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2839
    28472840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tadilkistan: ECU 8.9 million for a food and medical programme. </P>
    2848 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2841
    28492842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh: ECU 300 000 to help victims of the tropical storm that struck in the middle of May. </P>
    2850 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2843
    28512844<I><P></P>
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    2859 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2852</I>
    28602853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: 15 000 tonnes of cereals, 2000 tonnes of oils and 3000 tonnes of beans amounting to a total value of ECU 20.075 million. </P>
    2861 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     2854</FONT>
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    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    17 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    18 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     16</B>
    1917<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union </P>
    20 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     18
    2119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country reports</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     20
    2321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is home to people of a variety of cultures but it would not be accurate to describe this Pacific island country as a 'melting pot'. Politics here are dominated by the difficult relationship between indigenous Fijians and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in to work the sugar cane fields. We look at how this situation affects the economy -  which everyone acknowledges has considerable potential, and examine the prospects for ethnic rapprochement as the nation begins a 'great debase' on the future shape of its Constitution. </P>
    26 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     24
    2725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
    29 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     27
    3028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga appears like a haven of tranquility in a turbulent world. A society which respects hierarchies and is strongly attached to 'traditional values', it is also one of the few remaining places with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power. But outside influences cannot be ignored altogether and nations everywhere are having to adapt to living in the 'global village'. Our report focuses on the possible consequences of this for the 'Friendly Islands' as the new millenium approaches. </P>
    31 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     29
    3230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    3331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
    34 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     32
    3533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat</P>
    36 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     34
    3735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'habitat' conjures up different things to different people - from the right to a roof over one's head to the way in which we manage the flora and fauna of the planet. In our dossier, we consider the legacy of the United Nations 'Habitat' Conference held in Istanbul earlier this year. We also highlight some of the initiatives being taken to improve the quality of people's living environment. </P>
    38 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    40 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
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     37<B>
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    48 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     44</B>
    4945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier: Africa  - Caribbean - Pacific - European union</P>
    50 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     46
    5147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium </P>
    52 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     48
    5349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere- Brussels Belgium</P>
    54 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     50
    5551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt commission of the European communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - Brussels (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 1111 </P>
    56 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     52
    5753<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
    5854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
    59 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     55
    6056<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
    6157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
    62 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     58
    6359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
    6460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
    6561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
    66 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     62
    6763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
    6864<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     65
    7066<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
    7167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
    72 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     68
    7369<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
    7470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
    75 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     71
    7672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
    7773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
    7874<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
    79 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     75
    8076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
    8177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf (299-30-1 2)</P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    83 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    85 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    10396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main development battle must be fought in the towns and cities</P>
    104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     97
    10598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1972, Enda Tiers Monde ('Enda' stands for 'environment and development') is one of the few large international NGOs to be based in a developing country. It has a presence in a number of states in Africa, Latin America and Asia and has been concentrating its efforts on towns and cities, in the belief that this is where deprived populations can be best assisted. Jacques Bugnicourt, who is Enda's Executive Secretary, has some strong views about what needs to be done to tackle the problem of urban deprivation. When we interviewed him at the Enda headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, we began by asking him about the history of the organisation that he heads.</P>
    106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     99
    107100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - When we launched Enda, I am not sure that we had any particular goal in mind. You would have to go back to the end of the 1950s, with the war in Indochina, the approaching conflict in Algeria, the independence of countries in Africa and the last-ditch struggles of the colonial powers, notably France. It was in Paris that links were forged between activists from many Third-World countries - in particular, we all took part in the street demonstrations mounted by people from the French colonies. There were some very strong groupings like the Federation of Students from Black Africa, and its equivalents set up by students from the Maghreb, Latin America and Asia. Ten years later, in the 1970s, we could see that the independence experiment was turning sour and the hopes we vested in the actions of determined and brilliant people had come to nothing. The United Nations was becoming increasingly bureaucratic. Some of our friends and colleagues who had government posts had their hands tied, while others were in prison and were equally powerless. In addition, the communists were disappointed at not being able to apply their doctrine to local conditions. Some did, in fact, manage to achieve small-scale results locally when working at the grass-roots, but by and large, their efforts were not successful. I came to Dakar, where I taught in a United Nations institute.</P>
    108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     101
    109102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A lot of people had theories. But you cannot take up the battle for the poor without the poor themselves, or for those under the yoke of colonial rule without the participation of the subjugated population. To begin with, you have to appreciate the diversity of the various peoples in developing countries, and be aware of their daily life and struggle. Cesaire wrote that you had to ask questions about the soil, about cities, about men and about the sun. Later, once you have done this, you can act.</P>
    110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103
    111104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We need to dismantle the barriers. There can be no agronomy without economics, and no economics without sociology. If you are talking about jobs in Senegal, you also must talk about jobs in Mali and Guinea - treat Africa as a whole. Another thing is that you have to stand up for yourself and not allow yourself to be manipulated by people from the developed countries. One of the major problems we have noticed is that part of Africa's elite is out of touch with the general population.</P>
    112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    113106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are the underlying reasons for the foundation of Enda. Nowadays, it is a non-profit-making international organisation working with various communities - an 'INGO', if you like, with the 'I' standing for 'international'. We have bases almost everywhere in the Third World, from Ho Chi Minh City to La Paz.</P>
    114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     107
    115108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is each section of Enda independent, then ?</P>
    116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     109
    117110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. We took the view that there was a danger of becoming too centralised and acting like a small-scale UNICEF or UNESCO, so we decided to guard our independence very carefully. We opted for the widest-ranging autonomy possible. This has its drawbacks of course, but these are far outweighed by the advantages.</P>
    118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    119112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mention drawbacks. Would it be true to say that the original enthusiasm which greeted the creation of Enda has fallen off somewhat ?</P>
    120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     113
    121114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's something we are always concerned about. It is not structures which maintain cohesion, but the sharing of goals and the channelling of our actions towards the common good.</P>
    122 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     115
    123116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the various sections get together, we find that we have a great many things in common. But there is no good reason why those of us in Dakar should try to influence the way people work in working-class districts in Santo Domingo, for example, where they are trying to tackle problems like AIDS and unemployment. We simply tell them what we are doing here and vice versa. If you want to serve the people, you have to have a decentralised set-up. It would be wrong to deal with a problem centrally, and to do so would be against our instincts. Most of us have no particular liking for institutions. An institution must be of service in the battle, not the other way round.</P>
    124 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     117
    125118<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do you guarantee cohesion in practice ?</P>
    126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     119
    127120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It costs a great deal to travel of course, but we do have a lot of joint programmes. For example, the cities programme includes people from Bogota, Santo Domingo, Rabat, Dakar, Ho Chi Minh City and Bombay, all working together. They meet from time to time and, when they do, it is to get down to practical work. Together, their work is, say, three-quarters practical and one quarter reflective. Nevertheless, there is ongoing tension, particularly in the relationship between overall policy and local demands. Another conflict arises between grass-roots action and reflection.</P>
    128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     121
    129122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The impression one gets is that you yourself are the 'cement' between the various groups which make up Enda. Could this not be seen as a weakness which may make things difficult in the future ?</P>
    130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     123
    131124<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's what other people say, not what I think. I try to make my presence useful and those who come after me will do the same. What really holds us together is our belief in what we are doing. It is not a question of adhering to some kind of 'monolithic' faith. We simply believe that we can be of use, recognising that there are many limitations. Let me give you a practical example. If someone involved in recycling in Bogota were to meet up with someone from a poor district in Dakar who works at the rubbish tip, they would have a great deal in common and would find it useful to compare their problems and consider practical ways of solving them together.</P>
    132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     125
    133126<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your most important activities in Senegal ?</P>
    134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     127
    135128<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - By far the most important is the one covering the city of Dakar. As well as being a focus for the country itself, Dakar is a metropolitan centre for the entire sub-region, with influence over Bamako, Conakry, Bissau and perhaps even Praia in Cape Verde and Nouakchott in Mauritania. What happens here has repercussions in all those cities. I do not want to sound too dramatic, but the decisive factor in our destiny will be the fate of young people and the poor in the major cities. Two-thirds of these people are facing chronic problems. Those under twenty make up more than half the population and their lives are continuing to spiral down into poverty.</P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     129
    137130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enda should obviously be operating in those areas where it can be of most use. And in the context of towns and cities, we have completely reviewed our strategy. For some years we gave priority to the countryside. For a long time, in fact, we believed that rural development would permit a much improved urbanisation process. There was even the view that people in developed countries would not object to paying a little more for agricultural produce, because they could be certain that the money was going to those who actually grew the cotton, groundnuts, cocoa or whatever.</P>
    138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     131
    139132<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last fifteen years or so, though, we have come round to the view that our actions must be directed principally at towns and cities. We found initially that there were some interesting projects involving small groups - working to improve the position of children or banding together in cooperative savings ventures. It was good, long-term work which gave results. But that is all out of date now. We have to speak in terms of much larger numbers  -  tens of thousands and not tens or hundreds. Otherwise, there is no chance of making a real difference. That is why we have considerably altered our strategy. Three years ago, approximately two thousand children were able to go to holiday camps. Most of these holidays were paid for by companies, but fewer than 10% of the beneficiaries were genuinely poor. Last year, no fewer than 10 000 children were sent away on five days' holiday -  to the coast near Dakar. Enda was involved in this programme working with 200 local cultural and sports associations. The idea was to give the children the chance to splash about in the sea, but also to use African resources to help them become full citizens and learn that our diversity is the source of our wealth. There are at least 100 000 children living in misery and many of them could end up joining the ranks of the street children. If you can give these youngsters five days holiday plus a bit of follow-up, you allow friendships to be built. It offers a brief escape from everyday reality. It may not be paradise, but it is something tangible.</P>
    140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     133
    141134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example is the tontines that have been formed into a federation. We currently have nineteen thousand women participating in these and if you bear the large family sizes in mind - there are perhaps ten people in every family - that represents a lot of people. The women pay into the tontines and the money is used, not just for the security of their immediate family, but also to help young people set themselves up.</P>
    142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     135
    143136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there is rubbish collection. Enda runs its own scheme but there are also a number of groups that have turned rubbish collection into a profession. The young people collect the rubbish and recycle it. There are about 50 000 people in the biggest district where we are involved in rubbish collection. There are also some young people in that district who are engaged in water recycling and although it only involves supplying about a hundred people at the moment, I believe this scheme will grow. </P>
    144 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     137
    145138<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also organise schools and are currently involved in making films for schools on the subjects of the environment, hygiene and solidarity.</P>
    146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     139
    147140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Enda has just opened an 'eco-centre'. If I understand it correctly, this is a showcase to promote a horizontal link between Enda's various activities.</P>
    148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     141
    149142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is right. We want it to be a place of passage, meeting, exhibition, permeation and redistribution. We hope people will feel comfortable there, and that it will be a tool symbolising a new way of working. So the centre offers an experience, but we also want it to be used to promote activity. A variety of events have been organised there simultaneously - recently for example, a meeting of shoe-shiners, a gathering of teachers from a long-standing educational centre, an exhibition for the Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art, and a local-community meeting about setting up a small production facility. Two days earlier, there was a preliminary holiday-camp meeting where the instructors got together to look at the best available teaching methods designed to make children more aware of the importance of solidarity. We believe that solidarity is essential in tackling problems.</P>
    150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     143
    151144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So the centre has a multitude of uses, all of which contribute to the vitality of the local economy. You have to understand the crucial importance of the local economy. It responds to all the basic needs of the poorest people, who want to live their lives just like the rest of us.</P>
    152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     145
    153146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk of depending on the local (what some would call the informal) economy to live - or at least survive. But this sector is not viewed with enthusiasm by the international authorities ?</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     147
    155148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Their policy is based on domination and fear: fear of those who accumulate assets. To see these hordes of people in the developing countries frightens them. It's a bit like the horror of the wealthy classes at the end of the nineteenth century when faced with a working class which dared to aspire to wealth. They will give to charity but are not prepared to make a long-term investment. The lack of support for the local economy stems from the fact that foreign aid is geared, first and foremost, towards major projects or emergency aid. Four or five years ago, the UN conducted a survey in 10 towns and cities in West Africa, but the results were not published because they showed that the average rate of growth of the local economy was 7.5%. So, you see, we are far from just muddling along. Great things could be achieved if only there were a change in attitude. It also requires a change of terminology. How can one justify the use of the word 'informal' and, worse still, treat the work of the poorest people and fraudulent activities under the same heading. Fraud may be formal or informal. Knowing African society as I do, I am aware that fraud is statistically more widespread amongst the prosperous and highly respected. So we must not cast stones at the little man selling socks who has no trading licence because he cannot afford one, or at the woman who sets up a stall at a school entrance without complying with the law which requires a recent certificate stating that she does not have tuberculosis. What is the bottom line here ? Must we respect the law or the people who want to live without being thieves, beggars or prostitutes ? It is unacceptable for force to lie with the law and for the majority to be cast into wretchedness.</P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     149
    157150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal, there used to be fixed prices for milk. The World Bank protested, declaring that this was a restriction on free competition. Now we have to pay much more and many people can no longer afford to give their children-milk every day.</P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     151
    159152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To put it in perspective, Senegal's economy is about the same size as that of the city of Bordeaux. So we must use all the available potential. Highly qualified managers should do their job looking after the high-tech sectors. But, at the same time, we should not be driving out the poor people who are just trying to eke out a living. The informal sector creates services for a very small investment, and people also require services. Economic policy must allow society to walk on two legs, not just one. What that means is that we need a great deal of flexibility, and perhaps a complete review of the law. Contraceptive implants have to be licensed so that there are no more back-street abortions. And it must be possible for girls to attend school even if they do not have a proper birth certificate - why should they be excluded from education for want of a piece of paper. It should be possible to trade with a simple one-day ticket which people should be able to buy in post offices or cinemas. What would be wrong with that? And we should have a moratorium on a number of regulations. We need to wage war on the destitution that we are suffering and that means taking decisive measure.</P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    182172<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the agenda was, as usual, heavily laden with a variety of long-standing issues ranging from regional cooperation, fisheries, the cocoa content of chocolate and bananas to the situation in several ACP states (in particular Rwanda and Burundi), the future of ACP-EU relations was at the forefront of discussions at the ACP-EU Joint Assembly, which was held in Luxembourg from 23-26 September 1996.</P>
    183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    184174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opened in the presence of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, the Assembly's general attitude was not one of speculation as to whether or not the European Union would abandon the ACP states when the Lom&eacute; IV Convention expires in the year 2000 - a feeling that was rife shortly after the signing of the revised version in Mauritius in November 1995. Instead, it was one of positive thinking and of exploring the kind of agreement that would succeed it. 'There is no question of the European Union getting out of a relationship which took decades to build', Luxembourg's Prime Minister Jean-Claude Junker, told participants in his welcoming address.</P>
    185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    186176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As pessimism gives way to guarded optimism, ACP-EU parliamentarians have taken an important initiative, even before the Commission's Green Paper is published, in what is bound to be a long and passionate debate. A special summit of ACP Heads of State is planned for Gabon later in 1997 to discuss the issue.</P>
    187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     177
    188178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Options for the future</P>
    189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     179
    190180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general report, introduced by Mr Firmin Jean-Louis (Haiti), provided the main platform for the Joint Assembly's deliberation. Although presented too late for representatives to have the opportunity to examine it in detail, the exchange of views on the floor was wide-ranging and reflected the report's content to a considerable degree.</P>
    191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     181
    192182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report encapsulates all the ideas that have emerged so far in various fore. It analyses framework options for future ACP-EU relations  -  bilateral, regional and multilateral - and raises pertinent questions and concerns. Noting that international cooperation is increasingly dictated by economic and security considerations, and that North-South solidarity is, as a result, being pushed to the background, it regrets the fact that certain EU member states appear to indicate a preference for bilateral over multilateral cooperation. The author of the report warns that this trend would not only diminish the credibility of the Union but also its international influence.</P>
    193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     183
    194184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any instrument of cooperation, the report says, should take into account the different levels of development among ACP states as well as the regional vocation of many others. Its objective must be poverty eradication, sustainable economic and social development, and the harmonious integration of the ACP states into the global economy.</P>
    195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    196186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It recognises the need to secure the support of European public opinion which is largely unconvinced that EU aid to ACP states has been effective over the past 20 years. Not enough publicity; it says, has been given to its positive aspects. The report goes on to warn that solidarity and development are at stake and that the debate on the future of ACP-EU relations should not be left to politicians and technocrats. It should also involve wider civil society.</P>
    197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     187
    198188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Joint Assembly debate, the commitment of EU political leaders to the development of the ACP states was often called into question. Francis Wurtz (EUL-F) summed it up when he said there were worrying signs that the EU intends to downgrade its relationship with the ACP states - signs which go back to the negotiations on the Lom&eacute; IV second financial protocol, when several countries refused to increase their contributions to the 8th EDF. The EU draft budget for 1997, which he said revealed a substantial reduction in the funds allocated to the developing countries outside the Mediterranean region, provided further evidence of this. 'We must be vigilant,' he told his colleagues, 'and must not allow the Lom&eacute; Convention to be revised downwards.' Mr Wurtz agreed that greater efforts were needed to create awareness and mobilise European opinion in favour of development. The European public should know that EU development policy was not based on charity but on self-interest. 'Without Africa developing, Europe has little chance of maintaining growth in the long run.'</P>
    199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     189
    200190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lord Plumb (EPP-UK), the European Co-President of the Joint Assembly, admitted that it would not be easy to influence European public opinion. 'One of the roles of the Joint Assemby,' he said, however, 'must be to ensure that the peoples of Europe have confidence in the progress being made by the countries of the South. We must all help in this task of confidence-building.' </P>
    201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     191
    202192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glenys Kinnock (PES-UK) urged that there should be as much participation as possible in the ongoing dialogue over future ACP-EU relations in order to bridge what she saw as 'the gap between rhetoric and reality.' Equity, she argued, should be the main objective.</P>
    203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    204194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP Co-President, Sir John Kaputin (Papua New Guinea), said there was no doubt that the EU was forging closer ties with the former Eastern bloc countries at the expense of the ACPs. He pointed out, however, that the Lom&eacute; Convention had always encouraged a 'forward-looking' approach and argued that whatever succeeded the current ACP-EU relationship should be 'the most important' agreement ever.</P>
    205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    206196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative from Barbados, Dr Richard Cheltenham, was of the opinion that whatever the outcome of the discussions, efforts were needed to avoid 'chaos'. There should, for example, be no immediate abandonment of the trade preferences that ACP states had acquired. Transformation must be gradual to enable them to adjust and restructure.</P>
    207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    208198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner, Professor Pinheiro, chose, first of all, to underline the importance of the role of 'the state and civil society' in development. He indicated that he saw this as growing more and more in importance. This was reflected in the agreement signed in Mauritius -  an agreement which seeks to encourage the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance and transparency, and which emphasises decentralised cooperation and the role of the private sector. the Commissioner spoke about the current programming exercise, reminding the Assembly that resources were being allocated in two tranches in accordance with the provisions of the revised Convention, to take account of each ACP state's development strategy and the objectives and priorities of the Community's development policy. He revealed that only 16 ACP countries and two EU Member States had ratified the revised Convention and urged those that have not done so to accelerate the process.</P>
    209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    210200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He welcomed the Joint Assembly's initiative in debating future ACP-EU relations. The Commission's Green Paper, he told representatives, will be published in November. He was, therefore, not in a position to enter into detailed discussions with members on the subject at this stage. He stressed, nonetheless, that the document 'will not be a blueprint for future EU strategy towards the ACP countries. It will be a discussion paper.' there were a number of key questions that needed to be addressed regarding strategy, the scope of future relations and the use of the traditional instruments of aid and trade. 'This is not to say that we should start afresh', he argued. 'We should build on what has been achieved so far, and adapt where necessary.' Professor Pinheiro was certain that whatever the outcome of the discussions, there were a number of 'unchallengeable principles' on which ACP-EU relations should continue to be based. These were: partnership, ownership by ACP countries of their development policies, security in terms of EU support and predictability of relations.</P>
    211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    212202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New areas of concern</P>
    213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     203
    214204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This session of the Joint Assembly saw the emergence of two new areas of concern: urban development, and the effects of climate change on small island states. An initial report on the former was presented by the rapporteur, Daby Diagne (Senegal). It did not give rise to much debate. The report emphasises the pivotal role towns play in economic development and urges the Community to adopt an integrated policy on urban development (See our interview with Mr Daigne in the Dossier). The latter was the subject of a full morning hearing, involving a panel of ACP-EU experts who are closely involved with the problem. They warned of the threat posed by global warming to the survival, and even existence, of many islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The emission of greenhouse gases, the Assembly was told, has reached levels never before experienced (see the article which follows). Representatives agreed on the need to integrate climate change considerations into sustainable development strategies. A Working Group on the issue was set up with Karin Junker (PES-G) as general rapporteur.</P>
    215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    216206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa and babanas</P>
    217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     207
    218208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was no avoiding the intractable problems of cocoa and bananas. On cocoa, opinions were divided as usual. There were those who felt that the Commission's proposed new directive allowing chocolate to contain vegetable oils (up to 5% of total volume) in place of cocoa butter, was reasonable. The proposal also involves a labelling system to ensure that the exact contents of the product are clearly indicated Advocates of this strategy argued that it would not only widen consumer choice but would also promote the export of shea-butter and other vegetable oils which a number of ACP countries produce. Opponents were worried that if implemented, the directive could lead to a big fall in cocoa exports and a commensurate loss of earnings for ACP cocoa producers. Magda Aelvoet (Greens-B) argued in favour of maintaining the status quo, saying that this was preferable to what was being put forward in the draft directive. She warned that the Commission propose' would almost certainly result in everyone (cocoa producers, shea-butter producers and consumers) losing out. There was no guarantee that menu facturers would choose shea-butter given that they would be free to use whatever vegetable oils they liked She was certain they would go for the cheapest substitute or even for synthetic products. Accordingly, Mrs Aelvoet proposed a 'freeze' on all proposals. This view was reflected in the resolution passed by the Assembly, which called on the Council to reject the proposed directive. It also requested the sever member countries which currently authorise the use of vegetable oil to comply gradually with the existing directive  -  which bans their use altogether.</P>
    219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     209
    220210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banana issue proved even thornier. There is a dispute at the World Trade Organisation, where the Lom&eacute; Protocol is being challenged by the United States and Latin American banana producers. Mrs Kinnock expressed anger at the fact that the arbitration panel set up by the WTO is made UP of three countries known to advocate free trade. The panel, she said, is chaired by Hong Kong - which the Organisation told her was representing the 'developing countries!' The general feeling among representatives was that the odds were stacked against the European Union and the ACPs. The Assembly passed a resolution asking the Union to stand firm in defence of the banana regime.</P>
    221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     211
    222212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Democracy, human rights, peace and security</P>
    223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     213
    224214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-seven questions were addressed to the Council of Ministers and a further 28 to the Commission. More than a third of these dealt with issues relating to emergency relief operations, democracy, human rights, peace and security  -  recurring themes throughout the four-day meeting. The emphasis, in this context, was on Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia and Nigeria, all of which were considered individually under the agenda item 'the situation in ACP states'.</P>
    225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     215
    226216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the detailed answers given by Commissioner Pinheiro to questions on Burundi and Rwanda, the Assembly had a long session with Aldo Ajello, the EU's Special Representative to the Great Lakes. The discussion focused on efforts to restore democracy and legitimate government in Burundi, national reconciliation, and the repatriation of refugees from neighbouring countries to both Burundi and Rwanda. Mr Ajello gave members a comprehensive picture of the complex political and humanitarian situation in the region. He spoke of the sanctions imposed on Burundi by neighbouring countries and the efforts of the former Tanzania President, Julius Nyerere, to bring about dialogue and a just political settlement in Burundi.</P>
    227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     217
    228218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria was again in the dock. Its representative, Dada Olisa, acting Charge d'affaires at the Embassy in Brussels, gave an account of what he considered was the progress made by the Abacha regime on human rights and democracy since the Joint Assembly met in Windhoek last March. He mentioned the repeal of the decree under which Ken Saro-Wiwa and other minority activists were executed, the release of detainees and the transitional programme for a return to democracy by 1998. He pleaded for the Assembly's understanding.</P>
    229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    230220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">His explanation cut no ice with any of the seven political groupings in the European Parliament, who came together to present a compromise draft resolution on Nigeria. They wish to see all political prisoners released immediately, and the restoration of civil and political rights, as well as a democratically elected civilian government, by the end of 1996.</P>
    231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     221
    232222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution on Nigeria was again passed by secret ballot - the very last act of the session. It calls, among other things, for a total arms embargo (preventing the trade in future but also covering existing supply agreements) and for the financial assets of the Nigerian government and of members of the country's ruling councils (and of their families), to be frozen.</P>
    233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     223
    234224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution does not differ very much from the previous one. Mrs Junker, Johanna Maij-Weggen (EPP-NL) and Mrs Kinnock all expressed disappointment that the EU Council had failed to implement this fully. However, by repeating the demand for sanctions, they said, the Assembly was sending a very strong message to the Council that it was determined to see Nigeria return to democracy as quickly as possible. </P>
    235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    236 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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    248235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate change</P>
    249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    250237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A morning session of the ACP-EU Joint Assembly was devoted to a public hearing on the effects of climate change on small island states. It was appropriate that the issue should be brought to the attention of the Assembly by Maartje van Putten (PESNL). Representing a country much of which lies below sea-level. she is familiar with the devastating effects of sea flooding. At the hearing, which was very well attended, a panel of invited ACP-EU experts was on hand to enlighten the audience on the extent of the problem.</P>
    251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     238
    252239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although global warning has been on the international agenda for more than 10 years, the seriousness of the threat it poses to the survival of small island states is only now beginning to be taken seriously - and it might already be too late, if some of the most apocalyptic scientific predictions are to be believed.</P>
    253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    254241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now growing evidence that global warming is taking place. In recent years, we have experienced more extreme weather conditions - heatwaves, floods and increasingly destructive tropical storms - while there are signs that icecaps are melting and sea levels rising. The increasing incidence of malaria in Africa has been linked to these changes. And it is all happening because of the influence our style of living is having on the planet - in particular the huge emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, from our factories, vehicles and so on.</P>
    255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     242
    256243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That the public hearing attracted a large audience was not only a reflection of the interest the problem is now commanding. It also symbolised the mounting international pressure for reductions in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and for the adoption of more realistic strategies of sustainable development.</P>
    257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    258245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel of experts comprised Dr Leonard Nurse, Manager of the Coastal Conservation Project in Barbados, Donald Stewart, Acting Director of the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP), Dr Robert Watson, Senior Scientific Adviser at the Environment Department of the World Bank and Chairman of the second Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Neroni Slade, Vice-Chairman of the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) and AOSIS Coordinator on Climate Change. A separate workshop on climate change was also organised on the same afternoon outside the formal Joint Assembly setting.</P>
    259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    260247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Dr Nurse, current estimates based on most reliable models, suggest sea level is rising at the rate of 5mm a year (the 'range of uncertainty' is between 2mm and 9mm). This is two to five times the rate experienced in the last 100 years. This rise is expected to continue beyond the year 2100 even if greenhouse gases are stabilised. The implications for small island states, particularly the low-lying ones, would be severe. 'Atolls such as Tokelau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and the Maldives could possibly disappear', he said. 'Major population displacement would be experienced in Micronesia, Palau, Nauru, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands and Tonga.' Meanwhile, small islands with extensive coastal plains and limited upland areas such as Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua, 'would be highly vulnerable to social and economic disruptions', as major cities, ports and tourist facilities, industries, freshwater sources, fertile agricultural lands and even coral reefs are destroyed by typhoons and cyclones, or washed away in floods. 'Given the limitations of climate models,' Dr Nurse said, 'it is not possible to state with certainty at this stage whether there will be a change in the behaviour of tropical storms and hurricanes. However, it is highly probable that an increase in the frequency and intensity of these phenomena could occur in a 'warmer world'. One study, he claims, predicts tropical storms would have a potential destructive force at least twice what they have today.</P>
    261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    262249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Watson, similarly, struck a pessimistic note when he said that the potential for irreversible damage was great. He agreed with Dr Nurse that even if we took measures now to reduce CO2 emissions, stabilisation of the situation will take centuries. He pleaded for climate change to be taken into consideration 'in our everyday decisions.' Governments must not wait for cause and effect to be established before taking action. 'It is,' he said, 'economically feasible to reduce CO2' by introducing appropriate policy measures: looking at supply of and demand for energy, resorting to new and renewable energy sources, nuclear power, etc. and ensuring more efficient land management.</P>
    263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    264251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question of 'burden-sharing' in the reduction of emissions between the industrialised world and the developing countries was debated at length. It was noted, for example, that small islands states are responsible for a very small proportion of the emissions, yet they bear the brunt of the consequences. There was a general consensus that burden-sharing should be based on equity and justice.</P>
    265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    266253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be noted that the Alliance of Small Island States (which was formed during the Second World Climate Conference in 1990) has called on the industrialised world to achieve a 20% reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2005 (The 'Toronto objective'). This, it hopes, would bring CO2 in the atmosphere down to 1990 levels. Whether this is realistic is debatable.</P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     254
    268255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, a number of strategy options are being closely examined by the European Commision and the Council with a view to adopting Community-wide measures to reduce emissions significantly by 2005-2010. Member States have made phasing-out proposals with targets of 5-10% by 2005, 15-20% by 2020 and 50% by 2030. This works out at an average reduction of 196 2% annually from the year 2000.</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     256
    270257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several parliamentarians wanted to know what the Commission, in particular, had done and will do to help small ACP island states overcome the effects of climate change. It was soon discovered during the discussion that a number of African countries were equally concerned. A Commission representative referred the Assembly to the provisions in the Convention which covered global warming and the special problems of island states. Although there is no specific reference to climate change, the Commission had dealt and would continue to deal with the issue in the broader context of its environmental action. Studies, projects and programmes are being implemented in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean in particular. Furthermore, DG VIII has drawn up internal briefing papers aimed at making departments aware of the issues of climate change and the environment. </P>
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    300 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284</I>
    301285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most of the ACP states featured in our Country Reports, the vital issues are usually economic and social ones. How is a nation with a poor natural resource base to achieve lasting development ? What can be done to improve the skills of the people? How can a vibrant private sector be created ? Can better health care be delivered and how should it be paid for? Some of these questions might well be valid for Fiji but the visiting journalist soon discovers that they are all secondary issues. For this is a country whose political system itself dominates the agenda. The fundamental issue here is the relationship between the indigenous people of Fiji and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in by the British between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane fields.</P>
    302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286
    303287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji, in fact, is home to people of a variety of cultures. On the indigenous side, the majority are Melanesians but there are also some Polynesians (living on the island of Rotuma). The country even plays host to Banabans, from Kiribati, who were displaced from their homes on Ocean Island to make way for the phosphate diggers. They hold a freehold to the island of Rabi and enjoy a special self-governing status. And while the Indians form the bulk of the non-indigenous population, there are also small Chinese and European communities as well as a number of inhabitants of mixed race.</P>
    304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     288
    305289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this diversity, it would be inappropriate to describe Fiji as a melting pot. Ever since the rapid expansion of the Indian population, official policy has tended to accentuate the divisions. In the early days, it was the British who were responsible for this, although one has to be careful to avoid value judgments. The colonial administrators, it seems, were aware of the tensions that would arise by bringing in large numbers of people of a different culture, language and religion. Their eventual response was to provide guarantees for the local population, notably as regards land rights. The effect was to preserve the traditional land tenure system which was based on villages and families. At the time, it seemed a logical thing to do, but several generations on, the country now has a settled population of Indian origin (43% of the total) who have limited opportunities to own land - even though many of them work on it.</P>
    306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     290
    307291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the economy has developed, each of the two main communities has found itself 'specialising' in different fields. For example, cane farmers and retailers tend to be of Indian origin while the public service has traditionally attracted more native Fijians. Significantly, the army is almost exclusively filled by indigenous people - a crucial factor in the 1987 military coup.</P>
    308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     292
    309293<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the political front, as Fiji moved towards independence, the idea of providing separate representation for each ethnic group also took hold. The independence constitution of 1970 reflected this with the two main communities being given parity (22 seats each) in the House of Representatives.</P>
    310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     294
    311295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shattered illusion</P>
    312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     296
    313297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there was no real assimilation between 1970 and 1987, Fiji was seen by many as a model of a successful multiracial society. It was only when the country got its first Indian-dominated administration (sustained in power by a smaller native Fijian party) that this illusion was shattered. There was a military coup led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, who is now the elected Prime Minister,. Shortly thereafter, Fiji became a republic (Queen Elizabeth was formerly Head of State) and in 1990, a new Constitution was adopted giving political primacy to the indigenous Fijians. Needless to say, it was a time of greatly heightened communal tension.</P>
    314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     298
    315299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1987 coup and the events that followed have been well covered elsewhere (including our previous Country Report which was published in 1991). It suffices to say here that while the last few years have been a lot less turbulent, tensions remain. In 1997, the country must adopt a new set of constitutional proposals and a big debate is currently under way about the shape of the system of government for the 21st century. This subject is covered in a later article and also features prominently in our interviews with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader.</P>
    316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     300
    317301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main focus of this article is therefore on economic and social aspects although, as one soon discovers, this frequently leads us back to the ethnic question. This is particularly the case when one considers the overall economic performance of the country. Fiji is not poor by developing nation standards and it has enjoyed modest growth during 1995 and 1996, but there is a widespread view that it could be doing a great deal better were it not for the political uncertainties. The problem is summed up by the Economic Intelligence Unit in its Fiji Country Report for the first quarter of 1996: 'Political instability will continue to deter investment, other than that on highly favourable tax terms.' In other words, Fiji is paying a high economic price for its internal difficulties.</P>
    318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     302
    319303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General unease about the future and, in particular, the outcome of the constitutional review process is compounded by specific concerns over land tenure. The long-term leases granted to (mainly Indian) farmers are approaching their end and the government must soon decide what it should do next. Will any of the sugar cane farmers be evicted and if so, how many ? What alternative arrangements will be made for them? These questions remained to be answered when The Courier visited Fiji in July although, as our keynote interviews show, the subject was clearly exercising the minds of the politicians.</P>
    320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     304
    321305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term strategy for agriculture?</P>
    322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     306
    323307<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way in which the land question is dealt with will have a crucial impact on the sugar industry - still the country's most important product in terms of its contribution to GDP and the jobs that it generates (see the article entitled 'Sugar definitely has a future'). With other uncertainties facing this sector - in particular, the process of global liberalisation - there is a growing recognition of the need for a long-term strategy. The government has a two-pronged approach  -  improving efficiency within the sector and diversifying into other agricultural products. To learn more about this, we spoke to Luke Ratuvuki, who is the Permanent Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.</P>
    324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308
    325309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Ratuvuki began by stressing the scope for increasing the sugar yield per hectare by as much as 75% (and by even more with irrigation). If productivity could be boosted on this scale, Fiji sugar would be in a much better position to compete in open world markets. He admitted, however, that the country would still face a struggle in maintaining market share and, looking ahead ten years, foresaw a slimmed down industry providing high quality sugar with more of a focus on niche markets. This inevitably meant looking at other agricultural products as possible long-term substitutes. The coconut (or as the Permanent Secretary dubbed it, 'the tree of life') is traditionally grown here and seems poised to enjoy a new lease of life following a period of decline. Fiji has also picked up the taro trade at the expense of Western Samoa, which is affected by taro blight, while there are significant exports of ginger to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. Mr Ratuvuki spoke enthusiastically about branching out into other areas such as pawpaws, mangoes, bananas and aubergines.</P>
    326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     310
    327311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji has potential for growth in a range of non-agricultural sectors, but farming is sure to play a vital part in the economy for many years to come. Currently, sugar represents almost three quarters of all crops by value (excluding subsistence growing) and the Fijians are only too aware that this makes the country particularly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
    328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     312
    329313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other primary sectors are all present in Fiji, albeit on a more modest scale. There is some deep-sea fishing backed by Asian investors. This provides useful employment although perhaps not the best possible financial return to the country. As one would expect in a nation of three hundred islands, there is also extensive artisanal and subsistence fishing in the inshore areas.</P>
    330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     314
    331315<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector divides into two parts: artificial softwood plantations which are said to be managed sustainably and the naturally growing hardwoods. As regards the latter, the EU is helping with a mapping project. Although Asian loggers do not operate in Fiji, there is considerable land clearance taking place, leading to problems of erosion and silting.</P>
    332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     316
    333317<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for mining</P>
    334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     318
    335319<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gold is the main mineral being exploited with important deposits around Vatukoula. The sector has had its ups and downs but the Emperor Gold Mining Company has now embarked on an expansion project aimed at raising production from the current level of about 4000 kilos per annum to 6000 kilos by the year 2000. A huge copper and gold mine is also planned for Namosi, some 35 km from Suva. Other minerals discovered but not exploited include bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, phosphates and marble. Mining currently makes a modest contribution to overall GDP but represents an important component in the export earnings figures.</P>
    336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     320
    337321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With one key exception, manufacturing is on a fairly small scale with an emphasis on staple items (butter, beer, soft drinks, paint, soap etc.) for the local market. The exception is the garment industry which provides some 20% of the country's export income and a considerable amount of employment.</P>
    338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     322
    339323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The investments in garment manufacturing and mining have been important in jobs terms and in improving the trade figures, but there are those who criticise the fact that the government appears to derive little revenue from the operations. The exact fiscal benefits are not easy to determine, prompting some observers to suggest that official secrecy should be eased (see the article on the Constitutional Review later in this Country Report).</P>
    340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     324
    341325<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the service sector, long-term growth is foreseen in the key area of tourism. The number of holidaymakers choosing Fiji dipped sharply at the time of the coup, illustrating the importance of political stability in attracting visitors. Tourist arrivals bounced back once Fiji's internal difficulties had receded from the international headlines. The politicians must be hoping that nothing will occur during the current period of constitutional discussion and negotiation to put Fiji back on the front pages. It is worth mentioning here that Fiji's national carrier, Air Pacific, is an example of a relatively rare bird - an airline that makes money ! According to journalist Avin Rahish, writing in the July 1996 issue of The Review (the news and business magazine of Fiji): 'It is one of the few government investments that is profitable on its own.'</P>
    342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     326
    343327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If tourism is a success story, there is something of a shadow over the financial services sector, which is more extensive here than in most developing countries. The reason is the collapse last year of the National Bank of Fiji with losses of US$ 142m (equivalent to 10% of the annual GDP). The authorities were accused of a failure in supervision and the taxpayers have had to pick up some of the bill. More serious, however, is the undermining of confidence in the system and it will take time for this to be restored.</P>
    344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     328
    345329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social challenges</P>
    346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     330
    348331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a middle-income country, Fiji has relatively favourable social indicators in the areas of health and education. Medical facilities are provided by the government but it is said that the public health system is not as good as it once was. This is attributed, among other things, to the emigration of highly qualified staff in the aftermath of the events of 1987. Nonetheless, the country does have 27 hospitals and one doctor for approximately every 1900 people. At 72 years, life expectancy is high compared to the ACP average.</P>
    349 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     332
    350333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education sector is well-developed with more than 800 primary and secondary schools (for a population of less than 800 000) and 41 technical or vocational institutions. As a result, primary school enrolment is close to 100% while the 1986 census revealed that 60% of 15-year olds were still in education. On the other hand, there are concerns over the proportion of teachers lacking qualifications, notably in the primary school system. In practice, there is considerable racial segregation at both primary and secondary levels, although there is no official policy to this effect.</P>
    351 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     334
    352335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educationally, the jewel in the crown is almost certainly the University of the South Pacific whose main campus is in Suva. This regional institution, which has departments in a number of other countries of the South Pacific, draws students from various island nations. Dr Vijay Naidu, who is the USP's Pro-Vice Chancellor, outlined some of the special features of this unique university which has to cater for a highly dispersed population. Like traditional tertiary institutions, it provides a wide range of degree programmes on campus, catering for 3500 students. It has a further 9000 who are being educated using the 'distance mode'. Distance learning is organised through centres in each of the participating countries. Students can attend these centres from time to time but much of their work is done through radio and telephone linkages and, increasingly nowadays, by e-mail and satellite communications. The University, Dr Naidu stressed, also provides continuing education at non-degree level 'in everything from computing to basket-weaving'.</P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336
    354337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the health sector, the USP suffered a loss of highly qualified staff after 1987  -  and not just among employees of Indian origin. As the Pro-Vice Chancellor pointed out, the coup created 'a new sense of insecurity' all round and teachers who decided to emigrate were quickly accepted in Australia and New Zealand. The loss has been particularly serious in the scientific disciplines.</P>
    355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     338
    356339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90% of the USP's recurrent expenditure is covered by member government contributions with the remainder coming from Australia and New Zealand. For capital investments, there is heavy reliance on external donors.</P>
    357 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     340
    358341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both of Fiji's main ethnic communities, a strong commitment to the family ensures that there is relatively little absolute poverty although things may be changing as the country become more urbanised. It is rare to see beggars in the streets in the South Pacific but Suva, sadly, has a number of these.</P>
    359 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     342
    360343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall picture is of a country with very considerable potential in both human and natural resource terms which needs to overcome a number of challenges to secure a more prosperous future. Some of these challenges - adapting to the world of free markets, tackling bureaucratic impediments, bringing development to rural villages, improving the infrastructure, and so on - are familiar to all developing countries. The single most important constraint, however, is the big ethnic divide, and the political uncertainty which flows from this. And this is something which can only be solved by the people of Fiji themselves. </P>
    361 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     344
    365345<I><P></P>
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    374354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The last ten years have been very educational for me'</P>
    375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     355
    376356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is almost ten years since Sitiveni Rabuka led the military coup which toppled the newly-electerl coalition government The stormy events of 1987 are long gast end Fiji has returned to more peaceful ways, but the country is arguably not yet at peace with itself. Major-General Rabuka is now the erected Prime Minister, having led the SVT to victory at the polls in 1992 and 1994. But the gulf between the native Fijians end citizens of Indian descent remains -  indeed, it is institutionalised in a political system which ensures a parliamentary majority for the former. A constitutional review is currently under way end a new text must tee adopted by July 1997. For both sides, the stakes are high. In this interview, Prime Minister Rabuka speaks frankly about the crucial issues facing Fiji as the nation gears up for the great constitutional debate.</P>
    377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     357
    378358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji also faces some formidable economic challenges and we began by asking the Prime Minister about these.</P>
    379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     359
    380360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The main challenge is the one that everybody faces: achieving an acceptable rate of growth to ensure job creation and address the unemployment problem. We also want to improve the standard of living of the people, to upgrade our infrastructure, and to develop both the urban and rural areas.</P>
    381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     361
    382362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sectors do you see as offering the best hope for future growth ?</P>
    383 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     363
    384364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  We are looking particularly at tourism and the agro-based industries. In the international sphere, we are aiming to boost trade, particularly with our traditional trading partners, Australia and New Zealand, and with new partners that we are trying to cultivate in Asia.</P>
    385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     365
    386366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are very grateful for the Lom&eacute; Convention and the various arrangements associated with it - particularly as regards access to the EU market for our sugar products. Although it would be desirable for us not to have to rely on preferential pricing for sugar, for the moment, there is no alternative. And while we are looking for alternatives and seeking to diversify our economy, we will need that system to remain in place. We would like to continue the dialogue to ensure that this happens. </P>
    387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     367
    388368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the area of trade, as I say, our focus is on Australia and New Zealand, and the regional trade agreement that the Pacific island territories have with them. This agreement is currently under review. One important aspect is the clause governing the rules of origin. If we can convince Australia and New Zealand to reduce the local input requirement from 50% to 35%, then we won't need any aid from them. The effect will be to secure existing jobs and, indeed, to increase employment, particularly in the garment industry. At the moment, most of the textiles we import for further processing come from Australia. Because of the market we have to sell to, it is very good quality material. This means the costs are high, in comparison with the local input needed to turn it into finished products, and this makes it difficult for us to get up to the required 50%.</P>
    389 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369
    390370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we don't get that reduction, things could go in the opposite direction. Manufacturers might relocate and we could be facing jobs losses. You have to remember that we are competing with Asian producers who have very low wage costs. </P>
    391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    392372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this proposal for a reduction in the local input requirement on the agenda with the Australians and New Zealanders ?</P>
    393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     373
    394374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The review actually excludes the clause on the rules of origin. Having said this, we have effectively raised the calculation of our local input in negotiations on a series of other points. On paper, the 50% figure is unchanged but in fact, there has been a reduction of about 5%, thus giving us a little margin.</P>
    395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     375
    396376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On the sugar issue you said you were hopeful that some form of preferential access to the EU market would be maintained. Isn't there a concern that this may not last beyond the year 2000, particularly given the increasingly liberal world trading system ?</P>
    397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     377
    398378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and we are looking at that. We should be gearing ourselves up for what happens at the end of the current Lom&eacute; agreement. It remains to be seen whether, with the WTO and the new trends, the curtain will suddenly be brought down on 1 January 2000, or whether there will be a grace period in which we are given time to consolidate our diversification.</P>
    399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     379
    400380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other big issue in the sugar sector concerns the impending expiry of the land leases.</P>
    401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     381
    402382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is a local issue and a very important one. It has high priority on our government agenda. We are currently talking to the landowners and lessees, explaining what will happen. The legislation (the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act) makes no provision for further extensions to the leases, which are now nearing their end. Do we need a new act or should we amend the present law to allow extensions beyond the 50 years originally allowed for ? And if we are to do that, what happens to the compensation provisions? At the moment, these are viewed in a rather one-sided way. The emphasis is on the situation where the landlord compensates the tenant for improvements made to the land. But the rules also provide for compensation in the other direction where the value has been reduced. This may be due to constant cultivation over 50 years. What if the owner wants to return the land to its original use, planting taro, yams or cassava, as his father may have done fifty years ago, and finds he can no longer do so ? There has to be a balancing act here.</P>
    403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     383
    404384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hopefully, most of the land will be leased again under a new agreement or under an amendment to the existing law - because we will need to continue sugar production. It is also worth noting that some sugar farmers are beginning to diversify into other crops, both subsistence and commercial.</P>
    405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     385
    406386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What arrangements do you envisage for those farmers who do not have their leases renewed ? Will they be relocated ?</P>
    407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     387
    408388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Right now, we are looking at the use of state land. There are two basic categories here - what used to be known as 'Crown Land under Schedule A' and 'Crown Land under Schedule B'. Schedule A covers the land not claimed by anybody during the Commission that was set up to determine the ownership of land in the very early colonial years. Schedule B is land that belonged to a community or landholding unit that has since died out: in other words, where there is no surviving member of the land-owning unit. So we have those parcels of land available. My party's policy is to restore land to the traditional owners where possible, but in those cases where you cannot identify the original owners, there will be land available for resettlement - although resettlement is perhaps not a very good term to use. </P>
    409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     389
    410390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is somewhat emotive.</P>
    411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     391
    412392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It implies taking a person, family or community from somewhere and planting them somewhere else -  and I hope we can avoid that. On the other hand, if you look at what people are doing nowadays, everybody's relocating. People are always resettling, moving away from home and setting up elsewhere. In this case it is perhaps a necessity, in the sense that the legislation has caught up with us. </P>
    413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    414394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn now to the sensitive issue of the constitution. This is another area where decision day is looming. You currently have a constitutional review under way with the Commission's report due out soon. What do you think will emerge from this process over the next 12-18 months ?</P>
    415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     395
    416396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't feel that the constitutional issue is a sensitive one and do not think anyone should feel restrained in asking questions about it. It reflects the reality of the situation in Fiji. There is a requirement that the 1990 Constitution be reviewed and we have a Review Commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves. He is a very capable man who is a former Governor-General of New Zealand and a very eminent constitutional lawyer. Assisting him, we have two party nominees - one from the main Fijian party and one nominated jointly by the Indian parties in Parliament. I have total confidence in that Commission. I believe they will come up with very objective observations and recommendations.</P>
    417 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    418398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me explain the timetable to you. The report is expected by the end of August. It will be presented first to the President and then to me for submission to Cabinet. I envisage it being tabled in Parliament towards the end of September. We cannot debate it until three months have elapsed from the date it was tabled - which takes us to the end of the year. A lot of work will be needed during the first half of 1997. The Joint Parliamentary Select Committee, made up of members of both the upper and lower houses, will have to work on the report and try and build consensus on the various issues.</P>
    419 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     399
    420400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that the house is racially divided, and the possibility that a premature discussion on the floor of the house may raise the temperature, I would prefer not to have a full parliamentary sitting in the early part of next year. Instead, we should go into committee and deal with it there. And then when we are satisfied that the issues can be brought out into the open, we will debate them fully in Parliament. As soon as we start talking next year, the legislative craftsmen should begin their work. On the basis of this programme, I believe we can meet the deadline to the day, promulgating a new Constitution which has been accepted by both houses on 25 July 1997. So I am very hopeful.</P>
    421 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     401
    422402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Without prejudging the final outcome, do you envisage a move away from strict communal separation ? I am thinking here, in particular, of the separate voting lists ?</P>
    423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     403
    424404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think there may be provision for some cross-communal voting. There was something like this in the 1970 Constitution which had both communal and national rolls.</P>
    425 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     405
    426406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the longer term. Do you foresee a political system developing in Fiji where ethnic origin is irrelevant -  perhaps a 'right-left' divide, if that is still a meaningful concept ?</P>
    427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     407
    428408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am not bold enough to say that that will happen. I have seen the darkest side of Fijian nationalism. I have seen the fear that was in the Indian population in 1987. But if we move too quickly to remove the racial safeguards that are in the Constitution, we may run the risk of prolonging the bad relationship between the races that we now have. So I would say we should proceed very cautiously and let the natural healing process take its course. We also need to look beyond the Constitution at aspects such as our education system and enhancing the ability of the Fijians to compete.</P>
    429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     409
    430410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I believe the education system is also very divided.</P>
    431 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411
    432412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Some schools are reserved for Fijians although, slowly, there are Indians from families close to the schools who are beginning to enter them.</P>
    433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     413
    434414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that this is a promising sign for the future ?</P>
    435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     415
    436416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think so. I went to a purely Fijian school and when I came out of that, everything was Fijian for me. I went straight into the army which is another Fijian-dominated institution. It was not planned that way. It is just the way it happened. My tolerance level of other races was very low. But you cannot expect somebody who gets to this level of leadership to have a low racial tolerance level. I must admit that the last ten years have been very, very educational for me - very good for my own being. I consider what I used to think before and the way I used to feel before. I have never been threatened by an Indian, but I had always been in Fijian 'safe' areas - a Fijian school and then in the army. But since coming out of that sort of cocoon, I have managed very well to accept that I have to compete with them, I have to look after them, and I have to devise policies and programmes that will be good for them as well as being good for us.</P>
    437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     417
    438418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. Do you envisage Fiji seeking to rejoin the Commonwealth in the near future ?</P>
    439 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     419
    440420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think seeking is the wrong word. We will do what we feel is good for Fiji and its people. The people of Fiji are those who are here now but it will include some of those who have moved on looking for greener pastures and who are willing to come back. We were not expelled from the Commonwealth; our membership lapsed. It is up to the Commonwealth to say whether they are prepared to reconsider our member ship. </P>
    441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    442 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     421
    444422<I><P></P>
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    452 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     430</I>
    453431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
    454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     432
    455433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 18 272 km². Fiji has two main islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu) and about 300 smaller ones. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 1.3 million km²). </P>
    456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     434
    457435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 790 000</P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436
    459437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 43 per kilometre² </P>
    460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    461439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Suva (situated on the island of Viti Levu) </P>
    462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     440
    463441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main languaqes: English, Bauan </P>
    464442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(main Fijian language)</P>
    465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    466444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Fiji dollar (F$). In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately F$ 1.80. (US$1 = F$ 1.40) </P>
    467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    468446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
    469447 Fiji</P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     448
    472449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    473450<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
    474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     451
    475452<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A bicameral parliamentary system consisting of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The President is a non-executive head of state chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs. The President appoints the Prime Minister. </P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     453
    477454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Constitution, adopted in 1990, the Parliament is divided along racial lines. The Senate has 34 members, 24 of whom are indigenous Fijians. In the 70-member House of Representatives, 37 seats are reserved for native Fijians, 27 for Indo-Fijians, 5 for 'general voters' (other ethnic groups) and 1 for Rotuma Island (whose inhabitants are Polynesian). The 1990 Constitution provides for a review within seven years and discussions are currently under way with a view to amending the Constitution by the 1997 deadline.</P>
    478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     455
    479456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara</P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     457
    481458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Major General Sitiveni Rabuka </P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     459
    483460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT - Fijian), National Federation Party (NFP  -  Indian), Fiji Labour Party (FLP - Indian),  Fijian Association (FA - Fijian), General Voters Party (GVP).</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     461
    485462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament (1994 election result): SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, Others 3. </P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     463
    487464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
    488465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: (1995) F$ 2.85 billion</P>
    489 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    490467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 2600 </P>
    491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    492469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate (1995): 2.2% (2.9% predicted for 1996) </P>
    493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    494471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports (1994): Sugar (US$ 182m), Garments (US$ 96m), Gold (US$ 43m), Fish (US$ 38m), Timber (US$ 21 m) Main trading partners (in order of importance):</P>
    495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     472
    496473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports - Australia, UK, USA, Japan, New Zealand.</P>
    497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474
    498475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Japan, Singapore.</P>
    499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    500477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade balance (1994): exports - US$ 547m, imports - US$ 826, deficit - US$ 279m. The current account figures also usually reveal a deficit but this is much smaller due to tourism earnings and official transfers.</P>
    501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    502479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (1995): 2.2%</P>
    503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    504481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (1996): revenue -  F$ 759m, expenditure  -  F$ 851 m, deficit - F$92 (about 3.5% of GDP) </P>
    505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    506483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forma/sector employment: 98 112 (out of a total economically active population of about 265 000) </P>
    507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    508485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     486
    510487<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 71.6 years </P>
    511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     488
    512489<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 90.6%</P>
    513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     490
    515491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 79% </P>
    516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     492
    517493<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.853 (47th out of 174) </P>
    518 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     494
    519495<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Economic Intelligence Unit, UNDP Human Development Report, 1996, EC Commission. </P>
    520 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     496
    523497<I><P></P>
    524498<!--
    … …  
    529503  </Description>
    530504-->
    531 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505</I>
    532506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'We need to move to a more racially neutral system'</P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    534508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is not unique in having a political system that is heavily influenced by racial or communel issues In places as diverse as Northern Ireland, Belgium, Guyana and Trinidad - not to mention many parts of Africa - people vote for parties which claim to represent the particular ethnic, religious or linguistic group to which they belong. Where Fiji is different, however, is in having a Constitution that gives primacy to one particular community. Since the 1987 coup, native Fijians have held the upper hand with a guaranteed majority in Parliament and a firm grip on the levers or power.</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     509
    536510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1990 Constitution, adopted when communal feelings were still running high, contained a requirement for a constitutional review within seven years. When The Courier visited Fiji (July 19961 the work of a three-member Commission appointed to carry out the review and make recormmendations was nearing completion. All sides seem to accept the need for reforms designed to help bridge the sharp racial divide.</P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     511
    538512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The big question is how radical these reforms are likely to be. We sought the views of Jai Ram Reddy, the leader of the opposition National Federation Party (NFP) which has the support of most of the country's Indian (Indo-Fijian) community.</P>
    539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     513
    540514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are the first opposition leader I have met who cannot, constitutionally, become Prime Minister. How do you feel about that ?</P>
    541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     515
    542516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is something that rankles with me - the mere thought that I am not equal with my fellow citizens of other races. I think that's generally the way the Indians feel here. All the constraints and limitations, the denial of basic human rights, are the source of a great deal of unhappiness.</P>
    543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     517
    544518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk about basic human rights. Obviously, the political aspects are very important but I get the impression that, in other respects, this is a fairly free and easy society: there is free expression, for example.</P>
    545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     519
    546520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but free expression is only one aspect of human rights. The fact is that discrimination based on race is widespread and institutionalised. About 45% of the population is Indo-Fijian but you will find they are not fairly represented in the higher levels of the public service. At the Permanent Secretary level, there is definitely a government policy to have a limited number of Indians - and there are hardly any in the more crucial ministries. The same is true of managerial positions throughout the public sector. In the statutory bodies and major public undertakings, there is a deliberate policy of excluding Indians. So we are very much a marginalised community in the public sector.</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     521
    548522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wouldn't it be true to say that Indians have quite a lot of economic power ?</P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     523
    550524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, I don't agree. There is a tendency for people who come here, end for some people in Fiji, to project this image of Indians controlling the economy. It is a fallacy. It all boils down to how you define economic power.</P>
    551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     525
    552526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take natural resources. The land, and therefore the forests, are almost exclusively owned and controlled by native Fijians. Even in the corporate sector, the largest business undertaking is the manufacture of sugar, and 80% of the shares are owned by the government. The Indians don't own this industry. They are the small sugar cane producers working on ten-acre plots. And who controls banking and insurance ? Certainly not the Indians. Most of the financial services companies are foreign-owned.</P>
    553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     527
    554528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where the Indians are most visible is in the retail sector. But those little shops you see in the towns are small family businesses. The shopkeepers work up to 15 hours a day, and you will discover that many of them do not even own their premises; they are tenants. So the idea that Indians control the economy is a bit of a myth. </P>
    555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     529
    556530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitution, and in particular the system of racial differentiation for voting and holding certain offices, is obviously a key issue for you. With the Constitution currently under review, what is your party's policy in this area ?</P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     531
    558532<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The first elections under the current Constitution took place in 1992 and we took part in them under protest. We made clear that our participation should not be construed as acceptance of the system. Indeed, the sole issue on which we campaigned was our rejection of the Constitution. But we accepted the fact that we needed to get into the system as it was, and to try and create an environment where there would be widespread appreciation that it had to change. The 1990 text, in fact, laid down that it had to be reviewed by the seventh anniversary of its promulgation. I think the architects of the Constitution realised themselves that it was deficient. And we laid great emphasis on the need for dialogue; a general recognition that the country would be much better off with everybody working together and that there was nothing to be gained by oppressing or marginalising a community. And that is the kind of environment we have tried to create.</P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     533
    560534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitutional review will shortly be published. What do you hope will come out of that exercise ?</P>
    561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     535
    562536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am reasonably optimistic. I think the environment is more favourable now and there is a general recognition that the system has to change. I am sure you will get confirmation of this when you talk to the government side. We need to move away from this very polarised, compartmentalised political system to a more racially neutral one. I think views may diverge as to how far we should go. That will be the contentious issue. But I believe we will make progress.</P>
    563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     537
    564538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I certainly think we will get a good report from the Constitutional Review Commission. One of our fears, when we started on this journey, was whether it would be independent and be given fair terms of reference. Largely because of the cooperative and accommodating attitude that we ourselves adopted, and to which the government responded, we were able to get a Commission that was well-balanced. We are very fortunate to have Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. His independence is taken for granted. The Commission also has one nominee from the indigenous side and one from the Indo-Fijian side. So we certainly expect a good report. There is already a kind of acceptance I think on all sides that political parties need to prepare themselves for a more multiracial approach to governance in the future.</P>
    565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     539
    566540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On this point, I see that the SVT (the governing party) is looking at the idea of opening up its membership to other groups.</P>
    567 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     541
    568542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's right.</P>
    569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     543
    570544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there will be many nonnative Fijians interested in joining ?</P>
    571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     545
    572546<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Not straight away but at least it is a beginning. It is an acceptance that they can't remain racially exclusive. If, for example, the Commission recommends a move toward a racially neutral system - at least for a certain number of seats - then it would be important for the SVT to have non-Fijians in their party.</P>
    573 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     547
    574548<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn to economic issues, which I presume cannot be divorced altogether from political ones ? There is a lot of discussion about the future of the sugar industry which is tied in with the question of renewing the land leases This is an issue which is due to be resolved soon. How concerned are you about the impending decision on the leases ?</P>
    575 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     549
    576550<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is something that concerns us very deeply. As you correctly observe, you can't separate the political and economic aspects. The two are very closely interlinked here - perhaps more so than in other countries - because of the land situation. The bulk of Indian peasant farmers, both within and outside the sugar industry, are on leases that will begin to expire next year. If these are not renewed, the problem will not just be an economic one but an enormous human one. What do we do with these people who all belong to a particular racial group. It really boils down to our very survival. Despite the growth in the towns, the bulk of the people are still rurally based. They are small subsistence farmers, living in the country areas with no more than 10 or 12 acres to cultivate. So the social implications of non-renewal in terms of poverty, dispossession and hardship are enormous.</P>
    577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     551
    578552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But how real is the concern ? Surely, the overwhelming economic logic is for the leases to be renewed. After all the land is being put to productive use at the moment</P>
    579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     553
    580554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Yes, but unfortunately, when you have a communal dimension to the problem, logic does not always prevail. If you think about it, there was no logic in the events of 1987. The trouble is that every issue here has a racial twist. After the coup, communal sentiments were aroused and sharpened. There was a prolonged period of anti-lndian propaganda and in that environment of anger, a highly racial constitution was adopted. There were people in positions of influence openly advocating non-renewal, threatening to take all the land back. Now they need to undo all this and it will not be easy, given the enormous strength of feeling that has been aroused. Having said this, I believe that we are now in the process of restoring sanity to our public life. It is also beginning to dawn on everybody that the sugar industry is vital for Fiji and it will continue to be so for some years to come.</P>
    581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     555
    582556<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I have heard that view expressed on all sides, but I wonder if people are sufficiently aware of the implications of global liberalisation. It has been suggested that this will make sugar increasingly unviable.</P>
    583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     557
    584558<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think a lot of people are unaware of the implications, because there has been very little public education in this field. But amongst those 'in the know', there is certainly an appreciation. I am a member of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Sugar and we were recently addressed by the head of the marketing company and the head of the Sugar Commission. At that level, there is an awareness, but if you speak to the average farmer who has been growing and selling sugar for many years, he will probably assume that life will just go on as before.</P>
    585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     559
    586560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isn't it true to say that sugar depends heavily on the Lom&eacute; Convention arrangement with the European Community ?</P>
    587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     561
    588562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Very much so. In my view, the sugar industry is run so inefficiently that but for the huge subsidy we get from the European Community, it would not be viable.</P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     563
    590564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presumably, this means that measures must be taken to improve efficiency ?</P>
    591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     565
    592566<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, absolutely. But the first issue to resolve is the land question.</P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     567
    594568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no point talking to the farmers about efficiency  -  asking them to improve their husbandry and focus on sugar content rather than the quantity of cane produced - when they don't know if they will have land to cultivate after next year. So you see all other issues have become completely subsidiary to the tenure question. At the moment, we are in a limbo. The government and the people urgently need to resolve this problem. Then we can put it behind us and address the other concerns.</P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     569
    596570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there any other economic sectors which you feel offer promise for the future of the country ?</P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     571
    598572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Any growth outside of tourism will, I think, have to be centred on the agricultural sector. We need more agro-based industries and more diversification. We could grow a lot of other crops here - mangoes for example. We also need to improve extension services to farmers, and make an aggressive effort to identify markets. The farmers will grow the crops but they must be sure that somebody will buy them. Every year, for example, we have a glut of tomatoes - so many that they can't even give them away in the markets. This kind of problem kills the incentive to produce.</P>
    599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     573
    600574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is obviously heavy state involvement in the running of agriculture. Do you see scope for more privatisation or 'corporatisation' in line with global trends ?</P>
    601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     575
    602576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think that growth, even in the agricultural sector has to be private-sector driven. At the same time, you have got to create the right environment and infrastructure for this to happen. Unfortunately, it keeps coming back to this question of land. If big investors, for instance, want to come here and invest in agriculture, they need to know what sort of tenure they are going to get and whether they can buy the freehold. I am sure there are people, particularly now from the Asian region, who would be interested in investing in agriculture, but the land problem is a big constraint.</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     577
    604578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you think Fiji will rejoin the Commonwealth at any point ?</P>
    605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     579
    606580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Well, we hope so. You know we are all very strongly in favour of rejoining. One of the things that I personally feel very strongly about is the unfortunate severance of our link with the Queen. I don't know, constitutionally, whether it can be restored. Obviously, there are difficulties in that area, but I think a large majority of ordinary people in this country would like at least to see Fiji back in the Commonwealth. </P>
    607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    610 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     581
    611582<I><P></P>
    612583<!--
    … …  
    617588  </Description>
    618589-->
    619 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     590</I>
    620591<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When The Courier visited Fiji in July, the report of the Constitutional Review Commission headed by Sir Paul Reeves (former Governor-General of New Zealand) had not yet been completed  -  and what it would contain was a major topic of speculation. As readers will see from the interview we publish with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, the impartiality of the three-member Commission was not in question  -  at least within the political mainstream on both the native Fijian and Indian sides. Nonetheless, there were doubts about whether a consensus could be found. For the Indo-Fijians, a scaling down of the 'racial' features in the Constitution was seen as a prerequisite. Yet the ruling SVT, in its own submissions to the Commission, had effectively supported the status quo. In view of this apparently unbridgeable gulf, could the compilers of the Report come up with recommendations capable of forming the basis for a lasting constitutional settlement ? </P>
    621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592
    622593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long-awaited Report was formally transmitted to President Ratu Mara on 6 September and a few days later, it was tabled to a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It now falls to a joint select committee of the two Houses to thrash out a new set of constitutional proposals. These will be presented to Parliament for debate and decision in the first half of next year with a view to meeting the July 1997 deadline foreseen in the 1990 Constitution.</P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    624595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Review Commission is lengthy (almost 800 pages) and contains no fewer than 697 separate recommendations. The key ones, however, relate to the system for electing members of the House of Representatives. Currently, separate electoral lists based on race are used to fill all 70 seats (37 native Fijians, 27 Indo-Fijians, 1 Rotuman and 5 'General Electors', covering all other races). It was widely expected that the Commission would propose a mixture of 'reserve' seats and 'open' ones, with the latter, as their name implies, being chosen by the whole electorate.</P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     596
    626597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 'open' seats proposed</P>
    627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     598
    628599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is precisely what they have done - but the suggested breakdown may have come as a surprise to some. The proposal is for 45 open seats (15 three-member constituencies) and 25 single-member 'reserve seats (12 native Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian, 1 Rotuman and 2 'General Electors'). If adopted, the new system would no longer legally guarantee a majority for people of Fijian origin in the country's legislature. What would happen in practice would depend on a number of factors including the nature of the voting system in the three member open constituencies, the willingness of people to cast their ballots across the ethnic divide and the actual turnout of voters from the different communities. It should be pointed out, however, that native Fijians now constitute half the population, large numbers of Indians having emigrated over the past nine years. So long as communal voting patterns persist, this will presumably be reflected in the Parliamentary arithmetic.</P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600
    630601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also proposed that the bulk of the 35-member Senate (Bose e Cake) should be made up of elected representatives of Fiji's provinces. In the field of local government, it is suggested that the present system based on villages and provinces, which applies only to native Fijians, might be replaced by an arrangement applicable to all races. In this context, the rote of the Council of Chiefs (Bose Levu Vakaturaga) would be reduced.</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    632603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the sections of the Report relating to representation are bound to attract most attention, the Commission also put forward a series of other proposals aimed at improving the governance of Fiji. One idea, which appears designed to alter the political culture, is for the 'Official Secrets Act' to be replaced by a 'Freedom of Information Act'. The presumption of secrecy would be replaced by a rule that official information should be accessible to the public except where there is good reason to withhold it. In a similar vein, the Report recommends an 'integrity code' to govern the behaviour of holders of public office.</P>
    633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    634605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial reactions to the outcome of the Commission's work were mixed. Key players, including the President, Prime Minister and opposition spokespersons broadly welcomed the Report but more nationalistic elements were quick to reject it and one group even mounted a ceremonial burning of the document.</P>
    635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     606
    636607<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that a great many more words will be exchanged - and some of them will no doubt be heated  - in the coming months. It is difficult to see how everyone can be 'brought on board' but the hope must be that a compromise can be crafted that is acceptable to the majority on both sides of the communal divide. The people of this Pacific island nation are well aware that prosperity and stability go hand in hand. The single most important achievement in ensuring stability for the longer term would be to secure a satisfactory settlement of the constitutional issue. </P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     608
    641609<I><P></P>
    642610<!--
    … …  
    647615  </Description>
    648616-->
    649 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     617</I>
    650618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the key sentiment expressed by Isimeli Bose, Fiji's Trade Minister, when he spoke to The Courier earlier this year. Mr Bose insisted that 'no matter what anybody says, sugar will be the backbone of this country's economy for years to come.'</P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     619
    652620<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we discussed Fiji's current economic situation and future prospects with the Minister, it was not surprising that sugar should have featured so prominently. The sector faces a difficult future for both internal and external reasons. At home, the long-term leases granted to the farmers (mainly Fiji Indians) under the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act are due to expire over the next few years. No provision was made for their renewal and the resulting uncertainty has provoked widespread concern, not least among the leaseholders themselves. The external 'threat' comes from new international trade rules administered by the World Trade Organisation. At present, Fiji's sugar industry is heavily dependent on the preferential access to the EU market which was granted under the Lom&eacute; Sugar Protocol. No one is quite sure what will happen when Lom&eacute; IV expires at the turn of the century but it is clear that the stakes are high.</P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     621
    654622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Bose was quick to acknowledge the importance of ending the uncertainty facing the sugar farmers. 'But the real challenge', he said, 'is to ensure the maintenance of our markets for sugar.' He was aware of the encroachment of global trade liberalisation but stressed that the industry's leaders and the government were 'doing the work now and planning for the future.' At the same time, the authorities are clearly hoping that the European Union will be able to continue with some form of preferential arrangement after the year 2000, if only to buy time so that the industry can adapt and farmers can diversify.</P>
    655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     623
    656624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of trade diversification, Mr Bose pointed out that 'the field is very limited'. He continued; 'However, since 1988, we have seen garment production picking up from very humble beginnings. By 1995, we had about F$185 million-worth of exports in this area.' He also spoke enthusiastically about the government policy of encouraging manufacturing in tax-free factories and zones. 'This developed well between 1989 and 1992 and then there was something of a slowdown.' Tax-free factories have been established in a number of locations and the first real tax-free zone is now being set up in Kalabo. Mr Bose indicated that EU assistance was being provided in this area.</P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     625
    658626<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation</P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     627
    660628<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our conversation then turned to the changing economic role of governments - throughout the world, they are withdrawing from active involvement in industrial and commercial operations. We asked how far this process had occurred in Fiji and, in particular, whether there was a privatisation policy. The Minister replied in the affirmative, pointing out that government departments 'do not usually make very good businesspeople.' The policy, therefore, was to 'corporatise' and 'privatise', although the process is still in its early stages. The Trade and Commerce Ministry has a public enterprise unit which is responsible for drawing up a policy framework for the government. In 1995, Mr Bose explained, a public enterprise bill was presented to Parliament, 'but there were so many concerns expressed to the previous Minister that it was referred to a select committee -  which, in fact was chaired by me before I took up my present poet.' The committee had now completed its work and the Minister indicated that the issue would go back to Parliament in September.</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    662630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the legislative delay, Mr Bose was keen to stress that his department was already working on individual programmes. The post and telecoms business, for example, had just gone through another stage towards privatisation.</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    664632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, of course, an important distinction between 'corporatisation' and 'privatisation' - the former implies staying within the state sector but at arms-length from the administration. This point was acknowledged by our interviewee who explained that the approach was a step-by-step one. The first stage was to reorganise a department along commercial lines. Corporatisation came next 'and then finally you have privatisation by disposing of shares.'</P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    666634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed that the most important aim was to ensure an element of competition wherever possible. 'There is no point simply moving from a government monopoly to a private monopoly', he insisted, 'although obviously, there are utilities like water, electricity and even telephones where this may not be easy.' The minister concluded; 'Where they are natural monopolies, we will regulate them.'</P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     635
    668636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our final topic of discussion was the possibility of regional integration in the Pacific.</P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     637
    670638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How far had the South Pacific countries gone in this direction and did the Minister think there was a need for closer economic cooperation? Mr Bose replied that he thought economic integration was a good thing. He pointed to a document on his desk containing a draft proposal for a bilateral trade agreement with Papua New Guinea. 'We will soon be holding negotiations with them, and have also just signed an agreement with Tonga.'</P>
    671 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    672640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on bilateral trade arrangements at this stage suggests that the region still has some way to go on the regional integration path.</P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    674642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the Minister nonetheless insisted that it was something 'that can and will happen'. </P>
    675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     643
    678644<I><P></P>
    679645<!--
    … …  
    684650  </Description>
    685651-->
    686 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     652</I>
    687653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can a businesswomen succeed in Fiji's patriarchal society? Mere Samisoni, the entrepreneur behind the 'Hotbread Kitchen' gave us an appropriate answer when she said 'I roll with it', although the pun was probably unintentional In fact, it is difficult to imagine this dynamic lady being pushed around. Anybody who manages to build up a chain of bakeries from scratch, capturing 35% of the country's urban consumer market in the process, must have a lot of determination. At the same time, Mrs Samisoni displays a strong sense of social commitment. She believes in community values, advocates group decision-making and consensus, and even describes the tax system as 'reasonably fair'. In short, she contradicts the widely-held view propagated by lurid American TV series, that a dogeat-dog attitude is needed for business success.</P>
    688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     654
    689655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, Mrs Samisoni started out with the idea of working with one of the caring professions. Trained in nursing administration in Australia and New Zealand, she returned to Fiji only to find that there were no openings available. That was when she decided to go into the private sector, establishing 'Samisoni Enterprises'. And over the years, she has succeeded in building up one of the largest bread-making operations in the country. The Hotbread Kitchen operation is highly decentralised with the bread being baked in different locations for sale through the company's local outlets. Her business is also the first Fijian one to franchise out its operations. And having already won a big chunk of the urban market, she is now looking to expand operations in the rural areas.</P>
    690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     656
    691657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samisoni Enterprises, of course, is not simply a bread-making operation. The company now offers a line of 62 separate bakery products, with some local adaptations to suit varying tastes. It employs some 275 staff with perhaps another 50 working in the related franchise operations. And the business had an important breakthrough when it won the contract for 'MacDonalds' in Nadi. With branches of the famous hamburger chain likely to open in other parts of Fiji, this could be the start of something big. In fact, there is even a suggestion that Fiji could be used to source Macdonalds' operations in New Zealand, the rolls (or buns, as the Americans like to call them) being exported frozen.</P>
    692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     658
    693659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constant quality</P>
    694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     660
    695661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Mrs Samisoni, the key to a successful and profitable operation is 'constant quality' and unfailing attention to customer service. As she puts its, 'if you let quality slip just once, you can end up losing customers for a very long time.' Baking is a labour-intensive business and she is keen to stress the importance of developing people's abilities - in particular, the human relaitons skills of those who deal direct with the customer.</P>
    696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     662
    697663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As if running a business wasn't enough, Mere Samisoni is also busy completing a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) at the University of the South Pacific, with a thesis on indigenous business. From what we discovered, speaking to this remarkable Fijian entrepreneur, she should have been helping to teach the course! </P>
    698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    700 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     664
    701665<I><P></P>
    702666<!--
    … …  
    707671  </Description>
    708672-->
    709 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     673</I>
    710674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone from overseas who is travelling to the Fijian capital, Suva, will soon discover that the country's largest island is a very diverse place. Roughly circular in shape, Viti Levu provides more than half of Fiji's total land area and is home to about three-quarters of the population.</P>
    711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     675
    712676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The journey to Suva on the south-east coast will almost certainly involve transiting through Nadi International Airport (pronounced Nandi) which is situated in the west. This is the country's only major international gateway and while it is ideal for tourists heading for the resort hotels, it is less convenient for business travellers whose destination is Suva. Their journey has to be completed either by road (which takes several hours) or on one of the small commuter planes which ply regularly between Nadi and Nausori (itself a half-hour drive from the capital).</P>
    713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     677
    714678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest surprise to those who are unfamiliar with the country is that the west and the south-east have very different weather patterns. When your aircraft lands at Nadi, the chances are high that the sun will be shining. On reaching Suva, you are more likely to encounter rain. This part of the country enjoys - if that is the correct term - a micro-climate which is good for tropical vegetation but less appealing to human beings. The 'blame' for locating the Fijian capital in such a spot is said (not too seriously) to lie with the country's former colonial rulers. According to the story, a British envoy visited Suva on one of its rare sunny days and, on the strength of this, designated it as the seat of administration. The British can hardly deny their involvement since it was in 1882, during the early years of colonial rule, that the capital moved from Levuka (situated on the much smaller island of Ovalau). But the key reason was almost certainly the fact that Suva, with its large bay, could be developed as a port. Whatever the explanation, one must have some sympathy with the foreign diplomats who keep a raincoat or umbrella to hand at all times, and yet are viewed with envy back home because they have a 'paradise' posting.</P>
    715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     679
    716680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be fair, Suva has attributes other than its weather which make it an interesting place. It has, for example, some very attractive architecture, both local and colonial. The views across the bay can be dramatic - and, in this respect, the rolling cloud formations may actually enhance the picture. And the centre of the city buzzes with activity (except on Sunday because of the Sabbatarian influence).</P>
    717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     681
    718682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The population of the greater Suva area is about 160 000. This may not be enormous, but it is the largest concentration of humanity to be found between Hawaii and Australia. In some ways, it is the 'capital' of the South Pacific - a point which is underlined by the fact that the Forum Secretariat is based here. It is also the site of the University of the South Pacific's main campus. The local population is mainly ethnic Fijian but there are Indo-Fijians as well as citizens of Chinese and European extraction. Add to this the diplomatic corps, foreign businesspeople and students from other parts of the region, and you get a very cosmopolitan mix. This is reflected in the variety of cuisines available in the local restaurants.</P>
    719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683
    720684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The western part of Viti Levu is also cosmopolitan but in a very different way, with a stronger Indian influence and, of course, a constantly changing tourist population.</P>
    721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    722686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the island's inhabitants live a relatively short distance from the sea. Thus, in demographic terms, Viti Levu is like a doughnut with a thick layer of humanity around the edge and a hole in the middle. The analogy may not be entirely apt since the 'hole' is, in fact, a spectacular mountainous area. This makes the road that runs round the island a key arterial route. Meanwhile, those who choose to fly from Nadi to Suva, assuming they are not of a nervous disosition, can enjoy the experience of travelling below the height of the surrounding peaks.</P>
    723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    724688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few people who do occupy the central region live in traditional Fijian villages and have a lifestyle far removed from either the town dwellers or the sugar cane farmers. Its size may be little more than ten thousand square kiLom&eacute;tres but Viti Levu is truly an island of contrasts. </P>
    725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     689
    728690<I><P></P>
    729691<!--
    … …  
    734696  </Description>
    735697-->
    736 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     698</I>
    737699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ernst Kroner</P>
    738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     700
    739701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji was a signatory of the first Lom&eacute; Convention in 1975 and, to date, the country has been allocated some ECU 190m in EU development cooperation funds.</P>
    740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     702
    741703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with a relatively modest ECU 9.9m under Lom&eacute; I, the national indicative programme rose to ECU 13m under the following Convention. Without neglecting rural development (feeder roads in Vanua Levu), under Lom&eacute; I most of the resources were devoted to transport infrastructure (a main road on Vanua Levu). Under Lom&eacute; 11, cooperation concentrated clearly on agriculture and rural development, in particular by means of the funding of microprojects, with infrastructural programmes (the extension of the Vanua Levu road, social infrastructure) taking second place. Under this Convention, a new field of action was also addressed: trade development.</P>
    742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     704
    743705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tax free zone</P>
    744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     706
    745707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade development was addressed further under Lom&eacute; III (6th EDF, ECU 20m, of which ECU 5m in special loans), with support given to an Investment and Trade Development Programme. The longer-term objective of the project was to widen the economic base of Fiji and to create employment. The more immediate objective was the i establishment of a Tax Free Zone near Suva. In order to promote this scheme and to secure markets for exporting the goods which would eventually be produced, the project included a programme of trade and investment promotion to be implemented by the Fiji Trade and Investment Board. Due to problems linked with identifying an appropriate site, the project, which had been given the go-ahead in 1990, only came on stream in 1995.</P>
    746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     708
    747709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural and agricultural development continued to be one of the main sectors of cooperation, with the funding of three major projects. The first was a coconut rehabilitation and development project, situated on the island of Taveuni, which aimed at improving the productivity of coconut plantations through the introduction and multiplication of high yield hybrids. The project also provided for the establishment of a 30 hectare coconut nursery centre, which was expected to finance itself through the sales of seedlings. EC support for this project ended in 1992, since when the scheme has been taken over by the Government. A second project (a large-scale microprogramme divided into two sub-programmes) aimed on the one hand at the construction of access roads to facilitate the development of cocoa plantations, and on the other at the introduction and development of pineapple plantations in Vanua Levu. The first component was closed after disappointing results. The second component, however, produced very interesting and promising results, which will, however, need private and governmental support in order to become sustainable. A rural electrification project involving 28 rural electrification schemes and the supply and installation of a small power plant is still ongoing.</P>
    748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     710
    749711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing human resources</P>
    750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     712
    751713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the formerly prominent transport infrastructure sector lost some importance. The Kubulau Peninsula road project on Vanua Levu brought to an end the work started under previous Conventions. This road, which filled the last gap in the circuminsular road, was opened on in July 1994. Lom&eacute; III also saw the beginning of human resources development as a new theme of cooperation, with Technical Assistance funded for the logging school. This area, embodying strong links with forestry and environmental issues, has been further developed under Lom&eacute; IV with the reconstruction of the school burnt down in 1993, and the enlargement of the training and education provided to what now constitutes a Forest Training Centre.</P>
    752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     714
    753715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The national indicative programme relating to the first protocol of Lom&eacute; IV (7th EDF, ECU 22m in grant aid) identifies rural development and social infrastructure as the sectors of concentration to which 65% of resources are to be devoted. The remaining 35% will be used for non-focal activities, including trade and services, tourism, cultural cooperation, training and technical cooperation.</P>
    754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     716
    755717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building bridges</P>
    756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    757719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, it was only following the very destructive cyclone Kina in January 1993 that cooperation activities could start in the form of the rebuilding of four bridges either severely damaged or completely destroyed by the post-cyclone floods.</P>
    758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     720
    759721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work on two smaller bridges of major importance to Viti Levu (Korovou and Vunidawa, ECU 1.135m) was started in 1994 by the Public Works Department and completed in January 1995.</P>
    760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     722
    761723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Financing Agreement for the two major bridges (ECU 10.24m) was signed in June 1994 and provides for the rebuilding of the bridges of Ba and Sigatoka. These form part of the main road around the island of Viti Levu and are therefore vital for the movement of people and goods on Fiji's main island. The new bridges, 190 and 182 metres long respectively, will be two-lane, and will provide for footpaths and utilities. To enable the traffic to by-pass the often congested towns of Ba and Sigatoka, new sites for both bridges have been chosen, which also call for the building of new approach roads. Building works were under way in early 1996 and completion is expected by April 1997.</P>
    762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     724
    763725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non programmable aid for Fiji has been considerable over the years. While Stabex transfers for losses on coconut oil (totalling ECU 5.4m under Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; III) came to a halt under Lom&eacute; IV (because levels of exports fell below the required dependency threshold), emergency aid (total ECU 9.5m) has continued, unfortunately, to be needed. Time and again the islands have been hit by cyclones (the most recent occasion being in January 1993, when the EU made available ECU 1 m for food rations following cyclone Kina).</P>
    764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    765727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a significant feature of EU-Fiji cooperation was the credits provided by the European Investment Bank. It was very active under Lom&eacute; I to Lom&eacute; III, providing loans from its own resources to a total value of ECU 87.5m with a further ECU 6.1 m allocated in risk capital. Loans went to the energy sector (hydropower scheme), industry (wood processing) and services (telecommunications, sea and air transport). Considerable interest rate subsidies (totalling ECU 14.1m) have also been made available under the various EDFs in support of these loans. More recently, the EIB has financed an aircraft maintenance centre (1991) and a telecommunications project (1995).</P>
    766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     728
    767729<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade cooperation</P>
    768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     730
    769731<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above financial cooperation, Fiji benefits from the second largest quota (165348 tonnes per annum) under the Sugar Protocol annexed to the Lom&eacute; Conventions. This covers some 45% of its total sugar exports. The yearly benefit from this provision is estimated at between ECU 45m and ECU 55m - in other words, only slightly less than the total of all programme aid granted since Lom&eacute; I (ECU 64.9m). About two-thirds of these benefits reach the farmers, so that the EU subsidises every sugar smallholder, on average, to the extent of some ECU 1500 a year.</P>
    770 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     732
    771733<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently, Fiji's quota under the Sugar Protocol was increased by 881 tonnes, as a result of the reallocation of the shortfall of deliveries by Barbados. Furthermore, Fiji benefits from an annual special tariff quota to the tune of some 30 000 tonnes up to the year 2001.</P>
    772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     734
    773735<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development and external trade have been supported by the relaxation of the rules of origin for exports to the EU of canned tuna to the extent of 500 tonnes a year from 1993 to 1996. A similar arrangement, applicable for certain quantities of garments up the end of 1993 was recently extended to the end of 1996.</P>
    774 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     736
    775737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji's main exports to the EU (sugar, fish and garments) - and the resulting surplus in its trade relations with the EU - are consequently highly dependent upon the continuity of these preferences.</P>
    776 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     738
    777739<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for tourism</P>
    778 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     740
    779741<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of services, and specifically in tourism, the EU - through its support of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific - has contributed to the fact that every sixth tourist or so arriving in Fiji comes from a member country of the Union. Tourism being by far Fiji's most important source of foreign exchange earnings, receipts from European tourists amount at present to some ECU 30m, and are greater than those from the export of fish and fish products</P>
    780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     742
    781743<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking the Sugar Protocol into consideration, the EU is by far the most important of Fiji's development partners, followed by Australia. The country also benefits from bilateral cooperation arrangements with EU Member States (UK, France, Germany). </P>
    782 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    783 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    785 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     744
    786745<B><P></P>
    787746<!--
    … …  
    793752  </Description>
    794753-->
    795 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     754</B>
    796755<I><P></P>
    797756<!--
    … …  
    801760  </Description>
    802761-->
    803 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     762</I>
    804763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'None of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded these islanders in the great order and regularity maintained on every occasion, in ready and submissive compliance with the commands of their chiefs, and the perfect harmony that subsists among all ranks.'</P>
    805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    806765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the words of Captain Cook who visited the Tonga archipelago several times on his voyages around the world in the eighteenth century. The famous explorer was obviously impressed by the social organisation of this island nation and, although it is more than two centuries since he undertook his Pacific voyages, many of his observations hold true today. Talk of submissive compliance may no longer be appropriate, but in contrast to the turbulence of much of the outside world, Tonga certainly ranks as a peaceful society, which is respectful of hierarchies and strongly attached to 'traditional values'.</P>
    807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     766
    808767<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reference to harmony is particularly apposite, as The Courier discovered when we visited Tonga earlier this year. It was fortunate that our trip coincided with the King's birthday celebrations and we had the opportunity to enjoy the superb choral music which plays a central part in many important ceremonies here. Like their Polynesian cousins in Western Samoa (featured in our last issue), the Tongans seem to have a natural flair for music and a talent for spontaneous harmony. The question is whether these 'Friendly Islands' - a name they certainly deserve  -  can maintain their reputation for social harmony into the third millenium.</P>
    809 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     768
    810769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to answer this, one has to identify where discordant notes could creep in. The biggest challenge appears to come from the process of globalisation. New technologies, particularly in the field of communications, are rapidly breaking down barriers. The tide of the international economic system, with its emphasis on mass production, con sumerism and free trade, is lapping at the islands' shores And political systems everywhere are under pressure to con form to a 'democratic' model which some would argue places the individual above the community. </P>
    811 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     770
    812771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, external influences can be both positive and negative Cultural exchanges can be enriching, and new ideas and techniques may offer opportunities for improving the quality of life. The key is to adapt without undermining the social fabric. And in Tonga, as in other countries, a harmonious future will ultimately depend on the way the country evolves both politically and economically.</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    814773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at the current political set-up in Tonga, one cannot fault the use of the term constitutional monarchy which is the preferred description locally. It is important, however, to recognise that the constitution - which dates back to 1875 - gives considerable power to the monarchy. There is a measure of democracy in that all adults over 21 have a vote, but they only elect nine of the 30 Members of Parliament A further nine are chosen by the country's 30+ nobles while the twelve Cabinet Ministers, who sit in the House ex officio are nominated by the King. Tonga may' be small (it has fewer than 100 000 inhabitants) but it nonetheless attract: the interest of political scientists as one of the few remaining states with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power.</P>
    815 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    816775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics of the system view it as an anachronism, although their emphasis is on reform rather than revolutionary change. Defenders argue that the arrangement works well in a small, homogenous nation which values its unique culture and traditions (even if the constitution contains many 'British' elements). The latter also point, with some justification, to the attitude of the population. There are dissenting voices but the majority appears to be happy with the existing set-up, thereby lending it democratic legitimacy  -  at least indirectly.</P>
    817 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     776
    818777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may not, at present, be any overwhelming demand for constitutional reform but things can change. In particular, a people's view of their political system and how it might evolve is likely to be influenced by the prevailing economic conditions.</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     778
    820779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic outlook</P>
    821 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     780
    822781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's economy is not exactly booming with the most recent estimates suggesting a 2% GDP drop in 1995-96. Several of the traditional problems faced by developing countries are to be found writ large here. The local market is not just small but tiny by global standards, and this makes it exceptionally difficult to achieve economies of scale. There is heavy demand for imported manufactured items and few viable export opportunities to balance the equation.</P>
    823 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     782
    824783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education system compares favourably with those of other developing nations but the pool is so small that Tonga inevitably suffers from human resource shortages. This is exacerbated by a steady 'brain drain'. Qualified Tongans, who may already have experienced life abroad at college or university, are tempted by a range of attractions including higher salaries, better housing and more extensive career prospects. The skills shortage is particularly severe in the medical profession. In a recent issue of Matangi Tonga (the 'national news magazine'), it was reported that the country would only have one anaesthetist by 1997 - with a local doctor observing wryly that there was no need for one since the main hospital's only specialist surgeon had recently left to take up a post abroad.</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     784
    826785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it would be better for Tonga to retain its qualified people, the fact that the country 'exports' labour does have its positive side. Tongans have a strong sense of family and community, and overseas workers send significant amounts of money back home. This injection of 'foreign' funds boosts the local economy and reduces the overall balance of payments deficit.</P>
    827 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     786
    828787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
    829 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     788
    830789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector, with most crops being grown for local consumption. The islands benefit from a fertile soil and a tropical climate, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. All land is vested in the Crown, with estates allocated to the nobles. By law, each adult male is also supposed to be allotted three hectares although there is not enough land to go round. Despite this difficulty, which means that some people do not receive their allocation, the result is that most Tongans are involved in farming. The advantage of the arrangement is that it guarantees a living for the bulk of the population even if their cash income is low. On the other hand, it is obviously a feudal system which favours the upper echelons of Tongan society. In addition, it tends to hinder the development of larger units which could benefit from economies of scale. While anxious to make farming more efficient (and export-oriented), the government currently has no plans to introduce land reform.</P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     790
    832791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In export terms, the main crop is squash (pumpkins). Production increased dramatically in the early 1990s when a market niche was identified in Japan and it soon became the country's biggest foreign exchange-earner. More recently, income has been depressed, with overproduction in 1994 leading to a drop in prices, and poor rainfall the following year reducing yields. The November export figures for the last three years (November is the month when squash deliveries peak) illustrate the extent of Tonga's reliance on this single product. In November 1993, the country's overall export income was T$15m - more than half of the annual total. Twelve months later, the figure had dropped to T$9m and last year, it fell below T$6m. When The Courier visited Tonga, the authorities were talking about limiting the amount of squash exported to Japan this year to 15 000 tonnes, in the hope of maintaining premium prices.</P>
    833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     792
    834793<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is also acutely aware of the risks of mono-dependence and is looking for other outlets for its agricultural produce. Demand for copra, Tonga's traditional export, has apparently been reviving, but the price has not been high enough to attract local farmers back into the market. Other crops sold abroad include vanilla, cocoa, coffee, black pepper and ginger.</P>
    835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     794
    836795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One farmer who is doing his bit in the quest for export diversification is Masao Soakai, a former general manager of the Copra Board. He is now the managing director of a company that specialises in the import and export of produce. This energetic 73 year-old gave us a guided tour of the plots he had rented. He cultivates an astonishing range of different crops which include potatoes (for Fiji), cassava, taro, yams, carrots, broccoli, cauliflowers, strawberries, bananas and capsicums. He also rears cattle and pigs (a Tongan tradition). Masao Soakai stresses the importance of rotation in maintaining yields and believes strongly in planting for the future.</P>
    837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     796
    838797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other sectors</P>
    839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     798
    840799<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever you happen to be in Tonga, the Pacific Ocean is never far away. Evidence of the country's maritime tradition can be found in accounts of the appropriately named William Mariner (see box article on this page). But while, in the past, Tongan vessels sailed far and wide, and the country has a huge exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the fishing industry is relatively undeveloped. The sector generates about 5% of GDP. A project sponsored jointly by the FAO and the UNDP revealed that there was considerable scope for expansion, both in the inshore and reef zones and in the deep sea area. The main species which could be exploited commercially are albacore, skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Tonga has received assistance to develop its fisheries from the USA and Japan, and the government has offered tax advantages in the hope of promoting investment, but there is still a long way to go before the country realises its full potential in this area. Hitherto, the country has not licensed foreign vessels to fish in its waters but there is talk of this policy changing.</P>
    841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     800
    842801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could also generate a lot more income although it currently faces a number of infrastructural and practical constraints. The government is committed to expanding the sector but Mrs Papiloa Bloomlield Foliaki, the owner and manager of Nuku'alofa's third largest hotel (the 'Friendly Islander') feels that a lot more could be done. She pointed out to The Courier that a healthy tourist sector would provide employment as well as stimulating new business for food producers, builders and craft industries. She focused, in particular, on deficiencies in training and marketing, and suggested that some of the resources allocated to agriculture might be better spent in tackling these.</P>
    843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     802
    844803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's natural assets make it a 'dream' location for visitors looking for a complete change of scene - particularly if they happen to be keen on sailing, snorkelling or scuba diving. The problem is that the country is so far off the beaten track that it is expensive to get to (some would see this as an advantage in deterring mass tourism). Nothing much can be done to change this but it does mean that they have to aim at the upper end of the market. This requires top quality accommodation  -  of which there is a distinct shortage at the moment. As regards marketing, Mrs Foliaki was hopeful that the recent formation of a hotel association would enable the Tongan tourist industry to raise its profile abroad. Despite her optimism - echoed by all those we spoke to in official circles - the latest figures for visitor arrivals show a downturn.</P>
    845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     804
    846805<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the manufacturing sector, the story is, sadly, one of long term decline. Clothing production ceased in 1994 and the output of leather items has been falling. There are very few industrial activities in which Tonga has a comparative advantage (whether actual, or potential) and this is something which is recognised locally. There may be some scope for adding value to agricultural products through processing but it is unlikely that industry will take off in a big way in the foreseeable future.</P>
    847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     806
    848807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sale of passports (see the interview with Prime Minister Baron Vaea) is an issue which attracted publicity - not all of it favourable - some years ago, when the government launched the TPPP (Tonga Protected Person's Passport). This was designed to be a travel document which did not confer the right of residence in the country. The authorities adopted the scheme with an eye firmly on Hong Kong, a British colony which is due to be transferred to China in 1997. Some passports were sold but the project never really took off as the immigration authorities of other countries refused to accept the document. Now there are suggestions that the idea may be revived, although this time involving normal passports.</P>
    849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    850809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foregoing survey of Tonga's economy does not paint a particularly happy picture but it should be stressed that there is very little real poverty in the islands. In many ways, the informal economy is more important, and subsistence agriculture and fishing ensure that people do not go hungry. With their traditional family structures and strong attachment to the Christian faith, the Tongans have not yet encountered many of the social problems associated with more consumption-oriented societies. But to paraphrase a famous saying, 'no nation is an island' nowadays - even if it happens to be surrounded by water! In an era of increasing globalisation, the key question is how to manage change. Let us hope that the people of Tonga can find the right answer. </P>
    851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    854 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     810
    855811<I><P></P>
    856812<!--
    … …  
    861817  </Description>
    862818-->
    863 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     819</I>
    864820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Constrained by our geography'</P>
    865 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     821
    866822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No-one can accuse Tonga's Prime Minister of being a starry-yed optimist. As the following interview reveals, Baron Vaea, who heads a twelve-member ministerial team, is refreshingly honest about the economic difficulties facing his small island country. The Courier interviewed him in July, at his office in Nuku'alofa.</P>
    867 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     823
    868824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have suffered a GDP drop and a general slowdown of activity in recent years. What is the government doing to restore the situation ?</P>
    869 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     825
    870826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that the economy has been declining. The main cause is the excessive demand from the private sector for imports from New Zealand and Australia, combined with diminishing exports. Our exports fell when the price of copra dropped. Another problem is New Zealand's quarantine rules. New Zealand is very particular on quarantine against insects, notably fruit flies, which may damage their own export trade. We have endeavoured to balance this out by selling squash to Japan and indeed, it has been a saviour as far as our economy is concerned. Squash is something our farmers know how to grow. Of course, the market goes up and down. Recently, we made the mistake of over-producing and quite a lot of the crop could not be sold abroad. I think our farmers are now realising this, and that they have to plant according to the quota that we ourselves have imposed. Tourism is another important area although levels of room occupancy are very dependent</P>
    871827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">on the economic situation in other countries. Then there are passport sales.</P>
    872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     828
    873829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this something you are still doing ?</P>
    874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     830
    875831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but it has been hit by technical difficulties. A number of Hong Kong Chinese bought our Tongan Protected Persons Passport (TPPP) in the hope that they could travel. The immigration authorities in other countries decided they would not accept the document so this source of income dried up. We have changed to national passports which people can use to travel. We are hoping to revive this in order to suit the conditions of the Hong Kong people.</P>
    876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     832
    877833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this being done on the assumption that the people who purchase such a passport would not ultimately settle here ?</P>
    878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     834
    879835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The main reason people in Hong Kong want a passport is to keep open the option of leaving after the changeover.</P>
    880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     836
    881837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this policy prompted any criticism from other countries ?</P>
    882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     838
    883839<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No. The main problem is the Chinese themselves who are due to take over Hong Kong next year. It is possible that they will not recognise these passports. We are planning to have discussions with the Chinese on this.</P>
    884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     840
    885841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Going back to the agricultural sector, are you not putting too many eggs in one basket in focusing so heavily on squash. What efforts are you making to diversify ?</P>
    886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     842
    887843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We have just signed a trade agreement with Fiji. They are such a close neighbour yet we have had virtually no trade with them. This should change with the agreement, to the benefit of our economy.</P>
    888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     844
    889845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What products are we talking about here ?</P>
    890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     846
    891847<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Mainly vegetables, particularly those that are favoured by the Indian community, such as chills and spices. A trade mission has just returned from Fiji where they picked up a number of orders. The representative of a group of growers also recently returned from Japan. He took a sample of dried pawpaw, a crop which is popular with the Japanese, and apparently received an excellent response. This is an area which is promising.</P>
    892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     848
    893849<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key issue, however, is the amount of space available in the aeroplane. You can't ask everyone to grow pawpaw when the airline tells us that they can only take eight tonnes at a time. Only a limited number of farmers can be involved, so that we can continue to supply the tonnage that the airline can handle. We will encourage the rest of the farmers to concentrate on other products.</P>
    894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     850
    895851<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your policy regarding foreign investment ? </P>
    896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     852
    897853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We encourage overseas investors to engage in activities that local people are not involved in. Land leases are available for anything they want to do which fits in with this policy.</P>
    898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     854
    899855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga has an extremely limited manufacturing sector and there appears to have been a long-term decline. What prospects are there for reversing this trend ?</P>
    900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     856
    901857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - For many years, the policy of the government has been to encourage exports. We have had entrepreneurs here who have exported things like woollen garments, small boats, horse saddles and so on - but it didn't last. The sad fact is that hardy anything is exported from Tonga. The main reason is that we are constrained by our geography. We are so far away from the main markets. The raw materials have to be brought in and by the time the article is finished, there is no way that it can compete in price terms. This has always been our problem. We are always looking for new markets but it is not easy.</P>
    902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     858
    903859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second limitation is the private sector in Tonga. This is weak in terms of technology, marketing and product quality.</P>
    904 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     860
    905861<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about further processing of local products - perhaps value-added agricultural activity ? </P>
    906 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     862
    907863<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, this is something that we would hope to do, though the same kinds of problem arise. People don't set up the processing plant because they say there isn't enough local cultivation to make it worthwhile. And the farmers don't grow the crop because they say there is no market.</P>
    908 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     864
    909865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So it is 'chicken and egg' situation ?</P>
    910 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     866
    911867<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The result is that people only grow for home consumption.</P>
    912 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     868
    913869<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should mention here that there are other resources we have yet to exploit, notably in our waters. We have reserved these for ourselves and do not allow foreign fishing vessels. So we are trying to recover resources from the sea.</P>
    914 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     870
    915871<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the possibility of drilling for oil. Research ships operating in the Pacific have found a limited number of locations where it would be worth looking for oil reserves and two of them are in our waters. We have been publicising this with a view to encouraging further exploration.</P>
    916 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     872
    917873<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· This would presumably involve drilling licences for oil multinationals.</P>
    918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     874
    919875<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Some companies have done this in the past although only on a small scale. The answer we got from the oil companies is that they are interested in exploitation - but not now because of the low oil price. When the price goes up, I think we may attract interest again but that is clearly only a long term possibility.</P>
    920 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     876
    921877<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A lot of young Tongans leave the islands to work overseas. What is the explanation for this ?</P>
    922 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     878
    923879<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that a high percentage of our population migrates. These are people in search of a better life, who seek to reap the benefits of their abilities by working overseas. They can have a nice house and get a good education for their children.</P>
    924 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     880
    925881<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should stress that we have a good education system here but there is a heavy emphasis on gaining qualifications in order to get into the civil service. Where we are lacking is in the field of technical education. We have some facilities of course - an Institute of Science and Technology and a Marine Institute to train people to go to sea. This is very much in its infancy and we hope it will help for the future. But even some who have gone through this system end up looking for jobs overseas.</P>
    926 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     882
    927883<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political issues, you have a monarchy here which is still very powerful. Do you anticipate any changes in the system ?</P>
    928 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     884
    929885<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There has been some public pressure for change. I don't think people want a radical upheaval but there is a feeling in certain quarters that the present system could be improved upon. As you probably know, Parliament has nine members elected by the people and a further nine selected by the 28 nobles from among their own number. The third component is the government -  12 ministers who are appointed by the King. It has been suggested that qualified people who don't presently sit in Parliament should be there to help deal with the economy. One idea is to change the Constitution so that whole population elects 30 members. The King would then choose his ministers from these 30.</P>
    930 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     886
    931887<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this idea made any headway ?</P>
    932 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     888
    933889<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  No, not so far. We are maintaining the old system. The proposal has been aired but it hasn't been passed in the House. There are a lot of people, I think, who prefer the present system because they feel the monarchy works for the benefit of all the people. Would a new team necessarily stick to this principle? There must be a danger that they would tend to favour just one section of the population.</P>
    934 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     890
    935891<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can you comment, finally, on Tonga' relations with its partners in development cooperation ?</P>
    936 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     892
    937893<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - As you know, we have good relations with the EU through the Lom&eacute; Convention. We also have strong bilateral links with Australia and New Zealand which have been giving us assistance. But I think we have to face up to the fact that the aid cannot continue. The UK, for example, used to provide us with our judges. That has been taken over by Australia and New Zealand -  but for how long ? I think it is bound to be phased out.</P>
    938 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     894
    939895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So we will continue to have relations with our partners, but we need to recognise that they are concentrating their efforts now and adapt accordingly. </P>
    940 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     896
    944897<I><P></P>
    945898<!--
    … …  
    950903  </Description>
    951904-->
    952 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     905</I>
    953906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
    954 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     907
    955908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 669 km². Tonga has about 170 small islands and four main island groups (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas). It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 700 000 km,). </P>
    956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     909
    957910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Nuku'alofa (situated on Tongatapu) </P>
    958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     911
    959912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 99 000 (1994 census) </P>
    960 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     913
    961914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 149 per kilometre² </P>
    962 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915
    963916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1992): 68 years Official languages: Tongan and English Currency: Pa'anga (T$) made up of 100 seniti. The currency is pegged to the Australian dollar. In September 1996, 1 ECU was worth T$ 1.57 (US$1 T$ 1.22)</P>
    964 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    965918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
    966919 Tonga</P>
    967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    968 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     920
    969921<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    970922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polities</P>
    971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     923
    972924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: Constitutional monarchy based on the Constitution promulgated in 1875. Considerable powers remain vested in the King. The Parliament has 31 members  -  the Speaker, 12 ministers (including the Governors of Vava'u and Ha'apai) who are appointed by the King, 9 nobles chosen by the 33 members of the nobility and 9 People's Representatives elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties although there has been talk of setting up a 'people's Party'. The twelve cabinet ministers hold office until they reach retirement age.</P>
    973 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     925
    974926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV</P>
    975 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     927
    976928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Baron Vaea of Houma</P>
    977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     929
    978930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (estimated 1995 figures unless otherwise stated) </P>
    979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     931
    980932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US $1900</P>
    981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     933
    982934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: -2% (1995/96)</P>
    983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     935
    984936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: squash, vanilla, manufactured goods and fish. In the early 1990s, squash accounted for more than half the country's total export income. In 1995, however, the harvest was affected by drought and exports dropped significantly.</P>
    985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     937
    986938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: A trade deficit of US $38.8m (exports  -  US $18.3m, imports  -  US $57.1 m). The current account deficit is much smaller thanks to 'invisible' earnings, notably from tourism and remittances from Tongans living overseas. Inflation rate (April 1995): 4.5%. Total external debt: T$ 44m (1993)</P>
    987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     939
    988940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Tonga in Profile (on the Internet -  http: 11l www. netstorage. com/kami/ tonga) Economic Intelligence Unit Country Report 1996. </P>
    989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    990 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     941
    992942<I><P></P>
    993943<!--
    … …  
    998948  </Description>
    999949-->
    1000 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     950</I>
    1001951<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'There is much more political awareness'</P>
    1002 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     952
    1003953<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's representative, Teisina Fuko offers an alternative view</P>
    1004 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     954
    1005955<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While Tonga has no political parties, and the main levers of power remain in the hands of the monarch, it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no questioning of the status quo in this small Pacific kingdom. As The Courier discovered on its recent visit, Tongans are happy to speak openly about their political system and to criticise (or praise) aspects of it me local media may not be particularly extensive but it nonetheless allowe for different viewpoints to be expressed, including criticism of the authorities. </P>
    1006 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     956
    1007957<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who advocate political reforms in Tonga face something of an uphill struggle. There is no overwhelming demand for change and although the lever of popular support for the current system is not easy to judge, there appears to be widespread acquiescence  -  which effectively amounts to the same thing.</P>
    1008 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     958
    1009959<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, the focus of 'opposition' has tended to be within the ranks of the people's representatives who sit in Parliament We spoke to one of these elected members, Teisina Fuko, who comes from the Ha'apai island group and began by asking how democratic the thought the system was.</P>
    1010 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     960
    1011961<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say about 50%. Up until the 1970s, the system was very traditional but we now seem to be westernising quite quickly. People are returning from overseas with different ideas and this is having an impact on the way we are governed.</P>
    1012 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     962
    1013963<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think you will ultimately have a Parliament whose members are all elected by universal franchise ?</P>
    1014 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     964
    1015965<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say it is more certain now than ever before. There is much more political awareness. We see it in the schools, where children are being taught to think independently. There are also the new economic trends -  commercialisation and the focus on foreign earnings which imply the need for modernisation.</P>
    1016 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     966
    1017967<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You sound quite enthusiastic about the 'westernisation' process. Are you not concerned about the possible negative aspects in terms of the survival of your traditional culture ?</P>
    1018 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     968
    1019969<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have to strike a balance. We mustn't go to extremes. Our culture and traditions are important but there are new things we need to take on board and some old habits we should drop. Take business opportunities: we have to be more democratic in this area. If one group has all the power then they will tend to favour their friends which isn't necessarily efficient. What it boils down to is a lack of checks and balances.</P>
    1020 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     970
    1021971<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the present economic difficulties, I also think we need to move quite quickly. I recently wrote an article arguing that the King should transfer his power to appoint ministers to the people. Ministers should be elected so that they can be accountable to the taxpayer. We are a close-knit family here and there is no question of getting rid of the monarchy. But we need to sit down and hammer out a compromise which will allow us to improve our economy and make it more competitive.</P>
    1022 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     972
    1023973<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me give you a practical example. Defence is now third on our list of priorities. That doesn't make sense to me. We would be better spending the money on economic development. We also need to boost the private sector so it can create jobs, instead of tying its hands. At present, 50% of our revenue goes on paying civil servants. What for 7 It may create employment, but it is not productive. So the government has to be minimised. Having said this, there are some positive signs. I am glad, for example, to see new blood being brought into the ministerial team.</P>
    1024 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     974
    1025975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parliament is currently composed of three groups - twelve ministers, nine nobles and nine people's representatives. On paper, that suggests that no group can dominate ?</P>
    1026 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     976
    1027977<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Yes, but the ministers and nobles often work together and we are  outvoted. It is difficult to imagine the nobles saying 'no' to the King although, to be fair, they do sometimes abstain and some of them recognise the need for certain reforms to the system.</P>
    1028 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     978
    1029979<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to the economy, which areas do you think offer the best development prospects ?</P>
    1030 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     980
    1031981<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-  Tonga's potential lies in fishing. We are an island nation that has always depended on the resources of the sea and we have the necessary labour force. What the people need is the know-how  -  advanced technologies to develop this sector. We also have to set up credit programmes so that people can invest in boats and equipment. I believe we should spend a lot more on fishing.</P>
    1032 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     982
    1033983<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately the government does not take the same view. It has put a lot of resources into small industries, airlines and so on. Yet the reality is that these sectors are in decline. Manufacturing has fallen and so have agricultural exports. Fishing is the only sector that is expanding.</P>
    1034 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     984
    1035985<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the prospects for agriculture ?</P>
    1036 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     986
    1037987<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have reached the limit in this sector. There is very little scope for expansion. I also believe we should be concentrating on what we can produce to use locally. There is very little more we can do in terms of commercial exploitation. Tonga is somewhat overcrowded and we cannot use too many chemicals because the water table is so low.</P>
    1038 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     988
    1039989<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One local issue, which presumably has economic implications, concerns the possible expulsion of foreigners who have been here for a certain amount of time. Apparently, the decision has been taken not to renew certain residence permits. What is your view on this ?</P>
    1040 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     990
    1041991<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think Tonga should encourage skilled people who are here to stay. We should use make use of their skills, particularly where they have expertise that is lacking locally. At the same time, there are some people here who just came for a visit and ended up staying without doing anything very productive. There are also a number who came after the coup in Fiji and I think we should give them some leeway.</P>
    1042 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     992
    1043993<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole, I don't think it is a big problem. Tonga has traditionally been very liberal in the application of its immigration law. We have never been colonised so we tend not to have a suspicion of foreigners. And whatever we do must be in accordance with the law.</P>
    1044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     994
    1045995<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you sum up your vision for the future ?</P>
    1046 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     996
    1047997<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  You only need to look around you to see that we have a youthful population here: a lot of young people who need to be catered for. We are investing heavily in education which I think is good but we need to do more to adapt to the changing world. We were peaceful in the past because most Tongans were on roughly the same level in terms of wealth. Now the poor are getting poorer while the rich get richer. This could lead to an increase in social tensions. With a more democratic system, we should be able to close the gap and work for a peaceful and more prosperous future. </P>
    1048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1049 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1050 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     998
    1052999<I><P></P>
    10531000<!--
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    10591006-->
    1060 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1007</I>
    10611008<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Minister outlines economic strategy</P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1009
    10631010<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the policy of appointing Ministers for life - or at least until retirement age - is maintained, then Dr Giulio Masasso Tu'ikolongahau Paunga can look forward to a long career in the Tonga Cabinet. At just 32, he has recently been been given the job of Minister for Labour, Commerce and Industries (with responsibility also for tourism). He may be relatively young, but the new minister has impressive academic credentials. He took a master's degree in Japan (in Japanese) and as we soon discovered, he has some new ideas about how to achieve economic development in his country.</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1011
    10651012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Masasso's portfolio covers a wide range of economic activities and we began by asking what he thought the main focus of his work would be. He identified three areas  -  agriculture, which is the single most important sector; fisheries which has potential for growth; and tourism. He would also like to see more manufacturing, particularly for export, but acknowledged that the current prospects in this area were very limited.</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1013
    10671014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at agricultural production for export, we noted that a significant change had taken place over the last decade. Coconut-related products had been largely replaced by squash, a 'gap' in the Japanese market having been identified when other sources of supply were not available. Tonga may have been the first to spot the opportunity but was there not a danger that other countries might 'muscle in'? The government was 'very aware of this danger', said the Minister and was trying very hard to diversify its export products. He mentioned vanilla, papaya, beans and, in particular, carrots. The last-mentioned crop grows well in the islands and there is apparently a growing taste for carrot juice in Japan. A list of products with export potential, which could be grown successfully in Tonga, had been drawn up in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr Masasso's department would be actively seeking new business overseas.</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1015
    10691016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is obviously interested in developing trade with Japan and other countries in Asia, but the Minister felt that New Zealand and Australia were likely to remain the principal markets for Tongan farm products in the future. He was looking forward to easier access to New Zealand once new quarantine facilities had been set up at the international airport on Tongatapu. This, he said, should allow for a larger throughput of export crops.</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1017
    10711018<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency, of course, is the key to winning and keeping overseas customers. With this in mind, our discussion turned to the land tenure system. The allocation (at least in theory) of parcels of land to all male Tongans discourages the development of larger farms or plantations. Was this the most effective way of exploiting the country's fertile lands? Dr Masasso acknowledged that the system hampered efficiency but stressed that the question was a very sensitive one. The right to cultivate a plot of land is deeply rooted in Tongan culture, and radical changes to the property laws are not on the agenda. As the Minister put it; 'We are trying to maximise our efficiency under the present system of land tenure.'</P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1019
    10731020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to tourism, Dr Masasso observed that 'this has been the most stable industry over the past ten years,' bringing an average of T$ 12 million into the country every year. In looking at possible growth, however, he stressed the need to take account of the environmental and cultural impact. 'Tonga is a very small country, and it would not be right to build too many hotels and related facilities. It might be possible, but the long-term effects would be a little too much for the country.' Dr Masasso said he favoured tourism which has 'e closer relationship with people -  a cultural exchange, targeting people who really wish to understand our country.'</P>
    1074 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1021
    10751022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing is a sector which appears to have huge potential given the size of Tonga's exclusive economic zone. Dr Masasso explained how Japanese assistance was being used in a boat building scheme designed to produce vessels that local people could afford. He also spoke enthusiastically of the research that had been carried out to determine the nature and size of the fish stocks. He recognised, however, that while most of Tonga's fishing was inshore, there was scope for a great deal more revenue from deep-sea fishing. In this connection, negotiations were underway with the United States, Taiwan and Japan, to allow vessels from these nations to fish in Tongan waters. </P>
    1076 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1023
    10771024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversation then moved on to the more general issue of entrepreneurship and the role of the state in the economy. The Minister indicated that the government believed in privatisation but stressed that this was not simply 'because other countries are doing ft.' The main issue at this stage, he said, was to create a sufficiently large pool of well-trained people to take over activities currently run by the authorities. 'The government wishes it didn't need to get involved but we are a small developing nation, and to get things started, you need capital and know-how  - which locals sometimes don't have access to.' In these circumstances, the state had to activate projects which could later be privatised once the necessary skills had been built up. Another 'major strategy' was to develop a much closer relationship between the Ministry and the private sector.</P>
    1078 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1025
    10791026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This led us into a discussion about Tonga's attitude to foreign investors who might also be in a position to supply capital and know-how. The authorities had recently threatened that a number of residence permits would not be renewed. Was this not a disincentive to potential overseas investors ? Dr Masasso was keen to offer clarification. 'The media makes it look as if Tonga doesn't like investors but they have misinterpeted the situation. He insisted; 'we want the foreign investment here and are encouraging it in those areas where locals cannot get involved.' Defending the actions of the immigration authorities, the Minister stressed that what they were doing was normal practice. 'Those who stay here illegally and do not extend their visa have to be deported.' The action, he argued, was not directed against foreign investors and indeed, the latter should be encouraged by the government's commitment to upholding the law.' </P>
    1080 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1082 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1027
    10841028<I><P></P>
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    1092 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1036</I>
    10931037<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing the Vava'u islands</P>
    1094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1038
    10951039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Myfanwy van de Velde</P>
    1096 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1040
    10971041<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EC-Tonga cooperation began in 1975 with the first Lom&eacute; Convention, soon after Tonga gained full independence in 1970. Grant aid totalling ECU 19.8m (Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; IV) has been allocated to the country during its 20-year membership of the Convention.</P>
    1098 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1042
    10991043<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; I, funds were directed principally towards two main projects: the construction of the wharf at Neiafu, Vava'u, and funding for the Ministry of Works to procure road maintenance equipment and build schools, rural health centres and small wharves at Ha'apai and Vava'u. Remaining funds were used to finance studies involving dredging, trade promotion and designs for Vava'u and Faua fisheries harbours. The EIB also financed a line of credit of ECU 130 000, under Lom&eacute; I, to the Tonga Development Bank.</P>
    1100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1044
    11011045<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lom&eacute; II funds focused on the fisheries sector, and on initiating works relating to the upgrading of the Vava'u airport. There were also projects in the fisheries sector, aimed at encouraging fishermen to undertake commercial fishing to meet local demand. To this end, the Faua Fisheries Harbour for small boats was built, and marketing and cold storage facilities were provided.</P>
    1102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1046
    11031047<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time Lom&eacute; III funds came on stream, Tonga had adopted a regional development approach with regard to its various island groups. The aim was to have a coherent development programme taking account of the specific constraints and potential of each. The Vava'u group of islands became identified as the focal area for the use of EC assistance, and Lom&eacute; III resources (ECU 6.5m in grants and ECU 0.5m in the form of risk capital to be managed by the EIB) as well as Lom&eacute; IV funds (ECU 6m and ECU 1 m respectively) have duly focused on its development.</P>
    1104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1048
    11051049<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Located in the north of the Kingdom, Vava'u is the second group of islands both in terms of population (16 000) and land area. With an abundance of natural resources, the group is thought to have greater potential for agriculture and tourism than other parts of the Kingdom. However, this potential was largely untapped at the time Lom&eacute; III was initiated. This was due to a variety of constraining factors including relatively low productivity, undeveloped marketing infrastructures, substantial import levels and poor distribution of utilities and other public services. One particular constraint preventing the development of tourism was limited access caused by a lack of transport infrastructures.</P>
    1106 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1050
    11071051<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two main projects aimed at addressing these problems have been implemented. The first, costing ECU 1.24m, involved completing the upgrading of the local airport at Lupepau'u (begun under Lom&eacute; II). In addition to runway improvements, a new terminal building was provided, complete with safety and navigational equipment. Passengers began using the new facilities in early 1995. The second project, entitled the 'Vava'u Development Programme', was allocated the sum of ECU 5m. This money is being used to pay for a series of activities including road upgrading, the provision of photovoltaic equipment for household energy needs and the supply of equipment for vocational training colleges. New buildings being funded include health clinics, a market and an agricultural quarantine building. The funds also cover the cost of establishing the Vava'u Development Unit as the monitoring and implementing agency for the programme.</P>
    1108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1052
    11091053<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Programme continues under Lom&eacute; IV, with about 85% of programmable resources for Tonga (approximately ECU 5m) set aside for activities in the focal area. Funds will be directed towards developing the Neiafu urban area, in recognition of the need to upgrade access and services in the commercial centre of Vava'u. The projects envisaged include upgrading the town centre and urban roads, port improvements, and measures to increase the capacity and improve the distribution of piped and rain water to households. In addition, a multi-annual micro-projects programme will lead to the construction of jetties on the inhabited outer islands of Vava'u, thereby improving access to Neiafu which is the main centre of the archipelago.</P>
    1110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1054
    11111055<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, Tonga has received funds in the form of Stabex transfers for losses in export earnings in respect of coconut products, bananas and vanilla. It also received emergency aid in 1977, following an earthquake, and in 1982 following Hurricane Isaac.</P>
    1112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056
    11131057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EIB interventions have contributed to the share capital of the Tonga Development Bank and have increased the Bank's lending capacity to small and medium-sized enterprises. </P>
    1114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1058
    11171059<I><P></P>
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    1125 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1067</I>
    11261068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uelingatoni Tevita Vaea (known as 'T' to his friends), proved to be a mine of information for The Courier, when we visited the Vava'u island group in northern Tonga recently. 'T' is a Tongan engineer who returned to his native land from Australia to work as assistant project manager in the Vava'u Development Unit. His help was particularly useful during the highlight of our visit - a traditional celebratory feast laid on by the villagers of Nuapapu. This is one of Vava'u's inhabited outer islands and the celebration was staged to mark the installation of solar powered lighting, courtesy of Lom&eacute; Convention funds.</P>
    1127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1069
    11281070<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuapapu is one of a number of outlying villages to receive solar installations under the Vava'u Development Programme. In all, some 350 homes have been wired up. Units attached to individual buildings collect the power and convert it into electricity which is stored in a battery. When night falls, the lights can then be switched on. Although the bulk of the installation costs are covered by the project, each participating household is required to pay a lump sum to have a unit fitted. They are also contracted to pay a modest amount each month towards maintenance of the system.</P>
    1129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1071
    11301072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may all seem rather prosaic to those of us accustomed to electrical power at the flick of a switch, but for the people of the villages in the Vava'u group, the project is little short of revolutionary. For centuries, their daily rhythm has been governed largely by the rising and setting of the sun. The only 'artificial' light available after darkness came from fuel-burning (and more recently, battery) torches or lamps  - enough perhaps to reveal a path or highlight the position of an object, but certainly not to read or do intricate work with one's hands.</P>
    1131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1073
    11321074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formal 'switching on' ceremony was performed by the Dutch Ambassador, Mr van Thessen and Jonathan Rodwell, who is the European Commission's resident advisor in Tonga. </P>
    1133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1075
    11341076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was preceded by a courtesy visit to the village chief and the above-mentioned feast, which gave the European visitors an authentic and memorable taste of traditional Tongan hospitality.</P>
    1135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1077
    11361078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food was brought from all quarters of the village on long rectangular trays covered with leaves. Each was laden with food.</P>
    1137 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1079
    11381080<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fare was predominantly local: the famous roast pigs featured prominently along with fish, chicken, bananas, coconuts and a variety of root and tuber vegetables.</P>
    1139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1081
    11401082<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also some 'imported' items: the corned beef which is so popular here, some packets of crisps to add colour to the guest 'table' and boiled sweets woven into garlands.</P>
    1141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1083
    11421084<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trays were laid end to end, stretching perhaps 20 metres and woven mats were placed all around. Having received our garlands of flowers, we were invited to sit down.</P>
    1143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1085
    11441086<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feast was interspersed by various speeches and 'T' helped out with a translation and explanation of the proceedings. We began with a prayer in Tongan, delivered by the local minister. This was followed by a speech of welcome and thanks by the matapule (spokesman) of the village chief.</P>
    1145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1087
    11461088<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High ranking people in Tonga always have a matapule to speak on their behalf on such occasions. Ambassador van Thessen and Mr Rodwell then replied on behalf of the guests, (in English, with consecutive translation provided).</P>
    1147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1089
    11481090<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They expressed thanks to the people of Nuapapu for their hospitality and wished them success with their new electric lighting. There was then a short discourse by the District Officer followed by a closing prayer.</P>
    1149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1091
    11501092<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References to all this speechmaking could leave a false impression that this was a formal and stilted affair.</P>
    1151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1093
    11521094<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact the reverse was very much the case: the mood was relaxed throughout and there is no doubt that the villagers know how to enjoy themselves. Music was supplied by a group of men playing a variety of instruments and the women joined in the festivities with what appeared to be spontaneous bursts of dancing.</P>
    1153 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1095
    11541096<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also special solo dances performed by two young ladies whose bodies had been smeared with coconut oil.</P>
    1155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1097
    11561098<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As tradition dictates, once their performances (involving highly expressive hand and finger movements) were complete, the audience expressed their appreciation by slapping banknotes on the oily exposed surfaces of the dancers' bodies.</P>
    1157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1099
    11581100<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The light was fading as the feast ended and we moved to the brief 'lighting up' ceremony, carried out to the accompaniment of applause.</P>
    1159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1101
    11601102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guests (including the staff of the Vava'u Development Unit who have guided the project through its various stages) then took their leave of this hospitable community and set off by boat on the return journey to Neiafu. As the vessel drew away from the shore, we were able to look up and see, for the first time, the twinkling lights of Nuapapu. </P>
    1161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1164 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1165 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1103
     1104<B>
    11661105<!--
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    1175 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1114</B>
    11761115<B><P></P>
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    1183 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1122</B>
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    1191 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1130</I>
    11921131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival and  Claude Smets)</P>
    1193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1132
    11941133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Conference, Habitat 11, on human settlements (Istanbul, June 3-14 1996) exposed the Herculean task of addressing the problems of ever-growing cities and called for 'shelter for all.' The special contribution of civil society in making cities more liveable was acknowledged at the conference - but the big question is, who will foot the bill ? The meeting also spoke of improving dwellings in rural areas to keep people on the land and halt the mass exodus to the cities. But the right to remain and prosper from one's habitat can be at odds with outside pressures for environmental conservation. The dossier looks at some of the issues raised by the conference, and the wider significance of 'Habitat II' </P>
    1195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1134
    11961135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second UN gathering on the theme of 'habitat', staged two decades after the first conference in Vancouver, took place against a backdrop of rapid and alarming urban growth. In 1900, one person in ten lived in a city. By 1948, the ratio was three in ten and by the year 2000 half the world's population are expected to be urban dwellers. 25 years after that, the figure is expected to have climbed to 60%. Africa is the region that currently has the highest rate of urban growth. In 1950, it had only one city with a population of one million. By the end of this decade there could be 60 cities of this size, according to UN figures.</P>
    1197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1136
    11981137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on human settlements and liveable cities inevitably meant that Habitat II covered some of the same ground as other UN conferences convened during the 1990s to explore the big issues facing mankind: the 1992 'Earth Summit' on environmental matters in Rio de Janeiro, the 1994 Population Conference in Cairo, the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen and the 1995 Women's Conference in Beijing. Issues common to all the agendas included rapid population growth, environmental degradation, access to clean water, poor sanitation, lack of infrastructures, and women's issues.</P>
    1199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1138
    12001139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rallying calls of Habitat II, set out in the Conference's conclusions, were 'shelter for all' and 'sustainable human settlements in an urbanising world.' The Nairobi-based Centre for Human Settlements is to be the focus for the follow-up. But as delegates dispersed, one of the pressing questions was where the money will come from to meet the host of agreed objectives -  which include clean water with improved technology, conservation and protection of the environment, and better health and education. In this dossier, European Commission officials from the Development Directorate General, who attended the conference, reflect on Istanbul and its likely followup.</P>
    1201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1140
    12021141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas in the past, cities were associated with economic development, innovation and the diffusion of new ideas, nowadays they conjure up the vision of urban poverty, environmental degradation, poor sanitation and a host of health hazards. Urbanisation is the direct consequence of rapid population growth, according to the 1993 Human Development Report. In 1965, agriculture provided 77% of employment in developing countries and represented more than 41 % of Gross Domestic Product. By 1985, this sector was contributing a lot less to GDP but was still providing 72% of all employment. So a large number of people continue to depend on agriculture although its share of the global economy is declining. In these circumstances, it not surprising that many of the world's poorest people are migrating to cities - the annual estimate is 20-30 million.</P>
    1203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1142
    12041143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dossier looks, in particular, at the environmental cost of rampant urbanisation and at the problems of city living for more vulnerable groups such as women. They are often among the poorest urban dwellers and can fall victim to exploitation and crime.</P>
    1205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1144
    12061145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, poor people in cities are becoming even poorer as economies improve. Additional pressures on these marginalised groups living in cities are neatly summed up by Jeremy Seabrook, author of 'In the Cities of the South.' In a recent article for Gemini news agency: 'Tougher Struggle for Survival in the Concrete Jungle,' he writes; 'As the pace of development quickens, with high economic growth and increased migration to urban areas, land price in most big cities have soared. Poor people are being increasingly removed from their hoary" - by mysterious fires, explosions and 'accidents'. Meanwhile, the urban poor's ability to mobilise and achieve has been used against them. The capacity of people to create homes and secure local communities has been used as a justification for the withdrawal of government services.'</P>
    1207 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1146
    12081147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He continues: 'As inequalities become more glaring, enclaves of prosperity are sealed off from the slums by checkpoints, guards and fences - like frontiers to another country. Despite this, people are still flocking to the city  -  often refugees from intensifying, industrialised agriculture and.. megaprojects in the countryside...' Mr Seabrook points out that without decent jobs, they fall prey to sub-contractors, who exploit them, offering them low pay and demanding that they work long hours.</P>
    1209 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1148
    12101149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society</P>
    1211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1150
    12121151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cities of many developing nations, 'civil society' is taking a lead, with projects to bridge the gap between the 'haves' end the 'have note'. Numerous participants at the Istanbul conference applauded the urban programmes undertaken by various elements of civil society, which include NGOs, community groups and individuals. Their significance was recognised in Istanbul, where their voice came through loud and clear. Nigerian journalist, Paul Okunlola, writing in this dossier notes a move towards 'bottom up' projects in Lagos as a result of the tough times.</P>
    1213 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1152
    12141153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agostinho Jardim Gon&ccedil;alves, the President of the NGO-EU Liaison Committee, was particularly pleased at the input of civil society to the conference's committees and conclusions. The debate, he said, had not just been about the macroeconomic aspects. Instead, it had come 'within the reach of the populations themselves.' The people, he argued, were both victims of the anomalies of inhumane settlement and the key players in efforts to construct a humane, dignified habitat.</P>
    1215 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1154
    12161155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeremy Seabrook describes some of the inspiring international initiatives undertaken by civil society. Examples include the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC) in Bombay, which works with pavement dwellers; the Association of Basic Needs (ARBAN), and 'Health for All' in Dhaka; the Eddie Guazon Foundation in Manila, which seeks to protect the poor against private interests; and the Foundation for Women, which is trying to tackle the trafficking of girls for Bangkok's brothels. But Mr Seabrook also warns against overestimating the strengths of popular organisation. As he points out: 'They require an enabling and positive framework, which the free market can never provide. Government intervention, of a more benign and positive kind than hitherto, is vital if people are to help themselves. As it is, too often they are forced to struggle against the people elected to govern them.'</P>
    1217 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1156
    12181157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chair of the Habitat Conference, Wally N'Dow, emphasised local solutions. The conference, he said, 'recognised the changing global patterns of life' and that solutions must be found at the local level. 'National governments and international agencies', he argued, were not in a position to solve massive urban problems or to pay to put them right.</P>
    1219 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1158
    12201159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were a number of donor pledges at the conference. The European Union countries, for example, reiterated their long-standing commitment to provide 0.7% of GNP for development by the year 2000  -  though many of the 15 member states are still well short of this target.</P>
    1221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1160
    12221161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One scheme which has attracted the particular interest of donors is South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). To a considerable extent, the success of President Mandela's government is likely to be judged on the success of this programme. It aims, among other things, to improve health, education, housing and sanitation and as such, it mirrors many of the 'Habitat II' goals. Launched in 1994, it is the centrepiece of the South African government's efforts to create a more democratic, prosperous, non-racial and non-sexist society. In the dossier, we look at the RDP's objectives, how it is faring and what sort of support the EU is giving.</P>
    1223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1162
    12241163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural rights</P>
    1225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1164
    12261165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond the city, the dossier looks at what is happening to some rural dwellers who have not taken flight to the city. Although, largely focused on the city, Habitat II acknowledged the importance of urban and rural linkages in its conclusions: 'Rural and urban settlements are interdependent... governments must work to extend adequate infrastructure and opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness and thereby minimise... migration.' There was mention too of the need for more jobs and housing for rural areas.</P>
    1227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1166
    12281167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But in some rural areas, the inhabitants have found themselves in dispute with conservationists. The latter seek to protect wildlife and the rural habitat by setting up national parks - a solution which is not necessarily in the interests of local people struggling to maintain their livelihood. We take a look at such dilemmas and the possible solutions being developed so that rural dwellers can continue to make the most of their habitat. This rural struggle, where solutions are also being called for at a local level, is not unlike the battle being waged for a better quality of life in the cities. </P>
    1229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1168
    12331169<I><P></P>
    12341170<!--
    … …  
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    1241 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1177</I>
    12421178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deputy mayor of the city of Louga, Daby Diagne is also President of the Finance Committee of Senegal's National Assembly, General Secretary of the Association of Mayors of Senegal and President of the World Federation of United Cities. He is the ACP-EU Joint Assembly's General Rapporteur on urban development and The Courier had the opportunity to interview him in September at the Assembly's meeting in Luxembourg.</P>
    1243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1179
    12441180<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have just submitted an initial report on urban development to the Joint Assembly. In it, you recommend that the Community adopt a specific and consistent global policy in this field, notwithstanding the fact that successive Lom&eacute; Conventions have contained a number of significant provisions relating to the subject. What is the reasoning behind your recommendation ?</P>
    1245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1181
    12461182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There are several reasons. First, there is the fact that, in the past, cities were often viewed solely in terms of infrastructures and sectors. Experience shows that this approach is not effective. Specialists are increasingly opting for a more global 'city' concept. The Commission must therefore adapt itself to the new situation. It is true that it has financed infrastructures and launched health and clean-up programmes, but the problem is that this has been done in a somewhat unsystematic way without being linked to long-term regional development or a zonal policy. There is now an increasing need for an integrated regional development approach. </P>
    1247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1183
    12481184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think ACP countries are aware of the importance of cities ?</P>
    1249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1185
    12501186<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That's another question altogether. Obviously, the ACP countries are in the process of changing their views on this subject and a number have appointed ministers to look after urban affairs. The reality of city life has to be taken into account. The rate of urban growth in the ACPs far exceeds that in other parts of the world and it is in the towns and cities that one sees the most glaring instances of poverty and under-development. People have therefore been forced to take the 'city' phenomenon into account in the ACP countries.</P>
    1251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1187
    12521188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The political will must exist for a policy to be successful. Do the ACP countries have a genuine will to implement an urban policy ?</P>
    1253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1189
    12541190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't think it is possible to speak of a uniform trend in all ACP states. However, in certain regions - for example in West Africa, which I know well - a municipal culture is beginning to take shape. There is a growing political will, which is illustrated by the discussions on decentralisation, and people are increasingly recognising that central government cannot do everything by itself. One can find regional development and planning policies designed to create the fabric of mediumsized cities. Not everyone has them but it is something we are seeing more and more of.</P>
    1255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1191
    12561192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ACP countries face complex challenges and there are people who say that the actions of the European Community are too dispersed owing to the number of sectors it is involved in. Doesn't your recommendation simply add to this problem ?</P>
    1257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1193
    12581194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - On the contrary. I regard my recommendation as being pro-integration and therefore pro-globalisation  - which is not the complete opposite of a sectoral, diversified approach. I believe it would allow the Union's activities in certain fields to be better interlinked. I am thinking here of water, health, clean-up operations and infrastructures  - all of which are major problems for society. Naturally, a more global concept will require greater dedication, and if there are additional resources, so much the better, but, in my view, the situation could be improved even with what we currently have available.</P>
    1259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1195
    12601196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The rate of urbanisation in Africa is higher than elsewhere and the living conditions of city dwellers - particularly those in the shanty towns  -  are becoming increasingly difficult in terms of health, education, environment and so on. What, in your opinion, would be the optimum strategy for reversing the decline, at least in the short-term ?</P>
    1261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1197
    12621198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - First of all, I think we have to make a distinction here. Let's take the actual rate of urbanisation. Contrary to what is generally thought, this is lower than in the rest of the world. In other words, Africa has fewer towns and cities than the rest of the world. It is the rate of growth in the urban population that is higher. Populations are becoming increasingly concentrated in the cities, with the drift of people from the countryside. In addition, the phenomenon is being fed by demographic trends. You ask me if there is anything we can do to halt this. There are actions that can be taken to restore some balance. For example, we could make investments in the rural environment to keep people in the countryside, and we could implement suitable agricultural policies.</P>
    1263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1199
    12641200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we must not labour under too many illusions, because life in towns and cities will be an inevitable characteristic of the next century. Economists and urban planners have been considering the phenomenon for a long time now - perhaps 30 or 40 years. It is  something that cannot be halted, because it is a fact of civilisation. So, what should we do? Above all, we should devote our efforts to regional development, achieving a balanced distribution of human resources, and a more equitable exploitation of natural resources. Power has to be decentralised so that people do not abandon their roots but face up to local challenges. And we have to implement urban policies which are satisfactory in terms of investment, management and popular participation. In simple terms, urbanisation has to be managed. We cannot hope to reverse the trend overnight, particularly in the case of a continent like Africa where everything happens quickly. Africa is enormous and its population has not yet reached its maximum levels. We have to take all this into account.</P>
    1265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1201
    12661202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must acknowledge that scientific progress and improvements in the field of health have contributed to population growth, and a reduction in mortality rates. This means that urban civilisation is a reality that we have to manage. There is a risk of uncontrolled growth in urban centres. When infrastructures are lacking, when there is no water, when hygiene cannot be guaranteed and when there is no work, a country's security is threatened.</P>
    1267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1203
    12681204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have mentioned democracy end the decentralisation of government This also requires adequate financial resources. Where do you think the ACP countries will find the money to implement decentralisation strategies ?</P>
    1269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1205
    12701206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Democracy involves a search for freedom - freedom of opinion and expression, independent of material or financial problems. The problem with decentralisation lies in administrative method. It is not purely a matter of money. In the first instance, it is a question of choosing the right approach. It has been demonstrated that without any extra resources, one can still act differently by delegating and decentralising. And success is much more likely because the people are involved in the process. Admittedly, it requires an internal reallocation of resources. A proportion of everything that was formerly centralised has to be allocated to development and to basic needs.</P>
    1271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1207
    12721208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer your question more directly, there is a great deal of talk of this alternative method of governing. It is inspiring new hope and a thirst for something better. It is even being viewed as an 'ideal' solution - which it cannot be entirely. However, by decentralising human and economic resources, and by allowing people to participate, hope can be inspired at local level. This should make for better administration and support, which is an improvement in itself. Of course, this may make people more demanding. Will it satisfy their requirements? As I have already said, internal resources will have to be reallocated, but resources must also come from outside. One cannot make an allout effort for decentralisation without doing something to improve international cooperation. This cooperation, however, must be adaptable, and the state must retain its pre-eminent position and its role as guarantor and arbiter. But in addition, local communities should have access to international cooperation either directly or indirectly through their organisations, municipal structures and so on.</P>
    1273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1209
    12741210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In this context, what role do you see for international organisations - not just in terms of financial resources, but also of human resources ?</P>
    1275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1211
    12761212<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think what we now need to do is build up a pool of skills in each municipal area. The developed countries have experience in this field. We have to take their processes as a model without necessarily copying their experience. This is something which will be discussed. Secondly, in the context of relationships between towns and cities, I believe it is possible to make access to experts more flexible and that this can take place very quickly, with the provision of training and fairly basic technology transfers. General training is also extremely important. In order to build up a pool of skills in towns and cities, local government must form a dynamic, management-oriented team. The approach has to be one of business-like management and objectives have to be targeted using private-sector methods, although public-service requirements always have to be borne in mind. A great deal, therefore, can be done at international level, in terms of support for networks of associations and committees of locally elected representatives, enabling them to discuss matters.</P>
    1277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1213
    12781214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We could, for example, carry out a comparative study of legislation in a particular area, thereby gaining access to other types of experience. Internationally, aid can be given to associations to help them buy equipment and attain a degree of freedom of manoeuvre vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities. In the field of decentralised cooperation, the international community can help elected representatives to implement their projects through partnerships, conducting studies, and providing personnel. Cooperation is possible in all spheres -  implementation, management, financing and so on. I believe that a new type of cooperation will gradually come into being. It is not a question of creating 'white elephants', but rather small and medium-scale projects which are of genuine use to the population. And I am not talking here about acts of charity, such as the donation of medicines, but sustainable projects. </P>
    1279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1215
    12821216<I><P></P>
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    1290 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1224</I>
    12911225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christian Cure'</P>
    1292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1226
    12931227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of towns and cities is not what it was. In the 20 years between the first United Nations conference on human settlements (1976) and Habitat II which took place in Istanbul in June 1996, the situation has changed a good deal. The significance of urbanisation  - and its irreversible nature -  are now acknowledged, as is the powerlessness of the authorities to deal single handedly with the complex phenomena which result The author of this article points out that civil society has suddenly broken into a field hitherto the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts, claiming a 'right to the city' based on research into more equitable development models.</P>
    1294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1228
    12951229<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver to Istanbul: two symbols for two eras</P>
    1296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1230
    12971231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver was the 1976 host of the first conference on human settlements organised by the United Nations. At that time, the UN was celebrating 30 years of existence and Vancouver, a model of urban development and modernity, provided inspiration for the developers and experts needed to plan the cities of the future. 'Appropriate technologies' heralded the possibility of mass-produced, cheap housing for everyone.</P>
    1298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1232
    12991233<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty years later, the UN chose Istanbul as the host city for the Habitat II conference on human settlements, forcing us to face up to a quite different situation: uncontrollable urban growth (400 000 migrants arrive there every year), social and environmental problems, and intercultural and political tensions (amply illustrated by the Turkish politicians' inability to form a government at the very time the Conference was taking place). In brief, Istanbul presents us with the usual list of problems facing most of the world's major cities - and those of developing countries in particular.</P>
    1300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1234
    13011235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this backdrop, the international community  -  180 countries, 500 local dignitaries, a few thousand professionals and even some ordinary citizens - came together from 3 to 14 June to discuss a 'settlement action plan'. This document, which had been in preparation for two years, contains 183 articles. It sets out a series of goals, principles and undertakings as well as providing an action plan for cities, the initial results of which should begin to be seen by the year 2001.</P>
    1302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1236
    13031237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preparatory committee selected two basic topics for discussion: securing adequate shelter for all, a basic but nonetheless controversial theme; and sustainable urban development The latter encompasses housing, demographic factors, infrastructure, services, the environment, transport, energy, social and economic development, the future of underprivileged groups and combating exclusion.</P>
    1304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1238
    13051239<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cycle initiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (followed by the Copenhagen, Beijing and Cairo meetings) was continued by Habitat II. Two major handicaps had to be overcome - 'conference fatigue' (with the resulting fact that there were fewer delegates than anticipated) and ensuring that what had been accomplished at earlier conferences was not undermined. Given that the subject of the meeting was human settlements, it was inevitable that sensitive issues already debated at previous summits, relating to the environment and social aspects, would keep recurring.</P>
    1306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1240
    13071241<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society as an active force</P>
    1308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1242
    13091243<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of conclusions arose from the official sessions (hearings, dialogues and various forums) which took place over the two weeks of the conference.</P>
    1310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1244
    13111245<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, Habitat II represented a recognition of the fact of urbanisation. In the past, there was a tendency on the part of the international community to play down, or even ignore, the phenomenon of urban growth and this was reflected in the meagre resources allocated to this area by donors. Today, the issue is better understood than it was 10 or 20 years ago, and it is acknowledged that the growth trend is unstoppable. Statistical studies and a set of 'urban indicators' drawn up for Habitat II confirm the scale of the problem. </P>
    1312 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1246
    13131247<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the Istanbul summit was a lesson in modesty. The obvious powerlessness of public authorities to deal single-handedly with the challenge of burgeoning towns and cities is recognised. The result was an understanding that a more pragmatic view is needed -  one which pays more attention to the complexities of urbanisation, to the wide variety of possible responses and, above all, to the multi-faceted nature of the players involved.</P>
    1314 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1248
    13151249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference therefore became a genuine forum for debate. One of its most significant aspects was the emergence of 'civil society' as an active force. Hitherto, the field has largely been the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts. For the first time in a UN forum, local authorities, community leaders, private sector representatives and other dynamic forces in civil society were invited to give their views and take part in discussion groups. Whereas in the past, the debate was dominated by macroeconomic and technical questions, in Istanbul, the political and social aspects were given prominence as well.</P>
    1316 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    13171251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of this was to improve the quality of the debate. The outlines of a new relationship between governments and civil society (NGOs, ordinary citizens and popular urban groups) were defined - with the local authorities slotting in somewhere in the middle. And there was a particular focus on the question of dimension or scale: what should be the basis for urban democracy and citizenship. Both of these are seen as essential if one is to have successful and sustainable urban development policies.</P>
    1318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    13191253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A right to the city?</P>
    1320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1254
    13211255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first stage of the analysis is to look at urban life from a macroeconomic standpoint. Urban growth is determined by the evolution of the world economic system and, in particular, by the globalisation of markets. This has generated increased competition, including competition between cities themselves. Since the end of the 1980s, cities have been responsible for between 50% and 80% of the GDP of most countries. In other words, they represent more than mere links in the global economy; they are, in fact, pivotal points.</P>
    1322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1256
    13231257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hence the principles which broadly underpin the Habitat 11 programme. In fundamental terms, public policies must promote the capital, housing, property and employment markets, with a view to improving the efficiency of urban management (living conditions, infrastructures, services, environment, etc.). This is not just desirable in human terms but also essential if urban productivity is to be improved. Many decision-makers at the meeting agreed that privatisation of services, partnerships involving the authorities, the community and the private sector, and decentralisation were all part and parcel of a new standard for good local governance.</P>
    1324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1258
    13251259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 'social' interests, on the other hand, were successful in focusing the debate on fundamental rights and principles, including individual and social rights. Indeed, these issues dominated the Conference and gave rise to the most difficult negotiations.</P>
    1326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1260
    13271261<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were prolonged talks, for example, on the central issue of the right to a roof over one's head. The outcome was a commitment by governments to promote 'the full and progressive acceptance of the right to adequate shelter'. The NGOs had been hoping for a more clear-cut undertaking. Questions relating to the status of vulnerable groups, women's rights and their equal access to land, and protection against eviction, were also the subject of heated exchanges.</P>
    1328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1262
    13291263<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the most important step forward, however, was the success of civil society representatives in sowing the seeds of a new idea - the 'right to the city'. This concept has been devised on the basis of research into more equitable and soundly-based development models to which local authorities are increasingly giving practical support. Thousands of individual experiences and issues were highlighted in Istanbul by NGOs and community groups. Thus, there is a mass of evidence that populations are capable of responding through local initiatives and of taking responsibility for improving their living and housing conditions. If this 'resource' is to be exploited to the full, urban politicians must develop a deeper understanding of the scale of micro-territories and local societies within cities. They also need to promote and coordinate their decision-making in a way which involves consulting and involving the local populations. In the modern era, this is the key to ensuring social cohesion.</P>
    1330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1264
    13311265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond Istanbul</P>
    1332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1266
    13331267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may have been a lot of new thinking on the basic principles, but there was no reference to financial undertakings in the Habitat 11 programme. On the latter issue, the international community was highly circumspect.</P>
    1334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1268
    13351269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank took the initiative, announcing the launch of an 'urban compact', involving an additional $15 billion in loans for urban projects over the next five years. It also revealed that it would triple its aid to NGOs involved in the urban environment. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that just 0.2% to 0.5% of a country's GDP would need to be set aside for the poor to gain access to basic urban services.</P>
    1336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1270
    13371271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards monitoring, the NGOs and local authorities won the right to sit on the Human Settlements Committee which will be responsible for implementing the habitat programme.</P>
    1338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1272
    13391273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important points to emerge from Istanbul, however, were that local authorities were given both formal recognition, and a major practical role - in keeping with their current responsibilities. The habitat programme is, in fact, a powerful call for decentralisation and increased local autonomy, its action plan being built on the implicit principles of 'subsidiarily' and 'proximity'. To a large extent, the successful implementation of the programme will depend on the mobilisation of municipal politicians and officials - and on the policies they adopt at local level. The agenda for cities in the 21 st century that was adopted at the Rio Summit must now be fleshed out and become the future reference for action by local authorities, NGOs and citizens' associations. Finally, the importance of decentralised cooperation and the role of local councils in international cooperation have been reconfirmed.</P>
    1340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1274
    13411275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local authorities and their international organisations decided to form a worldwide coordinating group to continue structured dialogue with the international community and to guarantee that the Istanbul resolutions are followed up.</P>
    1342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1276
    13431277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people predicted that Habitat 11 would be 'the revenge of the cities'. To quote P. Maragall, chairman of the Committee of the Regions, the conference at least provided the opportunity to build, and to give a wider audience to 'the voice of the United Cities within the United Nations'. That itself is a major step forward. </P>
    1344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1278
    13481279<I><P></P>
    13491280<!--
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    13551286-->
    1356 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1287</I>
    13571288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tackling violence against women</P>
    1358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1289
    13591290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Rosemary Okello</P>
    1360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1291
    13611292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is a journalist with the Nairobi-based Women's Feature Service (WFS) She contends that the Habitat 11 conference skirted around some of the issues affecting women city dwellers in Africa, such es violence and sexual abuse. Improving their lives, she argues, starts with a roof over their heads</P>
    1362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1293
    13631294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lofty ideals set during this year's UN Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul meant little to African women like Catherine Kaberu. </P>
    1364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1295
    13651296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As she recalls the misery of living on the streets of Nairobi, she is just happy now to have a safe, secure room for her family. 'I thought by running away from home and coming to Nairobi, I would find a better life" says Ms Kaberu. Instead, the streets became her home and her life was defined by the fear of violence against her. Her two children were born during that difficult period, following rapes. She cannot identify their father. There are an estimated 30 000 street people in Nairobi and Catherine Kaberu says that all street women and girls are regularly abused.</P>
    1366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1297
    13671298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Every day we had to look for a place to sleep and we bribed the watchmen to guard us.' Often it was the same watchmen, employed to guard office blocks in the city's central district, who took advantage of the women's desperate situation. Not even age could protect them says 63-year old Felista Nyambura, herself a veteran of the streets. 'I suffered all manner of humiliation,' she states, referring to ten years spent on the streets with her seven children. 'The watchmen would rape me if I refused to give in to them - after they had offered me a place to sleep for the night with my children. I am just so happy to be off the streets. I will never go back,' she states firmly.</P>
    1368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1299
    13691300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The confidence of the two women comes from their new security as owners of simple one-roomed houses.</P>
    1370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1301
    13711302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Having a house to call my own is the most important thing that ever happened to me,' says Ms Nyambura as she explains how she ended up on the street after the piece of land her husband left in their rural home was taken over by her in-laws.</P>
    1372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1303
    13731304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two women are part of a group of 114 who have benefited from the Urban Destitute Programme, a project of the African Housing Fund which is involved in participatory community development with the homeless women of Nairobi.</P>
    1374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1305
    13751306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catalina Trujillo, the 'Women in Development' coordinator for the Habitat conference stresses: 'If a woman's place is in the house, we had better make sure she owns it.' These sentiments were supported in Istanbul by the conference Secretary General, Wally N'Dow: He stated: 'By conviction, by analysis and even by instinct, women's rights to ownership and inheritance of property is right. If Habitat II... does not also contribute to social progress by addressing some of the issues like property rights for women, then it will have failed.' </P>
    1376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307
    13771308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the women of-Africa in particular, the most important thing that should have come out of Istanbul was an affirmation of their right to own and inherit property, and to security.</P>
    1378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1309
    13791310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues affect most African women regardless of their status and they were presented to ministers concerned with shelter and settlements when they met in Johannesburg last year to prepare an African agenda for the Istanbul meeting.</P>
    1380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1311
    13811312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most African countries accept the theoretical premise that women must have access to land, credit and inheritance, and recognise that certain types of violence are targeted primarily at women. South Africa's President Mandela affirmed: 'When we talk about people-centred development, we should understand that the involvement of women is often the difference between success and failure.' Yet in reality, customary law and insensitivity to gender concerns continue to predominate. Unfortunately, when the African ministers adopted their declaration, the point on the "unencumbered access of women to credit and land ownership' appeared in only 20th place. And while forced evictions were highlighted in Istanbul, violence against women did not feature at all among the 'key priorities'.</P>
    1382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1313
    13831314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet in parts of Africa these are major concerns affecting women every day. 'In South Africa, a women is raped every 83 seconds and in some areas, a girl can expect to be raped four times in her life,' says Emelda Boikanyo of the Johannesburg-based Women's Health Project. Idah Matou remembers how one Sunday morning in 1992, five men stormed into her shop in Alexandria township. They seized the day's earnings and anything else they could carry away before raping her 1 5-year old daughter. A few weeks earlier, they had called to demand protection money.</P>
    1384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1315
    13851316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence in the home is also a growing problem. Mmatshilo Motsei, Director of Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training, an NGO based in Alexandria, South Africa, says the problem is so pervasive, 'it must be raised as a national concern.' Habitat II turned a deaf ear on these women's concerns. This was not their forum. Shawna Tropp of the NGO Women's Caucus criticised those attending the conference who claimed that it was not about women but cities. 'Women live in cities,' she says and adds: 'By and large, human settlements are still very much seen in terms of bricks and mortar'. She calls for greater understanding of the role played by women, usually in an unpaid capacity, in the management of communities. 'Everything begins with having a house in a secure neighbourhood where the dignity of women is protected.'</P>
    1386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1387 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1317
    13891318<I><P></P>
    13901319<!--
    … …  
    13951324  </Description>
    13961325-->
    1397 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1326</I>
    13981327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The megacity personifies human misery for many in developing nations. As agglomerations proliferate in the twenty-first century, the United Nations Population Fund's 1996 report - The State of the World Population  -  considers how one might go about remedying the ills of city dwelling.</P>
    1399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1328
    14001329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNFPA's figures for urban growth make worrying reading. Over half the world's people will live in cities within ten years (3.3 billion out of a total of 6.59 billion). Between 1970 and 2020, the urban population will have risen by more than two billion - and 93% of these will be in developing nations. These increases will add to the strain of an estimated 600 million people already living in urban areas of developing nations without the resources to meet their basic housing and health needs.</P>
    1401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1330
    14021331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back in 1950, New York was the only city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Today, there are 14 in this category. Tokyo, which is home to 26.5 million people, is the largest. And by 2015, many others are expected to join the megacity 'club'  -  Djakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Tianjin (China), Manila (Philippines), Cairo (Egypt), Istanbul (Turkey), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Lahore (Pakistan), Hyderabad (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Lima (Peru), Teheran (Iran) and Kinshasa (Zaire).</P>
    1403 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1332
    14041333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the majority of the world's people will be living in cities by 2005, it will take a little longer for the 50% threshold to be crossed in the less developed regions. However, this is expected to happen before 2015. Looking specifically at Africa, the current estimates reveal significant regional variations. In Southern Africa the rate of urbanisation is 48%. The figures for North, West, Central and East Africa are 45%, 36%, 33% and 21 % respectively.</P>
    1405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1334
    14061335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expanding populations are likely to add to the widely reported list of horrors emanating from cities that are bursting at their seams. Problems include the collapse of basic services such as water and waste management, escalating social conflict, millions of urban children open to labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, environmental degradation, traffic congestion and environmental hazards such as increased air pollution.</P>
    1407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1336
    14081337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the UNFPA report acknowledges that cities are also 'concentrations of human creativity and the highest form of social organisation'. It continues: 'Cities provide capital, labour and markets for entrepreneurs and innovators at all levels of economic activity'. Indeed, between 60% and 80% of developing countries' GNP is generated by their major conurbations. Social transformation occurs at a faster pace in urban areas. Thus, health indicators tend to be better, literacy is higher and there is more social mobility. And there are more opportunities for women. The city presents fewer obstacles for women's education and female city dwellers are less likely to be constrained by traditions which may stifle their creativity.</P>
    1409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1338
    14101339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But harnessing this potential is no easy task. The final chapter of the UNFPA report, entitled 'Policies, strategies and issues for improving cities', argues that urban dwellers in developing nations have been badly affected by structural adjustment policies. These have resulted in the elimination of subsidies on food and other commodities, increases in school fees and job losses in the public sector. Cities will also be required to adapt to the 'mass global experience in decentralisation' involving the shifting of local decisions from central government to municipal authorities, parastatal bodies and the private sector.</P>
    1411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1340
    14121341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
    14131342 Regional distribution of urban population</P>
    1414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1343
    14161344<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    14171345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women - a priority</P>
    1418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1346
    14191347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report stresses the importance of improving education and health, with a particular focus on women. As Dr Nafis Sadik, who is Executive Director of the UNFPA, observes; 'If urban centres are to be made liveable, and the quality of life of the poorer members of society is to be improved, women should be given the chance to play their role in the process.'</P>
    1420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1348
    14211349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report reiterates the specific targets for improving the lives of women that were drawn up by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo.</P>
    1422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1350
    14231351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of education, these include 100% primary school enrolment (for both girls and boys) by 2015, improving access for girls and women to secondary, tertiary and vocational education, and closing the gender gap in the primary and secondary sectors by 2005.</P>
    1424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1352
    14251353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other goals include a progressive reduction in infant and maternal mortality, making reproductive health services accessible to all through the primary health care system by 2015, greatly improved provision for family planning (allowing couples to make free and informed decisions on the number, spacing and timing of births) and providing better protection against sexually transmitted diseases.</P>
    1426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1354
    14271355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of the World Population Report concludes: 'A successful urban future depends, as much as anything else, on engaging all members of the community - especially women and the poor  -  in a constructive political process.</P>
    1428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1356
    14291357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will have to be partnerships struck between governments, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector, and local and community organisations.</P>
    1430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1358
    14311359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And global urbanisation will require that the international community  -  governments, NGOs and international institutions - act to exploit the potential of cities to improve the lives of the world's people and to establish the foundations of sustainable development in the 21st century.'</P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1360
    14361361<I><P></P>
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    1444 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1369</I>
    14451370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Paul Okunlola</P>
    1446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1371
    14471372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a present population of some 7.5 million, the new millenium will propel Lagos to megacity status. The United Nations Population Fund predicts that 24 million people will live in the city by 2015, making it the third most populous conurbation on the globe. Whilst the donor community has supported urban projects in the past, tough times mean more reliance on 'bottom up' schemes backed by N60s and community-based groups.</P>
    1448 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1373
    14491374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it began to rain in the small hours of Thursday 18 July 1996, residents of Lagos -  Nigeria's largest city and economic nerve centre -  merely stirred in their slumber. The gentle, but persistent showers, didn't rank among the heaviest downpours experienced by this coastal city, which gets rain on average for eight months in every year. Nor are Lagosians unfamiliar with spells of rain lasting up to seven days without break.</P>
    1450 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1375
    14511376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But by the time of the early morning 'rush hour', the traffic-laden streets of metropolitan Lagos were being swept with rampaging floods. Until well after noon, the city's social and economic life was at a standstill. Already difficult road conditions were rendered impossible for motorists, marooned at the wheel for hours. Exhausted school children eventually made it back home after spending the better part of the day in traffic. Crowds of commuters waited interminably at bus-stops for vehicles that never came.</P>
    1452 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1377
    14531378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic toll was expected to be heavy, with offices in both government and the private sector remaining empty all day. Commercial activities were put on hold as shops remained shuttered until well after noon. The communications network and electricity supply to key areas of the city were shut down for hours, to protect equipment. One state government official commented: 'It has never been so bad.' By the time the water receded and life had returned to normal, both government engineers and private sector consultants were in agreement: the main reasons for the flooding were illegal development along the natural courses of inner-city waterways, and the reduced drainage capacity of the overdeveloped metropolitan area.</P>
    1454 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1379
    14551380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploding metropolis</P>
    1456 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1381
    14571382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both the flood itself, and the acknowledgement of the human limitations of the city officials, illustrate the frustrations that have attended the management of this exploding metropolis over the last three decades. In the months leading up to the July flooding, a major controversy erupted over plans to landfill the inland Kuramo lake in the highbrow Victoria Island district and develop it as a housing estate. This pitted state government officials and a firm of developers on the one hand, against a motley band of citizens groups, non-governmental organisations and concerned environmentalists on the other.</P>
    1458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1383
    14591384<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unusual strength of local feeling against the project reflects growing fears that the island itself could be submerged. Five years ago, this was thought to be a remote prospect but today it is seen as a real threat, given the increasing frequency of flooding incidents and ocean surges along the coastal area.</P>
    1460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1385
    14611386<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more people are arguing that there is a correlation between the growing frequency of flooding incidents and the massive sandfilling activity that has taken place over the years. The Kuramo issue remains contentious but it is just one example of the wider dilemma facing the city's development planners. They have the daunting task of providing for legions of migrants to Lagos - whose swelling numbers are placing great stress on the failing infrastructure. The problem may be particularly acute in the Nigeria's largest city, but it reflects a wider trend of urbanisation in the country over the past half century, as the overall population has increased.</P>
    1462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1387
    14631388<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1921, Nigeria had just 18.7 million inhabitants. Current estimates put the population in the region of 103.5 million. And the growth in the proportion of urban dwellers has been equally dramatic. In 1931, fewer than 7% of the people lived in urban centres. The figure had risen to 10% by 1952,19% by 1963, 33% by 1984, and 42% at the last count, in 1991. Current figures suggest that there are now seven Nigerian cities with more than a million inhabitants and no fewer than 78 whose population exceeds 100 000.</P>
    1464 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1389
    14651390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The changing structure of the country's human settlement profile has been linked to broader economic and social changes. The situation has been exacerbated by the economic depression of the last two decades. Analysts have noted a trend of declining primary production in such areas as agriculture, mining, quarrying and exploitation of natural resources. This has resulted in greater attention being paid to secondary and tertiary economic activities -  which are generally city-based. The figures illustrate the dramatic nature of the change that has taken place. In 1952, the ratio of primary to secondary/ tertiary economic activity, as measured in Nigeria's GDP, was 68:32. Four decades later, the ratio was 38:62.</P>
    1466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1391
    14671392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to World Bank consultant, Prof. Akin Mabogunje, the trend is exemplified by the expansion of a whole range of activities located in urban centres -  large, medium and small-scale enterprises in manufacturing and construction, utilities, transport and communications systems, wholesale and retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, finance and insurance companies, and estate agencies. Then there is the whole range of government activity. Until 1991, Nigeria's huge federal bureaucracy was located in Lagos, operating alongside a state administration and some 15 local authorities. Add to this the major docks and airports of Lagos, and you get an urbanisation phenomenon which has, to say the least, been intimidating.</P>
    1468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1393
    14691394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lagos, which only occupies 0.4% of the country's land area, gains an extra 300 000 inhabitants every year on top of its natural growth rate. That the city is a 'pole of attraction' is hardly surprising. It is clearly the economic nucleus of the country, reputed to account for about 57% of total value added in manufacturing and about 40% of the nation's most highly skilled manpower.</P>
    1470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1395
    14711396<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urban toll</P>
    1472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1397
    14731398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs have also been high. Professor Poju Onibokun, a human settlements expert, enumerates these: grossly inadequate housing and infrastructure with millions dwelling in slums; social amenities under enormous pressure with a shortage of schools and poor health facilities; endemic crime and juvenile delinquency; the breakdown of traditional values, family cohesiveness and community spirit. The capacity of law enforcement institutions is also increasingly hampered by technological and resource limitations.</P>
    1474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1399
    14751400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these ills, the shortage of housing and lack of infrastructure are seen as the most acute. This is borne out by a recent World Bank study which notes that:</P>
    1476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1401
    14771402<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated;</P>
    14781403<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - economic production has plunged;</P>
    14791404<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the inadequate provision of infrastructural services has negatively affected the operations of most private sector investors, who now need to spend between 22% and 25% of their capital outlay on providing their own infrastructure.</P>
    1480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1405
    14811406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 90% of the city's housing is provided by the private sector. But this has been handicapped in recent times by spiralling development costs and a general shortage of funds. New private housing has consisted largely of thousands of individual units, built mainly in areas of existing large scale developments. The authorities have made their own efforts to plug the gap and over the last 15 years, no fewer than 6000 hectares of marshland have been sandfilled and reclaimed in six separate development schemes (some of which have proved controversial). The Land Use Act of 1978 vested all urban land in the state authorities, although the administration of the legislation has not always proved satisfactory.</P>
    1482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1407
    14831408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public transport is another problem for Lagos residents. There is no integrated system of mass transport and the sector is essentially made up of hundreds of privately operated buses and a dwindling taxi fleet. Massive currency devaluations have meant that the purchase price of new vehicles has rocketed. Maintenance costs for the increasingly dilapidated fleet have also spiralled. As a result, the system is stretched to beyond its capacity and it is the commuters who bear the brunt.</P>
    1484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1409
    14851410<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public sector spending obviously has an important part to play in maintaining urban structures. The downturn in international aid flows has, therefore, had a visible impact with decline in infrastructure provision and maintenance, leading to a less favourable operating environment for private investors.</P>
    1486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1411
    14871412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, Lagos has been a notable beneficiary of urban support programmes with multi-million dollar schemes for water supply, storm water drainage, and infrastructure. Most of these have been World Bank-led but the support of the European Union and its Member States in this area is also considered crucial.</P>
    1488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1413
    14891414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, adversity has proved a catalyst for greater community-based and NGO activity in environmental and human settlement issues over the last decade. This is a fresh approach, based on 'bottom-up' strategies, which should open up muchneeded new avenues to urban management in Nigeria more generally and in Lagos in particular. </P>
    1490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1415
    14931416<I><P></P>
    14941417<!--
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    1501 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1424</I>
    15021425<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gilles Fontaine</P>
    1503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1426
    15041427<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a specialist in urban development, offers us his thoughts on the Istanbul conference. This event, he believes, was a landmark in the collective process of raising awareness which was begun at the Rio Conference on the environment.</P>
    1505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1428
    15061429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14 June 1996 - last day of Habitat II</P>
    1507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1430
    15081431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night fell a long time ago. A feeling of hope permeates the hall. Most of the work is completed but there are still disputes over a few paragraphs of the text of the Habitat 11 Agenda. Some delegates have not slept for two days and they can be seen standing around, afraid they might fall asleep. The sense of fatigue increases further when, at midnight, the symbolic 'stopping of the clocks' (to permit a successful outcome of the final negotiations) is announced over the PA system.</P>
    1509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1432
    15101433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At two in the morning, the wait has become almost unreal. It is virtually unimaginable that the Conference should come to nothing, after two years of intense work. Since Wednesday evening, the general atmosphere has been almost euphoric. Agreement has been reached on all the essential points within the allotted time and the Conference is already being heralded as another success story. All that remains to be done is to finalise the 'Istanbul Declaration', a four-page policy text broadly summarising the work of the Conference. The Conference would finally close about two hours later, amid general relief - but why the impasse?</P>
    1511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1434
    15121435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breaking new ground... and remaining steadfast</P>
    1513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1436
    15141437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some problems arose where they were least expected! To everyone's surprise, 'informal' working sub-groups had to be set up to discuss nuclear testing and anti-personnel mines! These themes were a far cry from the Habitat Agenda, but this sort of thing inevitably happens at major international conferences.</P>
    1515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1438
    15161439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other stumbling blocks appeared without any real warning, when some delegates attempted to renegotiate the conclusions of the Beijing and Cairo conferences. The negotiators had to stand firm on two counts. The hard-won recognition of women's rights needed to be defended all over again. And, more importantly, the attempt in Istanbul to reopen the debate on everything that had been gained at previous conferences had to be avoided. The European Union's negotiators took an aggressive stance on both these issues.</P>
    1517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1440
    15181441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that so much negotiating effort is expended is a good illustration of the political significance governments attach to the topics debated on such occasions. A conference may be seen as resembling the proverbial half-bottle of water  - some regard it as half empty and others as half full. One's viewpoint depends on one's expectations  -  and much disappointment is caused by a misunderstanding of how such conferences operate.</P>
    1519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1442
    15201443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting the delegates</P>
    1521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1444
    15221445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although I am no anthropologist, I think I was able to identify three major groups of participants. First, there were the 'negotiators', who have built up a common language from conference to conference. I was surprised at the extent to which reference was constantly made, in the negotiating groups, to the 'Languages' of Rio, Copenhagen or Beijing. This is not just a question of vocabulary or syntax, but represents a genuine revolution in thought at international level.</P>
    1523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1446
    15241447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second group, to which I myself belonged, was made up of national and international officials. These are the people who, to a greater or lesser extent, prepare the conference. They then attend it and, ideally, write a mission report on returning to their offices (bemoaning the fact that few people will read their words of wisdom !)'These delegates tend to offer the harshest judgments. A common refrain is: 'We have long argument about words in parenthesis in a huge document that no one will ever read!'.</P>
    1525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1448
    15261449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third group, which nowadays is the largest, consists of representatives of so-called civil society. Since Rio, every United Nations conference has seen the parallel organisation of an NGO Forum, and the latter's influence has constantly increased. At Beijing, the authorities banished the NGO Forum to a site 60 km from the capital, but Istanbul welcomed it with open arms on the same footing as the 'Cities Summit' and the meetings of researchers and industrialists. A more fundamental development was the invitation to NGOs and local authorities to take an active part in the working groups and at meetings. This was a 'first' in international conference history and I was struck by the motivation and competence of many of the participants, as well as by the ease with which they have adapted to the information society. Gone are the days when addresses are exchanged on scraps of paper, accompanied by the ritual 'We must keep in touch!'. These days, your business card must include your Internet Email address. Contacts are organised through networks connected to databases, and people swap CD ROMs with each other.</P>
    1527 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1450
    15281451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What did Habitat II achieve?</P>
    1529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1452
    15301453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'official' end most visible result of the Conference was obviously the adoption of the Habitat Agenda - the final fruit of long hours of work within the national committees set up for the occasion. This document, over a hundred pages in length, contains a 'World Action Plan', accompanied by the 'Istanbul Declaration'.</P>
    1531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1454
    15321455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is not so well-publicised is the fact that many countries  -  including a number of ACPs  -  took the opportunity to publish their own national reports containing individual action plans. The amount of preparation that went into these reports revealed a high degree of motivation.</P>
    1533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1456
    15341457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having looked at them more closely since, I have gained a somewhat better understanding of the months of work put in tens of thousands of people across the world. This reassures me that the majority of state participants will monitor the Habitat 11 follow-up very closely.</P>
    1535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1458
    15361459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One has to recognise that the mere adoption of a text, however significant it may be, cannot be regarded as a magic formula which will change the face of the world overnight. To the impatient among us who want everything straight away, and to unrepentant sceptics, I would say this. In environmental matters there are two major periods in our recent history - the period before Rio and the period after Rio. The Rio meeting, and each subsequent conference, have been milestones in a long, coherent process of collective reflection and growing awareness. Istanbul did, in fact, keep its promises: the right to adequate shelter is now recognised internationally as the fundamental right of every human being.</P>
    1537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1460
    15401461<I><P></P>
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    1548 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1469</I>
    15491470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stephane Yerasimos</P>
    1550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1471
    15511472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul. Ten million inhabitants - with double that number expected in 20 years time. Financial irregularities, a chaotic house-building sector, a lack of infrastructure and rampant speculation. One needed to look no further than the host city to find the key issues facing the Habitat Conference.</P>
    1552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1473
    15531474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul is a city steeped in history. It is also one of the Third World's biggest conurbations. Over the last 16 centuries, it has been the capital of two great empires - the Byzantine and the Ottoman - resulting in a rich legacy of monuments and a historic centre on a par with that of Rome. From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, it was regarded as Europe's largest city. On the eve of the Second World War, it had a population of one million, but that figure has now multiplied tenfold. Almost half of its ten million inhabitants are living on a knife edge, and many are in 'illegal' housing.</P>
    1554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1475
    15551476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first big transformation of the city came in the middle of the 19th century when the Ottoman authorities opted for westernisation and embarked on an extensive management programme. By the time the Empire collapsed in 1922, much of the ancient fabric - and traditional housing -  of the city had already been lost. Under the new republic, the capital was transferred to Ankara, and the authorities stepped up their efforts at modernisation. In 1937, Ataturk gave Frenchman Henri Prost, a city planner who had helped preserve the old centres of a number of Moroccan towns, the job of devising major public works in the heart of the old city. The infrastructure was also updated and taken together, these works (which were completed during the 1950s) transformed the old walled city and its ancient suburbs (Galata and Uskudar) into a modern aggLom&eacute;ration, interspersed with ancient monuments.</P>
    1556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1477
    15571478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass immigration</P>
    1558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1479
    15591480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the colonial powers who attempted to preserve the traditional character of old city centres around the Mediterranean rim and in the rest of the Islamic world, the desire of successive Turkish governments to modernise the country resulted in the disappearance of most of Istanbul's ancient fabric, and the city no longer has a compact area of old districts.</P>
    1560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1481
    15611482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transformation of the city centre was matched, after the Second World War, by an explosion of building on the outskirts - a phenomenon characteristic of Third World countries. Improved sanitation and hygiene standards led to a natural population increase of between 2.5% and 3% per year. Meanwhile, the modernisation of agricultural practices caused a mass rural exodus. Marginalised in both economic and social terms. the people who flooded into Istanbul soon over whelmed the resident population. Today, the bulk of the people living in the city have rural origins.</P>
    1562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1483
    15631484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new residents began by occupying the edges of the old quarters and taking over the open spaces which remained after the ravages of an earlier fire. They then began to settle in ever-increasing circles around Istanbul, establishing the first gecekondu districts (groups of huts constructed overnight). These have been incorrectly described as shanty towns. In fact, most buildings are permanent structures and they rapidly develop into multi-storey dwellings. Most of the land on which these illegal buildings have sprung up was originally privately owned. But the elected multi-party government in power at the time was quick to spot the electoral possibilities in these areas. Each district was a reservoir of potential voters and, on the eve of each election, the parties in power would distribute property titles to the illegal occupants. They, in turn hastened to consolidate and increase their assets. This explains the emergence of increasingly densely populated districts without infrastructure during the 1950s and early 1960s</P>
    1564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1485
    15651486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrialisation, and the arrival in the city of people who used to be rural landowners (driven out by the new market economy) later created a demand for housing which the normal market was unable to meet. This has given rise to a new phenomenon of urban marginalisation, involving the illegal division of land into plots. The system involves the purchase of agricultural properties by developers and speculative builders. These are divided into small plots and resold, quite legally, to purchasers  -  who then build unauthorised structures in contravention of the normal planning rules. Often, benefiting from political alliances, the developers take control of these districts and 'convert' the votes of the people living there into cash, in return for urban investments. This enables them to consolidate their power and increase the value of their remaining stock of plots.</P>
    1566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1487
    15671488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An uncontrolled population increase</P>
    1568 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1489
    15691490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a third phenomenon, linked to the growth of a middle class, began to occur in the mid-1980s, when building cooperatives came into being. Their predecessors were the corporate associations which grouped together public officials (beginning with the army and the police). These developed into ad-hoc associations enabling a group of developers to tap people's savings, thereby dispensing with the need for loans in a country where chronic inflation makes credit prohibitive. Several thousands of dwellings are often constructed at the same time, in the form of tightly packed, multiple-occupancy blocks. The requirements of multi-storey construction mean that these buildings are of acceptable quality, but the related infrastructures are sorely lacking. Entire districts are built 'in the wilds' without any infrastructural investment by the developers or local authorities.</P>
    1570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1491
    15711492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The city is continuing to expand, without reference to any development plan. The fifteen or so major urban schemes drawn up since the 1950s have all remained in desk drawers and the only significant construction work has been on roads (notably bridges and ring roads). These generate further uncontrolled population increases on the outskirts of the city.</P>
    1572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1493
    15731494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the natural rate of demographic growth is slowly declining - it has just dropped to under 2% per year -  the most recent census (in 1990) reveals that Turkey now has more people living in its cities than in its rural areas. Yet the statistics also show that half of the country's people are still involved in agriculture. Given the continuing natural growth, and the fact that in semi-industrialised countries, the rural population tends to settle at around a third or even just a quarter of the total, we can assume that the drift to towns and cities will continue for the next 30 or 40 years. This trend will affect all Turkish towns and cities, be they large, small or medium-sized. But Greater Istanbul, where the majority of the country's economic and social activity is concentrated, is set to experience a doubling of its population within the next twenty-five years.</P>
    1574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1495
    15751496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dilemma for urban planners</P>
    1576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1497
    15771498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem caused by demographic changes is exacerbated by economic constraints. For a number of years now, Turkey has suffered a high (albeit stable) inflation rate of about 70% per year. This situation discourages investment in industry, and makes people take refuge in ownership of land that they can build on. Land has thus become the target of speculation by people in all social classes. Against this background, it is virtually impossible to regulate the use of land  - something which must be at the heart of any urban-development programme. An alternative is to discuss the possibility of developing a social consensus involving a more liberal approach to property speculation, recgnising that land is a source of revenue at all levels. This might entail releasing central and local authorities from any responsibility to provide services or other infrastructural investment.</P>
    1578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1499
    15791500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the present circumstances, however, any scheme to redevelop Istanbul effectively would seem doomed to failure. The only intervention which might succeed would be at the 'cleaning-up' stage - coming in after the construction of the dwellings under the conditions described above. It is only once the new inhabitants' dream of having a roof over their heads is realised that they come face to face with the harsh daily realities of living in a self-built city of nearly ten million people. They may then be prepared to make some sacrifices in order to improve their living conditions. The moment when harsh reality replaces emotion, is the only time the urban planner has the slightest chance of being listened to. </P>
    1580 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1501
    15831502<I><P></P>
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    1591 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1510</I>
    15921511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Misia Coghlan</P>
    1593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1512
    15941513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 2.7 million homeless people in the European Union and many millions more are badly housed. But the EU is said to be lagging in taking measures to provide adequate housing - one of the internationally recognised human rights. An expert from a leading campaign group for the homeless explains.</P>
    1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1514
    15961515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rights</P>
    1597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1516
    15981517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the weeks and months leading up to the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), much argument and debate centred around the existence of the right to adequate housing. The legal basis of this right was challenged by a handful of delegates and the arguments continued right through the Conference itself. The outcome is that the final Declaration includes a reaffirmation of states to a 'commitment to the full and progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing as provided for in the international instruments.' (see first box)</P>
    1599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518
    16001519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political impact of Habitat II as the culmination of the recent series of UN Conferences has been disappointing. The Istanbul Conference was originally heralded with the catch-phrase 'housing for all'. In the course of the preparatory process, this was watered-down to become 'shelter for all' and, as has been seen, the wording of the final Declaration simply refers to existing international commitments and allows for the 'full and progressive realisation of the right.' This of course begs the question of how such a right was ever supposed to have been achieved other than 'progressively' and how meaningful such a commitment can be in the absence of parallel undertakings as to implementation and enforcement. In short, very little has been achieved in progressing international commitment to the realisation of the right.</P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1520
    16021521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to adequate housing has in fact been recognised for some time now by the Member States of the European Union, all of whom have ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the most important legal basis of housing rights found in international law). Under article 11(1), the parties to the Covenant recognise, 'the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing...'</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1522
    16041523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'adequacy', it is generally acknowledged, is determined at least in part by social, economic, cultural and climatic factors. Adequate housing can be understood as including the following components: legal security of tenure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure.</P>
    1605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1524
    16061525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It hardly needs pointing out that commitments in international law, whether legally binding or not, remain statements of intent and are of limited practical use unless accompanied by a comprehensive legislative framework in domestic law which will secure both the access to the right as well as providing enforcement mechanisms. What, then, is the reality ? Has the right to adequate housing been enacted into national legislation and, most importantly, is the right actually being respected across the European Union?</P>
    1607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1526
    16081527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realities</P>
    1609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1528
    16101529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FEANTSA, the European Federation of National Associations Working with the Homeless, has been conducting the European Observatory on Homelessness with the support of the European Commission since 1991. FEANTSA's research findings have increasingly demonstrated both the extent and the gravity of the housing crisis in Europe: in what is one of the wealthiest subregions of the world, a large and growing group of the population is being excluded from adequate housing. (see box on next page)</P>
    1611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1530
    16121531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, FEANTSA's 1995 transnational research report (Home/essness in the European Union) has found that the right to housing does not exist in any Member State as a legally enforceable claim. Although the right is recognised in the constitution of several Member States, this remains a statement of intent and does not create any entitlement. Other Member States have adopted a different approach - housing legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, does create an obligation on the local authorities to provide housing for those homeless people assessed to be in priority need and found to be unintentionally homeless. There is no sign of convergence in the ways EU Member States address the right to housing and housing exclusion in their national legislation.</P>
    1613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1532
    16141533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to housing is not addressed in EU legislation as a legal principle and Member States have exclusive competence to deal with housing issues themselves. There is thus no overall European housing policy, nor is there yet any European policy on homelessness. FEANTSA has, however, identified common trends throughout Europe which have contributed to the escalation of homelessness and the lack of adequate housing provision.</P>
    1615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1534
    16161535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall European trend has been an increased reliance on the competitive market to meet all housing needs, with an unwillingness on the part of government to commit public resources to assist lower income groups, who are therefore confronted with the limited choice available to them on the open housing market.</P>
    1617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1536
    16181537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The supply of housing has been undergoing change throughout Europe. In all countries, owner-occupation is on the increase, with tax relief generally being offered as an incentive. The private rented sector, on the other hand, has continued to decline. Social housing has generally suffered from cuts in funding. The result is that there is a shortfall in the supply of affordable housing for rent and rents have become correspondingly higher. It is clear that the competitive housing market cannot and will not meet the needs of the increasing numbers of people without the resources to afford market rents.</P>
    1619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1538
    16201539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of housing required has also changed: demographic trends have meant that households are getting smaller but more numerous - thus, there is a need for more but smaller dwellings.</P>
    1621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1540
    16221541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem has been exacerbated by the lack of an overall strategy either at European level or, indeed, often at national level, to meet the realities of structural changes on the labour market. Indeed, in some countries, the increase in long-term unemployment has been accompanied by an erosion of social protection systems. Faced with escalating demand for longterm welfare assistance, the authorities have often responded by tightening up on eligibility criteria in an attempt to cut or limit benefit payments, with shortterm palliative measures to deal with emergency cases. Thus, increasing numbers of people living on or under the poverty threshold, coupled with the deregulation of the housing market, have led to severe housing stress and increased vulnerability to homelessness.</P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1542
    16241543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland sets an example</P>
    1625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1544
    16261545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland is one EU country tackling the housing problem. In 1987, the International Year of the Homeless, the Finnish government announced its intention to eliminate homelessness. At that time, the number of homeless people was put at close to 20 000. The programme for the development of housing set the objective of making 18 000 homes available for the homeless over a period of five years. Special funds were set aside in the national budget to permit the local authorities and other organisations to purchase housing for the homeless. State loans for the construction of housing for rent were made available to municipalities with a large homeless population. In under ten years, the number of homeless people in Finland has been reduced to half what it was in the mid-1980s. Finland now enjoys a comprehensive system of carefully targeted housing supply, housing subsidies, benefits and allowances and housing is seen as an integral part of a multi-dimensional strategy to combat poverty.</P>
    1627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1546
    16281547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For one in twenty citizens of the European Union, the criteria which, as a whole, constitute adequate housing remain inaccessible. Yet at Istanbul, the EU voiced its determination to make an important and constructive contribution to the implementation of the Habitat objectives. This included an acknowledgement that increased attention should be paid to people living in poverty and that appropriate action should be taken by governments at all levels.</P>
    1629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1548
    16301549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European housing ministers were due to meet informally in Dublin, on 24 and 25 October of this year, specifically to tackle the question of 'housing for socially excluded people'. The time has come to devise and implement coherent strategies to prevent housing exclusion for low income groups. The market has neither the ethics nor the long-term planning capacity to do this; it remains the responsibility of the state. It can only be hoped that the housing ministers will recognise this and agree on the necessity of protecting housing as a product and as a service from the competitive market, at least for vulnerable groups. The housing ministers have been holding informal meetings since 1989. This year's meeting provides the opportunity, particularly in the light of the Habitat II debate, to exchange information on effective measures to help low income groups access and maintain a home. The result should be the drafting of a number of concrete goals to be achieved within a realistic time-scale.</P>
    1631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1550
    16321551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in Europe is not on the scale seen in other regions of the world - with the development and reinforcement of effective preventive policies, based on proven and cost-effective welfare models existing in some Member States, the housing crisis can still be contained. In short, where there is a political will, there is a way. Europe has the potential to serve as a model of good practice to the rest of the world and should do so, more especially in the light of all that was - and wasn't  - achieved at Istanbul. </P>
    1633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1552
    16341553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
    1635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1554
    16361555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the European Union Housing its Poor ? Dragana Avramov, Catherine Parmentier and Brian Harvey, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995 </P>
    1637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1556
    16381557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in the European Union, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995</P>
    1639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1558
    16401559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Invisible Hand of the Housing Market, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1996</P>
    1641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1560
    16441561<I><P></P>
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    1652 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1569</I>
    16531570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Francis Cass</P>
    1654 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1571
    16551572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In ten or so years' time, more than half the world's population will be living in built-up areas and, according to UN figures, by 2025 nearly two thirds of us will live in towns and cities. This is not a complete surprise -  over the last few decades, the ratio of city dwellers to rural people has consistently moved in 'favour' of the former. In 1950, 29% of people were city dwellers. Since 1985, the urban population has exceeded 40% of the global total.</P>
    1656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1573
    16571574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, we are witnessing an acceleration in demographic growth, especially in developing countries. Of the 2.6 billion people who currently live in towns, 1.6 billion live in the world's least developed regions. By 2025, the urban population of the Third World will have risen to 3.2 billion, out of a global urban population of just over 4 billion. On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that the number of urban dwellers in developing countries is increasing by approximately 150 000 people each day! In Cape Town in South Africa, for example, as in many towns and cities of the Third World, this demographic explosion can actually be seen happening. All you need to do is drive regularly along the N2 motor way  - which passes through the shanty towns of Khayelitsha and Guguletu -  to see how, week by week, the makeshift dwellings are spreading - gradually expanding to every available plot of land. The same scene is repeated in all of Africa's large towns. In Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, the population of Abidjan rises by 400 inhabitants a day on average. In Gabarone, the capital of Botswana, whose population was barely 3000 at the time of independence in the 1960s, the population is increasing by 18% each year and today 160 000 people live there. Such growth is often accompanied by widespread indifference on the part of local authorities. Such indifference is due, in particular, to a shortage of financial resources, but it also reflects an absence of political will to do anything to tackle the problem.</P>
    1658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1575
    16591576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demography and poverty</P>
    1660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1577
    16611578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demographic explosion which has taken place in the urban areas of developing countries is due to three main factors: natural population growth, rural emigration to towns and cities, and (less importantly) the redefinition of the administrative boundaries of built-up areas. The first two factors are equally to 'blame' but in future, it is predicted that rural depopulation in Africa will become the single most important element in urban population growth. This will be especially true of countries where there is rampant rural poverty. In this context, we need to recognise other circumstances, such as famine, desertification, a shortage of cultivable land and conflicts, which serve to exacerbate the phenomenon. If people living in the countryside decide to migrate to towns, it is because they are looking for a better life and hope to improve their standard of living. Few succeed. According to a World Bank study, 50% of people in abject poverty will be living in urban areas by the year 2000.</P>
    1662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1579
    16631580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effects that urban poverty has on the environment are often dramatic. The reverse is also true. A damaged environment constitutes a daily hazard for town and city dwellers, in particular the most destitute. The precarious nature of their living conditions means that only in extremely rare cases are these people able to guard against the degeneration of their immediate surroundings. Driven to the outer limits of the towns - where even basic infrastructures such as sewers and the collection of household waste are often lacking, the poorest sections of society are left to fend for themselves. Local authorities have neither the means nor (often) the inclination to do anything to help them. Even those who are comfortably off and who can afford to give part of their income to safeguard their immediate environment (thereby protecting themselves to some extent) cannot escape the consequences of more general ecological problems such as air pollution and the contamination of water supplies. Living in a modern house in a well-to-do district is simply not enough. It is not possible to shield oneself completely from the problems created by environmental destruction. For example, even an unofficial rubbish tip, located several kilometres away from a residential area, can have disastrous effects on groundwater - meaning that sooner or later, the quality of the drinking water will suffer.</P>
    1664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1581
    16651582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towns gasping for water...</P>
    1666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1583
    16671584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the vast majority of Third World towns are facing a series of ecological problems which directly or indirectly, affect the lives of their inhabitants. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 220 million city dwellers have no access to drinking water and 420 million have no latrines. It does not take much to imagine the potentially catastrophic health consequences of such a situation - in which people are forced to drink and irrigate their land with water from contaminated sources. The WHO has estimated that three million children died during 1993 as a direct result of diarrhoea, and that nearly two million of these victims had consumed drinking water contaminated with faecal matter. In developing countries, 90% of waste water is poured, completely untreated, into rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Again, one can easily imagine the impact on marine flora and fauna, and on the health of those who eat the products fished from these waters.</P>
    1668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1585
    16691586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">...and gasp for breath</P>
    1670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1587
    16711588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as air quality is concerned, the WHO intimates that more than a billion city dwellers throughout the world breathe highly polluted air. For the most part, this pollution is generated by industry and motor vehicles. A small improvement has been recorded in the urban areas of developed countries, but air quality in the towns and cities of the South has deteriorated considerably during recent years.</P>
    1672 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1589
    16731590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for this. First, there has been an increase in industrial activity, mainly concentrated around towns and cities. This is a result of economic development, but also of the fact that many factories - including some with the worst pollution records  - have relocated from the North to the South, where legislation governing emissions is less stringent. Second, in contrast to the trends seen in developed countries - where cars are usually well-maintained, (running on unleaded petrol and rarely more than five years old) motor vehicles in the Third World -  whose numbers are increasing significantly  -  are frequently old, badly maintained and run on leaded fuel. According to the World Bank, 95% of the lead polluting the air in the towns and cities of developing countries comes from vehicles which run on leaded petrol and studies carried out on the subject have revealed concentrations of up to 1.5 microgrammes of lead per cubic metre of air. In North America and Europe the concentration varies between 0.2 and 0.8 microgrammes per cubic metre.</P>
    1674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1591
    16751592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem facing towns and cities in the southern hemisphere arises from the enormous amounts of waste they produce and from the fact that they have few treatment facilities. In many cases, the rubbish is not even collected and is left to accumulate into the piles which can often be seen on the edges of shanty towns. This accumulation of refuse encourages the proliferation of certain diseases and poses a real threat to the health of residents both nearby and further away. In addition to this ordinary, everyday waste, the countries of the Third World have to deal with problems generated by toxic waste  - not just their own, but also that which is 'exported' there by industrialised countries. Needless to say, the towns which actually have the means and facilities needed to treat this highly polluting waste are few and far between.</P>
    1676 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1593
    16771594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linking development with environmental protection</P>
    1678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1595
    16791596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While environmental problems have a direct impact on human health and on the natural world, they also entail huge economic costs. The effect of pollution on human health translates into ever-increasing health costs and a decline in productivity. And it is not only city dwellers who suffer the consequences of a deteriorating urban environment. Depending on their size, the degree of industrial activity and population concentration, towns and cities pollute and destroy areas well beyond their own administrative boundaries. They swallow up enormous amounts of natural resources, suck their hinterlands dry and spit out 'what is left'.</P>
    1680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1597
    16811598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, there is an increasing global consensus over the need to tackle these growing problems rapidly. This was seen clearly at the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. Most cities of the southern hemisphere urgently need to get to grips with their numerous ecological problems - the alternative is to sink further into chaos. In a similar vein, it has become obvious that some sort of balance must be found between economic development and safeguarding the environment - and that considerable investments are needed to achieve this.</P>
    1682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1599
    16831600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solutions do exist. Recycling projects, for example, could provide jobs for large numbers of town and city dwellers, as well as cleaning up the environment. Governments of industrialised nations should take the necessary steps to ensure that their toxic waste does not end up in the rubbish dumps of the countries of the South. Authorities in urban areas in the Third World should set aside more of their budgets to help the most underprivileged sections of their populations, so that they can manage their own environment. Local authorities should also respond more efficiently to the basic needs of impoverished districts, not least by building roads and sewer systems, by ensuring that rubbish is collected and by guaranteeing all people access to drinking water.</P>
    1684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1601
    16851602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last but not least, a concerted effort - especially a concerted financial effort - should be made by decision-makers at the local, national and international levels. We need to recognise that environmental damage is a phenomenon which rarely confines itself to the local level. Sooner or later, it becomes a problem for all of us. </P>
    1686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1603
    16891604<I><P></P>
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    1697 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1612</I>
    16981613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hendrik Smets</P>
    1699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1614
    17001615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The clash between the interests of people living on the edges of the Zakouma National Park in Chad and the authorities' attempts at conservation illustrates the situation facing many other nature reserves in Africa. This article argues in favour of a form of eco-development to suit everyone.</P>
    1701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1616
    17021617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Zakouma National Park (PNZ) WAS officially set up in 1963 (it had been at the planning stage since 1956), the area it covered meant that local people had to be moved -  but the promised compensation was never paid. During the second phase of the PNZ's relaunch, financed by the European Development Fund (EDF), a perimeter path following the 1963 boundaries was marked out, but local villagers opposed this, regarding it as an extension of the Park's area. Subsequently, they rejected a move to build a dispensary in a village located at the edge of the park on the pretext that such a structure would again constitute an extension to the reserve's land.</P>
    1703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1618
    17041619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conflict between the itinerant stockbreeders of the region and the authorities has simmered for many years. The latter have shrunk from enforcing the 1963 law on transhumance corridors which applies to the fringes of the national park. Under this law, it is prohibited (in principle) to gather wood, hunt for game, fish, or gather honey and other natural produce. The result is a tendency among locals to view the PNZ as an adversary rather than a potential partner in development. Safari tourism is developing too slowly and is not leading to sufficient benefits for example, from a craft industry, or more general redevelopment.</P>
    1705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1620
    17061621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the second phase of the project was at the planning stage, its organisers recognised that, in order to guarantee the park's future, support had to be given to the people living on its edges. A high-level 'cooperation committee' was therefore proposed. The membership of this committee, which would sit in N'Djamena, was to include ministers, directors-general, park authorities and Commission representatives. Unfortunately it has not yet been brought into operation. By contrast, the local authorities and park management have been able to set up their own committee which met for the first time in January 1996. This body has helped to tackle some of the most sensitive problems.</P>
    1707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1622
    17081623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second phase also saw the implementation of a series of microprojects. - school renovations, a dispensary, a bridge, the sinking of wells, a dam, a mill and a nursery. But these were set up without preliminary study, and no arrangements were made to sound out the views of the local people, or the form of development they would like promoted. Understandably, local hostility was encountered and the projects cannot, in any real sense, be viewed as offshoots of the wider PNZ scheme.</P>
    1709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1624
    17101625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
    1711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1626
    17121627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has not been extended to a third phase. Because of this, there is a risk that the capital invested -  and the positive results that have been achieved - could be lost altogether. Should any donor choose to 'pick up the baton' in future, they will need to recognise the key imperative of creating a symbiotic relationship between the park and the local population. To do this, there must be an awareness-raising effort, undertaken in parallel with any eco-development programme.</P>
    1713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1628
    17141629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first instance, a higher profile should be given to institutional issues. In particular, the cooperation committee in N'Djamena must be able to act, where necessary, as an appeal or arbitration chamber to deal with any disputes which cannot be resolved by the local authorities' committee. The latter, of course, would continue to meet on a regular basis to discuss any problems encountered.</P>
    1715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1630
    17161631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there should be campaigns to disseminate information and train local people who are in daily contact with the park's environment. The aim here would be to make them progressively more accountable for conservation and the exploitation of natural resources (cutting wood, gathering produce, hunting, fishing, and so on). They must also gain a better understanding of the effects of poaching and desertification. Above all, such campaigns should seek to convince the people of the benefits they stand to gain from the park, if they continue to respect its integrity.</P>
    1717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1632
    17181633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this context, some lessons might be drawn from a regional project dating from April 1987 (which was never fully implemented). This was aimed at halting the advance of the desert in the northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. The component of the project which is of interest to the present discussion was its programme to increase public awareness  -  which involved training organisers, preparing and disseminating information (posters, videos, films), organising information tours and giving support to the Training and Environmental Information Programme of the CILSS (Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel), of which Chad is a member.</P>
    1719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1634
    17201635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One could also learn something from the approach adopted by the Manda National Park which is situated 270 km from Zakouma. This has 'volunteer villagers' appointed by the chiefs of the four cantons making up the park zone, who know the territory well. The volunteers take part in information, awareness and monitoring operations alongside national park and animal reserve employees. Dressed in pale olivegreen uniforms, they cycle between the villages and encampments, providing a link between the villagers and officials in N'Djamena. They have an invaluable role in convincing village people of the advantages of cooperating in the development of the park and its surrounding areas. And the cost of a volunteer is just CFAF 5 000 (ECU 7.5) per month.</P>
    1721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1636
    17221637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eco-development</P>
    1723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1638
    17241639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the PNZ, it is true that a small proportion of the population already benefits from the park's existence. Wages are paid to the patrols, and the permanent and seasonal workforce, while micro-projects have been set up. The park pays traders, artisans, farmers and stockbreeders for certain services and there are some tourists. But the bulk of the population does not see these advantages having been largely excluded up to now.</P>
    1725 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1640
    17261641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any future eco-development programme should therefore aim at reducing pressure on the park in order to guarantee its long-term integrity. This would obviously need to be preceded by a clear definition of the action to be undertaken, but in the meantime, it might be useful to offer a few guidelines. The programme should include:</P>
    1727 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1642
    17281643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a series of flanking or support activities providing infrastructure and equipment, such as a dispensary, a school, paths, wells and carts;</P>
    17291644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a food-security programme providing for the conservation of agricultural areas, as well as measures to prevent erosion and safeguard harvests (cereal banks, stores, gardens, agro-forestry systems and pest control);</P>
    … …  
    17311646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a wood/energy management programme providing improved hearths and brick ovens, and the organised gathering and use of supplies;</P>
    17321647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of the craft industry and training of tourist guides.</P>
    1733 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1648
    17341649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in a third phase, an awareness and eco-development programme could be successfully implemented, the Zakouma National Park should be able to look forward to a brighter future. </P>
    1735 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1737 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1650
    17391651<I><P></P>
    17401652<!--
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    17451657  </Description>
    17461658-->
    1747 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1659</I>
    17481660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, on the eve of the International Conference on Human Settlements, the first West-African eco-centre ('Ecopole`) was opened in Dakar. It was set up by Enda, one of the few international non-governmental organisations of significant size based in a developing country. The 'eco' refers to two things - the economic life of the ordinary people and the ecological aspect of the centre. One of the most memorable images of the opening ceremonies was the sight of two Presidents  -  Abdou Diouf of Senegal and his Malian counterpart, Alpha Oumar Konare  -  striding through the dust in a working-class district of the Senegalese capital. For supporters of the 'Ecopole', the event epitomised the fight back of the popular urban economy. </P>
    1749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1661
    17501662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dust which settled on the Presidents' fine clothes was that of the Rail district, so called on account of the railway which cut through it in former times. Built in an old, disused factory, the airy, clean 'eco-complex' adds a touch of style to this semi-industrial, semi-shanty town district. The old buildings were redeveloped with the help of members of some two hundred cultural and sports associations, working in partnership with the NGO. They used recycling techniques of which they are past masters.</P>
    1751 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1663
    17521664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex had, in fact, been in operation for some time prior to its formal inauguration, but the ceremony  -  which attracted the interest of international press agencies - provided an opportunity to publicise the venture. Since its formation in 1972, Enda has been working to give a higher profile to the 'popular' economy (they eschew the term 'informal') in Senegal and elsewhere. The NGO has focused, in particular, on trying to encourage those involved in the popular economy to collaborate more closely and integrate their activities, as well as on boosting awareness of what is happening in similar communities elsewhere. The opening of the 'Ecopole' provided a showcase for the achievements of the popular economy in West Africa, as well as a forum for dialogue. And it now has the seal of approval of two Heads of State, not to mention other VlPs who made supportive statements at the opening.</P>
    1753 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1665
    17541666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popular economy fights back</P>
    1755 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1667
    17561668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the inaugural ceremony, the former sheds - now converted into airy vaults clustered around a central structure - hosted a major presentation of the popular economy in a series of exhibitions. It is a kind of 'eco-museum' with pride of place going to recycling. Exhibits ranged from 'fabrics' made of old plastic bags crocheted together, to toy sports cars fashioned from wire and tin cans. And the reaction to the exhibition went beyond the usual, somewhat condescending appreciation of 'the skill of these people'. There were, of course, some curios of interest to tourists such as the aforementioned children's toys, small metal suitcases and papier-mache boxes. But there were also works of art, masks and sculptures, which captured something of the nature of this 'recycling culture'. Indeed, international art critics at the Biennal Festival of Contemporary African Art, taking place in Dakar, were talking of a new artistic trend, also seen in the work of artists from other regions, based on reclamation. This, of course, begs the question: 'Has art not always been based on reclamation?'</P>
    1757 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1669
    17581670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting though the subject may be, the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the fruits of recycling are of only secondary importance when one is dealing with everyday objects. The important thing is for deprived populations to use what means they have to survive and to improve the quality of their lives. Tourists may choose to buy decorative and unusual objects on the reclamation market, but more significantly, families can obtain essential items such as kitchen utensils, ploughing implements, carpentry tools and stoves  - all cast from vehicle wheels and bits of scrap metal. They are made using small forges and furnaces the size of a large saucepan, or cut from otherwise unusable pieces of metal sheet. The craftsmen can also supply somewhat more sophisticated equipment: ploughs, brick-moulding machines or soldering irons. One of the exhibitions staged at the 'eco-centre' was a co-production with the Quebec Museum of Civilisation and the Canadian Embassy in Senegal, which had previously toured Canada and four African countries. Entitled 'Africa's ingenuity', it covered a wide variety of styles, ranging from the utilitarian to the artistic. It will, in due course, form the eco-museum's centrepiece. Another temporary exhibition was called 'Antuka: Kinshasa, the art of living in the city', and this paid homage to the Zairean capital - a place which, of necessity, has become one of the 'capitals' of resourcefulness. </P>
    1759 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1671
    17601672<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jet engines and donkeys</P>
    1761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1673
    17621674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hopes that the two Heads of State found time to admire the jet engine constructed by a young Zairean from nothing but reclaimed materials: parts taken from cars, mopeds and unwanted metal sheet. And it works -  not on an aircraft, naturally, but on the bench. This engine is now a legend. Its constructor has apparently already been spotted by a European head-hunting company and offered a job in France. This is part of the 'fight-back' referred to by Enda officials, in which some recognition is finally being given to the economies of the world's poorest populations. During his visit, the President of Senegal issued a plea for greater integration of the informal sector into the overall economic fabric. His remarks were revealing: the West-African 'Ecopole', as its name implies, covers an entire region, and assumption of responsibility by the local people for the shanty towns and poorer districts has lifted a significant burden from central government.</P>
    1763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1675
    17641676<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example of this trend is found in the Malian capital, Bamako, where a hundred or so local community associations have banded together to take over full responsibility for the collection of domestic waste. This organisation, whose initial efforts were ridiculed, is now fully operational. One wonders whether the authorities in other cities have heard about Bamako's scheme. What about Port-au-Prince in Haiti, for example, where they are struggling with mountains of rubbish which they cannot deal with owing to a lack of resources ?</P>
    1765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1677
    17661678<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since their inception, economic interest groupings (ElGs) such as the one in Bamako have helped bridge the gap between the 'formal' and 'informal' economies. They rely on collaboration and their enterprise is exemplary. At the outset, the inhabitants of poor districts, acting on the initiative of the ElGs, expressed the desire to improve their neighbourhoods by organising refuse collection. They used whatever means were available - which in most cases meant donkeys and carts. In more central districts, delivery tricycles were employed for collection. Specially constructed, tipper-style carts, each costing CFAF 200 000 (ECU 300) have since been brought into service. The price of a donkey, by contrast, is about CFAF 50 000 (ECU 75). The animals and equipment belong to the ElGs and are looked after and maintained by them, with carters receiving a monthly income and social security benefits. A number of groups were set up eight years ago, promoted by young technicians, academics, architects and economists. Those who benefit are known as 'subscribers', with each family paying a contribution towards the service. Managing equipment and collecting contributions both require a well-structured administrative department, but the administrators are not confined to their offices. As employees of the business, they see nothing wrong in lending a hand and assisting the carters. In short, it is an enterprise based on a whole new approach. The contribution made by families varies according to the EIG and the district in question, but it is generally set at around CFAF 750 (ECU 1.2) per family per month. The price of the service may be up to twice this sum in the so called 'quartier des Blancs' (the 'white' district). In theory, the state ought to be subsidising the ElGs, but in practice, this does not happen. The authorities do not even fulfil the task allocated to them under agreements signed with the ElGs, which is to transport the refuse from temporary dumps to a final site. According to local people, the problem is not that the local authorities do not have the trucks available for the task. The vehicles, they allege, are used instead for the officials' own private purposes. The ElGs are forced to plug the gap as far as possible. At present, they appear to be the only ones taking any interest in waste recycling, aware as they are of the risk to the environment posed by permanent dumping grounds, and of the specific danger that the water table will be polluted.</P>
    1767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1679
    17681680<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A modern concept of the 'informal' economy</P>
    1769 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1681
    17701682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'informal' economy is increasingly becoming the norm. According to an Enda survey, 90% of businesspeople in Senegal started out in the informal sector. The conclusion would seem to be that the necessary training for dealing with current conditions is not to be found in the formal education system. The popular economy is not out of step with the modern economy as some would claim. Indeed, one could argue that it is the modern economy, as adapted to today's conditions. The increasing involvement of ordinary people in the economic circuit, which they enter via parallel routes, should also guarantee the continuation of Africa's experiment with democracy. We have seen attempts by former dictators to backtrack in this respect. They cite as evidence, the failure of technicians trained abroad - the 'darlings' of the West who, they claim, are at the beck and call of international institutions. But a return to the past, as exemplified by the regime of Nicephore Soglo, strikes fear into many people. Their response is to generate productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the popular economy, by way of compensation.</P>
    1771 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1683
    17721684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that small-scale traders, who distribute hardware from south-east Asia, constitute an obstacle to the development of local production. But there is a confusion here between cause and effect. In fact, the popular economy appears more as a response to the lack of consumer goods. The problem lies with the so-called 'major' local entrepreneurs who favour the import/ export business over production, and with the banks that prefer to focus on larger businesses (influenced by anonymous officials or major economic interests) and have no time for small-scale operators.</P>
    1773 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1685
    17741686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rail district in Dakar has a long history. It is overpopulated, having been settled by workers and artisans, and their influx made it the most expensive poor district. It is a place where the rents, for even the humblest hut without water or electricity, accounted for most of the inhabitants' meagre income. This situation led to the appearance of squatters who built their own shacks on waste ground. For these people, the threat of eviction loomed constantly like a sword of Damocles. The district is also home to a large number of maids and other household employees. Two thousand of these people (from Rail and other parts of the city) set up their own friendly society to which they pay regular contributions.</P>
    1775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1687
    17761688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a world which has always teemed with good ideas: artisans recycling materials, blacksmiths working at the forge and so on. In this sense, nothing much has changed, but the big difference now is that the people have organised themselves. In so doing, they have been able to provide training for adults and children in makeshift schools, and to purchase and renovate old huts  - having extracted a guarantee from officials that such moves would not be opposed. Nowadays, those who live in the district no longer pay rent. However, it will only be possible to measure the true success of the Rail district when there is no longer a need for an organisation like Enda to ensure that it operates effectively.</P>
    1777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1689
    17781690<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some years ago, a former sailor, who always dreamed of being a teacher, set up his own school in the main street which runs through the district. He worked on the pavement and in the car park in front of a furniture store, teaching children in the morning before the offices opened and adults in the evening after they had closed. Enda recently offered him a few pieces of furniture, but for many years, he received no help other than a few pieces of chalk, worn-down pencils and the remains of exercise books from his 'colleagues' in regular education. This is a man who has to supply his pupils not just with teaching materials but also sometimes with food. This year, with his voice catching in his throat, he told us that one of his former 'street pupils' is going to college. How can the learned economists calculate the value of this devoted 'academic'? </P>
    1779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1780 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1691
    17821692<I><P></P>
    17831693<!--
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    1790 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1700</I>
    17911701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Willie Esterhuyse</P>
    1792 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1702
    17931703<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cornerstone of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) announced by President Nelson Mandela on May 24 1994, shortly after taking office, is people-centred development with an accent on modern infrastructure, health, education, housing and sanitation.</P>
    1794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1704
    17951705<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lessons have already been learnt from teething troubles.</P>
    1796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1706
    17971707<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP is the government's response to the massive socio-economic needs of the bulk of the South African population. It is foremost a strategic framework aimed at human development and restructuring the country's economy. It involves housing projects and programmes to improve the socioeconomic infrastructure covering clean water, electricity, public works, schools, urban renewal and primary health care. Empowerment programmes have been developed, for example; micro and small businesses, support for emergent farmers and skills training.</P>
    1798 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1708
    17991709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main achievements of the RDP has been to sensitise South Africans to the plight of the poor. Apartheid, amongst other things, succeeded in keeping this out of sight, effectively locking the poor out of the system. A veil of ignorance prevailed among the privileged class. The RDP tore away the veil and has led to a willingness to participate in development and reconstruction programmes, especially in private sector circles. It is succeeding in prioritising South Africa's socio-economic challenges, as well as mobilising funding and organising a common and sustainable approach. Its most important achievement to date is probably the idea of partnerships in development between the state, private sector institutions and non-governmental organisations. Through the RDP, South Africans have accepted that they will have to 'run with the development ball'. They are also aware that the state cannot go it alone, nor should it act as a 'super' development agency. Thus, a very high premium is put on involving the private sector and other actors.</P>
    1800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1710
    18011711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problems</P>
    1802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1712
    18031713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But many problems have already been encountered. Unfortunately, the RDP was seen by some as a quick-fix solution to South Africa's socio-economic difficulties. Expectations over delivery were too high. Red tape and a growing bureaucracy stifled the initiative early on. Frustrations among the poor quickly surfaced. Many of those who wanted to participate, and applied for RDP funding, were unable to develop viable business plans - a strict requirement to get funds. The launch of projects was further complicated by the absence, at one stage, of legitimate local and governmental structures.</P>
    1804 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1714
    18051715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But important lessons were learnt from the initial phases, in particular the need to involve people on the ground from day one - starting with the identification of needs, the design of a specific project and its execution. It was accepted that process is more decisive than the product. A second lesson was that a separate RDP office, with its own Ministry, complicated matters as far as delivery was concerned, tending to centralise development. This led to the announcement by President Mandela on March 28 1996 that the RDP office would be closed down. RDP programmes were thereafter integrated into the main budget administered by functional government agencies.</P>
    1806 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1716
    18071717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another very important lesson was that socio-economic development and reconstruction had to go hand in hand with a dynamic macro-economic strategy - made public earlier this year. It was realised that one cannot have good projects in a bad policy environment - to quote a World Bank report.</P>
    1808 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1718
    18091719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, it is generally accepted that the RDP, on its own, cannot launch South Africa on a road to sustainable and vigorous economic growth. We needed a twin-track approach.</P>
    1810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1720
    18111721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Progress</P>
    1812 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1722
    18131723<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP has notched up a number of successes. The provision of clean water to rural and urban communities has gone a long way under the leadership of Minister Kadar Asmal -  highlighting the fact that leadership strengthened by solid management, does make a difference. The electrification programme for low-income households, involving the parastatal, Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), is another success story. The same goes for the Presidential projects, such as free health care for expectant mothers and infants, and some of the nutrition programmes. But the provision of housing for low-income groups has been less successful than anticipated. Rent and services boycotts, as well as unemployment, are some of the reasons for slow progress. Job creation is another problem area. It is envisaged that visible progress in these areas will emerge in the course of next year. Establishing a culture of learning is another great challenge. A restructuring of the educational system is underway, but progress is restricted by severe financial constraints.</P>
    1814 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1724
    18151725<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of the RDP, the best strategic framework for socioeconomic development South Africa has ever had, will be a long process. Courage and sustainability are key issues. How to lead and manage expectations, without undermining hope, is a great challenge. The meaningful involvement of donors is another issue. Joint ventures between donors, the private sector, government agencies and communities are happening. Most of these, having been carefully negotiated and executed, are already making a significant difference.</P>
    1816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1726
    18171727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But spectacular progress should not be expected. Development, reconstruction, and growth of the kind that South Africa needs, will take time. However, the lessons and achievements of the past two years have put South Africa in an excellent position to change the country's socio-economic environment. </P>
    1818 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1820 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1728
    18211729<I><P></P>
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    1829 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1737</I>
    18301738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christine Thompson</P>
    1831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1739
    18321740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The provision of basic amenities for the urban and rural poor rank high on the agenda of the EU's aid policy towards South Africa. In this respect, European cooperation has been tailored to fit with the government's own Reconstruction and Development Programme.</P>
    1833 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1741
    18341742<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) is the name of the current EU development assistance package to South Africa and it seeks to help improve living conditions for all South Africans. The programme earmarks ECU 125 million a year until 1999. It has evolved from the so-called 'positive measures' programme launched in 1985 to help counter the negative effects of sanctions and to help the victims of apartheid.</P>
    1835 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1743
    18361744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under a Declaration of Intent drawn up with Minister Jay Naidoo, then at the helm of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme, it was decided that EU aid should be channelled to the key sectors of education and training, health, rural development, water supply, urban development, economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, and the promotion of good governance and democracy. In each of these areas, the EU actively encourages a partnership effort between governmental structures and NGOs.</P>
    1837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1745
    18381746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.5 million homes wanted</P>
    1839 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1747
    18401748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 60% of South Africa's population is urbanised. The apartheid government's restrictions on home ownership in urban areas for the past four decades resulted in a housing backlog estimated at 2.5 million units, with demand growing by 200 000 units per year. Estimates vary, but approximately seven million people are believed to be living in informal settlements throughout South Africa on land occupied both legally and illegally.</P>
    1841 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1749
    18421750<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved housing and sanitation are seen as priority areas in urban and rural development. Between 1991 and 1996, the EU has funded 18 projects in the urban development sector valued at approximately R303.1 m (ECU 52m). The Urban Sector Network (USN) and the Cato Manor Development Programme are typical.</P>
    1843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1751
    18441752<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is providing the USN with a total of R26.2m (ECU 4.5m) between 1995 and 1998. The USN is a national network of nine affiliate NGOs, and its aim is to improve living conditions for the urban poor. The beneficiaries of the programme are city dwellers earning less than R2000 (ECU 344) a month and there is a particular emphasis on households with monthly incomes of under R800 (ECU 137) a month.</P>
    1845 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1753
    18461754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through integrated, community-based development, the USN and its affiliates provide technical support and service provision to urban development projects, focusing on housing, local government transformation, skills transfer, project planning, facilitation, information dissemination, education and training.</P>
    1847 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1755
    18481756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cato Manor Development Programme received funding in 1995, also for a three year period. The EU has contributed R117.6m (ECU 20.2m) to the project. Cato Manor, an area in Natal near Durban, was the location of the largest forced resettlement scheme implemented under apartheid. Today, it is the first area targeted for integrated housing in a former white township.</P>
    1849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1757
    18501758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall objective of the programme is to improve living conditions through a policy that strengthens the delivery system for infrastructure and housing. The programme anticipates providing the community with primary and secondary schools, sports fields, community halls, libraries and a community health centre. Access to housing finance will be improved and opportunities for income generation provided through a vocational training centre and small-scale industry workshops. In addition, provision is being made to improve management and general policy-making capabilities. By continuing to fund such projects, the EU is working with the South African government to improve the living conditions of the urban and rural poor. </P>
    1851 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1853 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1759
    18541760<I><P></P>
    18551761<!--
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    1862 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1768</I>
    18631769<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theatre for Africa, a performing group from Southern Africa, went on tour this autumn to put across the message that the exploitation of Africa's fauna should remain in the hands of rural communities. They did this with a powerful mix of words, dance, mime and song, in a play entitled Guardians of Eden '. The Courier met the author and cast on the Brussels leg of their tour. </P>
    1864 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1770
    18651771<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The setting for the Brussels' performance was the 'Grand Place' (Grote Markt). With its ornate mediaeval architecture, this famous square in the centre of the Belgian capital could hardly have been more removed from the theme of the play - which is about conservation and development problems in Africa and empowering rural people to manage, use and benefit from the wildlife around them.</P>
    1866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1772
    18671773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play was commissioned by the Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) and the idea was that it should reach as many people as possible in the run-up to the World Conservation Congress planned for Montreal in October 1996. South African writer and former economist, Nicolas Ellenbogen, travelled throughout Southern Africa to recruit the all-African cast. Many examples of cultural imperialism leading to the destruction of habitat, highlighted in the production, were actually encountered by Mr Ellenbogen as he travelled through the region.</P>
    1868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1774
    18691775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play opens with a spirit medium summoning representatives from villages in several African countries to discuss the threat to their survival. The actors display their athletic skills performing mimes of the abundant wildlife with simple props, as the history of Africa is recalled from the dinosaurs to the present day.</P>
    1870 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1776
    18711777<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A parable is then told. An old chief informs his three sons that to prosper in the 21st century, the village must change. He instructs them to return a year later with ideas for prosperity, which will be discussed in an indaba (debate). Each chooses a different path. The wheeling and dealing first son seeks out quick fix schemes with NGOs and various city authorities. The second son learns from the difficulties of city life and comes up with a blend of simple wisdom and new ideas. The third spends his time in beer halls -  and his revelry provokes roars of laughter throughout the performance.</P>
    1872 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1778
    18731779<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arriving back in his village after almost a year has elapsed, the second son finds that his older brother returned several months earlier to implement his money raising projects. Enjoying the cash benefits of the scheme, the men of the village do not want to hold an indaba. They are forced to do so by the women and Midzimu - the old chief. The audience is then asked to vote and there is a unanimous show of hands for the second son who symbolises the sustainable use of natural resources. The dissolute third son, meanwhile, is eaten by a crocodile.</P>
    1874 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1780
    18751781<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory ban fury</P>
    1876 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1782
    18771783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the message goes out to developers and donors to respect rural autonomy, the play also raises serious questions for Europe's politicians. The frequent appearance of the destructive elephant, in the course of the play, allows Mr Ellenbogen to vent his anger at the ivory import ban imposed by many European states. 'I am furious about the ban', be told The Courier, 'as it is having a profound effect on the daily needs of the people.' He rejects the argument that it helps conservation, insisting that; 'with a stroke of a pen, you reduced the value of the elephant.' The playwrite argues that local people need to see wildlife as economically and socially valuable. Otherwise, they will adopt new forms of land use which will result in the extinction of the species. He also draws attention to the growing black market in ivory in Southern Africa since the ban was introduced.</P>
    1878 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1784
    18791785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'token' South African - symbolically played by the only woman in the cast - is given a 'rough time as the baby of Africa', says Ellenbogen. The play also contains numerous swipes at the donor community which frequently gives grants, without, it is said, any respect for local traditions. The Swiss doctoral student researching the potential for producing goat's cheese in Africa exits the stage squealing after asking a goat herder what he does with his animals. 'We slit their throats', is his reply.</P>
    1880 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1786
    18811787<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guardians of Eden was first launched at the Grahamstown Arts Festival in South Africa in July. It was performed in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and won a prize at the Edinburgh Festival 'Fringe' in August. From there, it moved to Frankfurt and Geneva before reaching Brussels. It was due to be performed in Antwerp, London and several American cities before a final staging at the Montreal Congress in October.</P>
    1882 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1788
    18831789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play is in English and the languages of Southern Africa, but Nicolas Ellenbogen believes it can be readily understood by his multinational audiences. For him, the message - that local people must have the power to manage their own wildlife on their own land - needs no translating. </P>
    1884 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1885 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1887 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1790
     1791<B>
    18881792<!--
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    1897 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1801</B>
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    1905 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1809</B>
    19061810<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stelios Christopoulos</P>
    1907 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1811
    19081812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If politicians in Europe see jobs as their primary concern, it is probably because the citizens regard unemployment as their most serious problem. In the Europe of the Fifteen, the average unemployment rate was about 10% in 1985 dropping to 7.5% in 1990. By 1994, it had risen to a record high of more than 11%. By contrast, unemployment in the United States fell below 6.5% in 1994 and the figures for 1995 reveal a continuing downward trend. In Japan, the proportion of people without work remained below 3% in 1994. Assuming there is no change in current trends, the most recent demographic projections suggest that there will be 70 million people over the age of 65 in the EU by the year 2020, out of a total population of 348 million. This is 18 million more than there are today. The proportion of over-65s is, thus, projected to rise from 15% at present to 20% in less than 25 years. These two elements  -  an ageing population and ongoing structural unemployment - clearly reveal that European society lacks a degree of dynamism compared with its competitors.</P>
    1909 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1813
    19101814<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an attempt to address this problem, albeit partially, the President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, launched a European employment pact in April 1996. There are three underlying reasons for this initiative -  Europe's endemic unemployment, the need to reestablish a climate of confidence as a prerequisite for renewed investment and consumption, and the need to fit the creation of the single currency into an overall economic strategy aimed at increasing growth, competitiveness and employment in Europe.</P>
    1911 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1815
    19121816<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I'm young, help me find a job', is the heartfelt plea of many of young Europeans. But what chance is there that their cry for help will be answered in a difficult global environment?</P>
    1913 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1817
    19141818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have seen the globalisation of strategic relationships in a range of key areas including the environment, the management of energy resources, health, demography and security. The trend has been accelerated by rapid technical progress in the fields of transport and telecommunications. This process has not taken the big multinational companies by surprise - they were already free of the constraints of sovereignty or space, and were quick to globalise their structures. These enterprises have become more competitive by taking advantage, wherever possible, of the most favourable production conditions, particularly regarding raw materials and employment conditions. More spectacular still has been the growth of international trade: in 1990, the volume of world trade was 11.5 times as great as it had been 40 years earlier. During the same period, global production only increased fivefold.</P>
    1915 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1819
    19161820<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What this means nowadays is that employment in the EU Member States is directly affected (and some would say threatened) by the world situation. Productivity and growth conditions in Europe are no longer sufficient to ensure full employment. Competition from developing countries, with their low wage bills and undervalued currencies, is too great for countries in the EU. Their position is not the same as that of the multinational companies. They do not have the structures to deal with swiftly evolving events, nor are they capable of controlling the process of globalisation. This is demonstrated, inter alia, by their inability to respond to the financial speculation which turns capital away from productive investment. Today, for example, for every US dollar in circulation, there are at least 30 dollars which are the product of financial speculation. This is not money from productive work by any particular person, but money which is the product of a financial 'virtual reality' and which is usually reinvested in financial speculation.</P>
    1917 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1821
    19181822<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Countries are beginning to realise the need to pool their national skills and cooperate at a regional level, in order to enhance their business competitiveness and take on the challenges of the globalised trading system. But the level of integration implied by this strategic choice must be sufficiently comprehensive if it is to make up for the reduced capability of countries to respond on an individual basis. This process of regionalisation may well be a prerequisite for regulating the world economy in such areas as exchange parities and financial speculation.</P>
    1919 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1823
    19201824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what of Europe in particular? Despite having a head-start on other regional groupings (such Asean, Nafta and Mercosur), the situation is not too rosy. Owing to the lack of a full internal market, Europe is unable to compete on equal terms with the United States or Japan. The internal market still comes up against blocks in important areas, as evidenced by problems over the European employment pact. And there are a number of other defects which make the internal market insufficiently competitive in the context of globalisation. It is true that a more coherent environment has been created for European companies, with common regulations and rules of competition enabling them to distribute their goods and services among the EU's consumers. But despite the appearance of a domestic, or single, market, it is one which is devoid of a genuine internal policy in keeping with its size. This is what distinguishes it from the internal markets of the United States or Japan.</P>
    1921 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1825
    19221826<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The explanation for the disparity may lie in the fact that the most recent moves towards the single market, through 'Single Act', date from 1987. This was before the upheavals which so decisively signalled the globalisation trend. Despite the criticisms sometimes levelled at it, it is a genuine single market which is largely open to the outside world (with only a few exceptions, notably as regards the Common Agricultural Policy, where it is recognised that there is a need for progressive adaptation). But there is still no single currency, nor is there a genuine common commercial and economic policy. The EU is unable to react to change at world level in the same way as its competitors. The common customs tariff, together with protective measures such as the anti-dumping regulations, are still not sufficient to solve all the Union's problems. What is needed on top of this is an active common policy component.</P>
    1923 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1827
    19241828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, as the European employment pact makes clear, the EU holds a trump card in an increasingly interdependent world. The proviso is that it must speak with one voice, enforce multilateral rules and open up new markets for itself, because, as the document points out 'exports create jobs...'</P>
    1925 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1829
    19261830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the developing world received 37% of global direct foreign investment ($84 billion) as against less than 20% at the beginning of the 1980s (the flow of foreign exchange is regarded nowadays as the principal factor influencing development). This is a spectacular increase but the resources are not 'fairly' distributed from the point of view of either the investing countries or the recipients. For example, southeast Asia is currently the world's most dynamic region. Yet, not to put too fine a point on it, it is virtually ignored by European investors. Only 3% of European overseas investment is directed towards this zone. Likewise, Europe's market share in the region is no more than 5%. The US has invested between two and three times more in south-east Asia while Japanese investment is four times higher.</P>
    1927 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1831
    19281832<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, sub-Saharan Africa attracted just 0.8% of direct foreign investment ($1.8 billion). And there is no evidence that Europeans have invested more than the Japanese or Americans in this region. This is despite the highly optimistic outlook for the situation in Africa offered by the late Ron Brown, the former US Trade Secretary. On returning from a tour of Africa with American businesspeople in February 1994, he remarked that major opportunities were opening up in that continent, with spectacular returns on investments  - at the time, the best in the world. His regret was that so few people were aware of the situation. Undoubtedly more significant still was the declaration made in Washington before his departure for Africa to the effect that the United States would no longer leave African markets exclusively to the former colonial powers.</P>
    1929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1833
    19301834<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So although others are beginning to explore the possibilities offered by Africa, Europe is still sceptical. A similar scepticism prevailed during the 1960s when it was assumed that the lot of south-east Asia would be famine, and few development prospects. Given the historical links between Europe and Africa, the geographical proximity of the two continents, and the pressing problems faced by the 'old' continent vis-&agrave;-vis its competitors, such an attitude appears difficult to explain. In the years since the former European colonies in Africa gained independence - and despite the creation of an institutional cooperation framework (the Lom&eacute; Convention, which many regard as a model of development cooperation)  -  many Europeans clearly no longer wish to be involved in Africa. The explanation for this lack of interest may be the difficult conditions within African countries -  obstacles preventing access to markets, the lack of liberalisation or political instability.</P>
    1931 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1835
    19321836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this analysis in not entirely convincing. More ACP countries are democracies than ever before in the post-independence era. As for Africa - a much-debated ACP region  -  it is wrong to talk purely in terms of internal conflict, famines or the AIDS epidemic. There are countries in this continent with growth rates of between 5% and 6%, and several examples of where European companies have successfully penetrated local markets.</P>
    1933 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1837
    19341838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need to highlight the existence of genuine business opportunities in ACP countries and to make the European public aware of development aid success stories, were among the main conclusions to come out of the first meeting of a television delegates' network, organised by the European Commission's Development Directorate-General on 31 January 1996.</P>
    1935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1839
    19361840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any European company chairman interested in expanding into an ACP country - thereby enlarging the company's market and enhancing its competitiveness - is likely to acknowledge the possibilities, if offered back-up from the EU or from national governments. But they will then probably point to the complications which remain -  and with some justification.</P>
    1937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1841
    19381842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, it is worth reiterating the fact that specialised institutions exist for facilitating contact with the ACP countries. In 1995, for example, the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) was involved in 367 projects, assisting, free of charge, in the expansion or rehabilitation of industrial companies in ACP countries, in partnership with European business. Although the number of such projects is constantly increasing (190 in 1993,229 in 1994), it is still a long way short of what is needed. But it should be stressed that the CDl's approach, which involves promoting the creation of networks, appears to work. The establishment OF ACP contact networks in ACP countries makes it easier to identify potential areas for involvement and to prepare better for European institutional and sectoral networks. There are several successful projects which have led to the creation or safeguarding of jobs in Europe.</P>
    1939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1843
    19401844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in 1995, the European Investment Bank (EIB) granted ECU 430 million in loans to businesses in various sectors in 29 ACP countries. This includes an increase in the Bank's activity in Africa over previous years.</P>
    1941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1845
    19421846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What, then, of the effect of Europe's development cooperation policies on the European market ? According to the most conservative estimates, for every ECU 100 granted in aid, the Community 'gets back' ECU 48 in the form of jobs, supplies and technical assistance. This figure does not take account of additional 'secondary' business generated by, for example, the supply of spare parts or the provision of technical advice. This business can be quite significant given the degree of penetration achieved by European companies in the markets of many developing countries. Nor does the estimate include any new business opportunities directly arising from the links established between the companies involved in aid projects and the recipient countries. Thus, it is clear that when a project is set up, it may well have extra beneficial effects for Europe through additional flows of goods and services.</P>
    1943 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1847
    19441848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'return' on aid is even greater in Member States' individual bilateral programmes. For example, tied aid from countries such as Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom leads to a payback of more than 70%. Another point is that as Europe's industrial rules are harmonised, the success of a single European company in penetrating a particular developing country market may pave the way for companies in other EU Member States, thus benefiting the Union as a whole. Tied aid creates favourable conditions for setting up European companies and for placing European goods and services in other markets. </P>
    1945 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1849
    19461850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the return on aid may be described as satisfactory, the same is not true of the number of companies that benefit or of the actual turnover involved. One wonders whether this weakness is due to a lack of information about existing resources and facilities, or whether there still a lack of confidence about countries which, despite the progress they have made, are still politically unstable and therefore unpredictable.</P>
    1947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1851
    19481852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One might also wonder whether the time is right for investment. Our answer would be that, even though financial speculation is currently governed by global economic considerations, which prevent productive targeting of capital, this situation cannot last. There is a worldwide move to rectify the situation.</P>
    1949 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1853
    19501854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all need to be aware that time is no longer on our side. In many sectors, European companies still have a competitive edge over businesses from third countries, owing to their degree of specialisation and technological expertise. But if they are to survive, they must take on a worldwide dimension. In particular, they should pay attention to the comparative advantage that they have in the ACP countries on account of their special skills, historic links, geographical location and, above all, the institutional connections between these developing nations and the 'old' continent.</P>
    1951 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1855
    19521856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although problems do exist and although both European and ACP bureaucracy can sometimes discourage private operators from exploring the potential of the developing world (and more particularly the ACP region), they should not give up. Europe's challenge is to help them to exploit this potential whilst not raising false hopes.</P>
    1953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1857
    19541858<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nothing can take the place of the shared experience and confidence which arises spontaneously in full knowledge of the facts. In this regard, we feel, there is still much to be done. In both Europe and the ACP countries, one way to succeed is to increase the number of networks representing industrial, economic and financial interests at various levels, and to assist them in identifying opportunities more effectively. This would help to create a new dynamism and renewed vigour in Europe. </P>
    1955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1956 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1958 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1859
     1860<B>
    19591861<!--
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    1967 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1869</B>
    19681870<B><P></P>
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    1975 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1877</B>
    19761878<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Courier's issue of July-August 1994, we published a country report on Eritrea. This country became independent in 1993 after almost 30 years of fighting which had bled the county white. Loss of human life, displaced persons, socio-economic disruption and environmental damage have been Eritrea's sad fate in recent times. However, there has now been peace for three years and the Eritrean people are attempting to pick up the threads. Alfonso Artico, a freelance journalist who recently travelled to Eritrea, now offers us a few on-the-spot impressions of his trip, focusing on some current projects which offer hope to this sorely afflicted people</P>
    1977 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1879
    19781880<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries at Massawa</P>
    1979 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1881
    19801882<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The port of Massawa is located on the Red Sea, whose blue waters are teeming with fish. In 1986, the European Union suggested that it would be a suitable place for fisheries development. At the time, the city was a maze of back streets, baking in the sun. Few could have predicted the fate that would befall it five years later. For in 1991, war came to Massawa and 80% of the city was destroyed.</P>
    1981 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1883
    19821884<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Italians, it is said, have 'always' been here, and they once had great plans for the city. Together with Assab, further to the south, Massawa was to be a key point of access to the sea, and a potential launch pad for the, country's struggling economy. The colonial days are long past but, when the Eritrean Popular Liberation Army took over the country after the recent war, the Italians came back to help tackle an immense task. The city, by then, was little more than a pile of rubble.</P>
    1983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1885
    19841886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help also came from somewhat further afield, in the shape of Professor Seichi Etoh, a Japanese specialist in marine biology. He had made a study of the city in 1989 and he chose to return in 1992 to help in fisheries development. At the outset, his working methods disconcerted the Eritreans who were used to a slightly more relaxed attitude to labour, under the hot sun and eternally blue sky.</P>
    1985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1887
    19861888<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armed with the experience of working in Kenya and a number of other developing countries, Professor Etoh arrived in Massawa and installed himself in a house looking over the sea. After a period of adaptation, to gain his bearings, he took up his new challenge.</P>
    1987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1889
    19881890<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge in question is a fisheries project whose main funders are the UNDP, Japan, Italy and the African Development Bank. A total of $7 million has been committed with payments spread over a five-year period. The project began operating in January 1993.</P>
    1989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1891
    19901892<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main problem at the outset was one of skills and qualifications. Important posts were often filled by high-ranking former solders, whose administrative skills were less than satisfactory. Conversely, those with the right qualifications - some of whom were criticised for spending the war years in the lecture theatres of European universities  -  had problems finding work. This was particularly true in the closed and conservative world of the fisherman. After a few teething troubles, Etoh was able to announce that he had the confidence of the government, and his efforts rapidly bore fruit thereafter. He set about reorganising the fishermen's cooperative - a task which entailed overcoming the reluctance of members to adopt new practices. He also arranged for the construction of jetties where vessels could take on supplies. Fish were to be unloaded at one spot, and their diesel tanks would be refilled at a different location. The cost of diesel is 1.41 birr (ECU 0.17) per litre. The fishermen's cooperative, which has 440 members, has 35 000 birr (ECU 4000) in its funds. It is also making repayments on a 1.8 million-birr (ECU 200 000) loan.</P>
    1991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1893
    19921894<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'In the beginning, there was frenzied activity, which some regarded as chaos', Seichi Etoh recalls. However, in less than two years, the jetties have been completed and the ice plants -  essential for preserving the fish - are running flat out. Now they are producing eight tonnes of ice a day. The daily catch is about two tonnes of fish.</P>
    1993 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1895
    19941896<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The real revolution occurred when Seichi Etoh decided to try and organise cooperatives for women, who represent 25% of the workforce in the production chain. He followed up with an even more radical scheme, offering them paid work in the relatively unrewarding but essential field of ship maintainance and repair. This freed the fishermen, most of whom had no remunerative activity outside the fishing season (November to March), to seek work elsewhere during the other seven months of the year. Eritrea, a country where women's potential has not traditionally been acknowledged (or tapped) had never seen the like before. Nowadays, of the 200 who fish out of Massawa, 50 are women who have formed their own organisation - and they generate a considerable profit. They have even opened up a fish restaurant!</P>
    1995 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1897
    19961898<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall standard of living has increased considerably. This year, fisheries-related production has risen 120% compared with 1995. And the port is doing reasonably well in quality terms. Using the international scale, which ranks the catches from 0 to 10, the quality of fish landings by the Massawa fishermen is rated 6 overall - as against 8 for Japan. 5 for China and 6.5 for Europe. The local market has expanded as a result of efforts to modify local eating habits. People have been taught to grill fish instead of frying it in expensive (and somewhat unhealthy) oil. The message - 'eat grilled fish' - is going out daily on national radio, and women are going into the schools and villages to teach this 'latest' cooking technique.</P>
    1997 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1899
    19981900<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local market may be important, but the main target for the increased production is Ethiopia. With the purchase of four refrigerated lorries, it is now possible to transport fish products over long distances. Another important customer is Italy, which currently takes about a third of the total production. Seichi Etoh is hopeful that, following this example, new markets can be found in other parts of Europe.</P>
    1999 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1901
    20001902<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The success of the Massawa project has exceeded all expectations and, although he downplays the achievement with typical oriental modesty, it is clear that Etoh's bet has paid off. The fishermen have come to understand the advantages to be gained in reorganisation and maintaining their 'tools' of production. And as anticipated, the bulk of the profit from the project is going back to the fishermen. The government has taken care not to cream off too much for itself.</P>
    2001 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1903
    20021904<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other projects are now under way. Etoh is attempting to persuade the fishermen to give up their wooden craft in favour of ferro-cement vessels but after centuries of doing things in a certain way, it will take more than a few months for the new plans to be adopted. The monthly meetings with representatives from the cooperatives are stormy and animated. However, two vessels are already being built, on the assumption that a practical demonstration is worth far more than a long speech. The 60 people working directly on the project are awaiting the outcome.</P>
    2003 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1905
    20041906<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This change has become necessary owing to the cost of wood - which is one of the reasons why the fishermen have grown progressively poorer. Timber prices have been rising sharply for some years, particularly in Dubia, the regional centre of the wood trade. The war, in the meantime, sent incomes spiralling downwards.</P>
    2005 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1907
    20061908<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, the Eritrean fishing fleet has 500 vessels, all made of wood, of which 250 have Massawa as their home port. In previous years, the wood (known as tengi in Eritrean) came from Ethiopia. But this country is facing ecological problems and fishermen have been forced to search elsewhere for building and maintenance materials for their unstable and costly vessels (a 13-metre boat requires 8 m³ of wood). Etoh explains that the new boats, while slower, glide more easily over the water on account of their stability. However, the first attempts at change have not been easy. Indeed, things got so bad that Etoh went on holiday 'for longer than expected', he said, though he took advantage of the break to visit Singapore and buy Chinese tricycles  -  which can now be seen in the streets of Massawa. The reign of the bicycle with a simple wicker basket which could carry just 20 kilos is over. Now, each tricycle can deliver 100 kg of fresh fish, packed in ice. All in all, the programme is running smoothly. Etoh has only to check it from time to time. After all this labour, will the smiling Japanese professor be taking a well-earned rest? 'Probably not,' he says, adding 'I am currently thinking about a chain of restaurants. Fish restaurants of course !'. </P>
    2007 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1909
    20081910<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unusual 'bank'</P>
    2009 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1911
    20101912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The road leading to Gersteti village is so beautiful that it takes your breath away. Multicoloured birds fly lazily above the vehicle carrying the journalists and humanitarian aid workers - who are deep in discussion about the kind of world they wish to create. However, there is a switch in the conversation once they reach the Seraye plateaux. Their attention is drawn to the fields which stretch as far as the eye can see. It doesn't take long to discover that demand for land here far outweighs supply. The situation, which is already critical, has not been helped by the influx of refugees returning from neighbouring countries.</P>
    2011 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1913
    20121914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the war ended in 1991, everyone's prime concern was to relaunch an agricultural sector ruined by 28 years of combat. Farmers and farming communities, the lifeblood of the countryside, had been mobilised to fight on the front line. In 1990, agricultural production was at such a low level that the word 'negligible' featured prominently in the Ministry of Agriculture's statistics.</P>
    2013 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1915
    20141916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam, which first came to Eritrea in 1978, has been running an unusual project on the Seraye plateaux. Located to the south of Asmara, the capital, this region is the second most densely populated part of the country. Five districts containing 65 villages and 17000 families, were chosen for the project  -  on account of their low rainfall and the fact that it is difficult, and in some cases, impossible, to cultivate the exhausted soil. Local communities, village leaders and politicians all understood that only full-scale collaboration could prevent a food-supply disaster in the province. An organisation was therefore created: the villagers elected 13 representatives (12 men and one woman) and began by setting up a seed bank. There was a severe shortage of seed materials in this devastated country. </P>
    2015 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1917
    20161918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project got off the ground in November 1995 and is set to run for three years. Its objective is simple: to guarantee self-sufficiency in seeds and to provide a reserve during hard times. The 'Seed Bank Committee' has also given training to 40 farmers in seed conservation, terracing and basic agricultural economics. Two wells have been sunk, but these are insufficient for the 40 square kiLom&eacute;tres that require irrigation. Oxfam is putting up the money for the various initiatives while the local community is providing the labour force. It is worth noting that a bag of averagequality cement costs 35 birrs (ECU4), equivalent to one third of a worker's monthly wage. Fourteen different varieties of seed have been stored in sheds - which the locals visit to obtain their supplies. The purchase of 230 quintals of local seeds and the donation of 70 quintals from elsewhere have started the programme off. Next year, Individual farmers will have to repay this 'loan' in kind, with a 10% 'interest payment', also in the form of seeds. The surplus generated will be retained by the bank as a resource to be drawn upon, if necessary, when times are hard.</P>
    2017 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1919
    20181920<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
    2019 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1921
    20201922<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local community was quick to understand the advantages to be gained from this system. They were all too aware of the low productivity of their land and up to then, were powerless to resolve the situation. The possibility of falling back on traditional resources to offset production difficulties no longer existed. And the skills they had acquired over the generations were now insufficient, given the poor condition of the soil. In these circumstances, one can well understand their enthusiasm when they saw that 100 kg of seeds per hectare yielded a harvest six times larger than previously. Other elements which contributed to a progressive improvement in conditions were the sinking of new wells, a reduced influx of refugees from Sudan, and a slow but appreciable improvement in the country's general economic situation.</P>
    2021 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1923
    20221924<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As well as being involved in this project, Oxfam is an active member of Acord, an NGO association which extends cash loans at rates much lower than those demanded by the banks. (Acord's rate is 12% per annum with a minimum repayment of 5 birrs per month). Targeted mainly at the most deprived sections of the population, the loans enable the poor to set up small businesses or, more commonly, to purchase agricultural implements, repair irrigation channels and buy cattle. Once again, a village committee manages the transactions. The scheme has brought renewed hope to the most deprived groups. Individual loans have been available since 1994 and the association currently has 163 clients. The total amount lent so far is 878 000 birrs (ECU 110 000).</P>
    2023 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1925
    20241926<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combined effects of these programmes - seed banks and preferential loans - are already visible. It would take months to visit all the farms and fields, workshops and stores, where men and women have invested their energies and hopes. Seraye province now produces a third of Eritrea's cereals, a telling illustration of the fact that one does not need billions of dollars for development and humanitarian aid for the work to be effective. In the final analysis, a country's wealth lies in its citizens. </P>
    2025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1927
    20261928<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An up-to-date printing plant</P>
    2027 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1929
    20281930<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one strolls down Liberation Avenue, which cuts the city of Asmara in two, one might be forgiven for thinking that 28 years of war have already been forgotten. Surveying the multi-coloured neon signs of the shops, it certainly appears as if the country has turned the corner and the wounds are healing rapidly. One building whose restrained frontage stands outs in sharp contrast is the Adulis printing-works. Adulis was the name of a semi-mythical city founded by the Greeks on the Red Sea in the third millennium before Christ. 'But there is nothing insubstantial about this place', comments Mohamad Shiffa Osman, with a smile. He is one of three expert typesetters who went on a training course in Belgium earlier this year.</P>
    2029 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1931
    20301932<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Adulis printing works has its own particular memories of the Eritrean people's struggle for independence. As far back as the 1960s, when the first shots were being fired, the resistance recognised that their fighters and the civil population both had to have access to information. However, it was not until the 1980s that a true propaganda structure came into being. During the war, the Eritrean People's Liberation Army ran a clandestine ministry of information. In Eritrea and elsewhere, this became the channel for conveying practical information, and providing the latest news from the front. It was also used to transmit personal messages, which were delivered to the heart of areas occupied by the Ethiopian Army. 'Our presses were hidden in caves, up in the mountains, and everything was run on generators', Mohamed remembers. The initial amateur approach was quickly replaced by a more professional one. 'We did have professional printers working for us, but it was mainly self-taught comrades'. On-the job apprenticeships had to be fitted in between bouts of fighting!</P>
    2031 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1933
    20321934<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'At the time of liberation, in 1991, we set about restoring this printing works, which was founded in 1896 by the Italians', Mohamed explained as he gave us a guided tour of the works. The effort put into relaunching this essential activity soon bore fruit. Within the year, the printing operation was running at a profit - indeed it had a virtual monopoly of printing in the country. The presses were brought down from the mountains on the backs of camels and then taken to Asmara by truck. 'You see this Aurelia 48?', asks Mohamed, pointing to a machine. 'Well, it was up in the north, hidden away in a village'. Throughout our visit, Mohamed draws attention to equipment from an earlier age  -  candidates for the museum which are still in operation.</P>
    2033 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1935
    20341936<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some items have their own story to tell, like the press donated years ago by Oxfam which still churns out thousands of sheets every day. During the war, it was taken from cave to cave, following the army's advance as it conquered new terrain. Most of the Adulis machines, however, were already there, when the decision was taken to restart the operation.</P>
    2035 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1937
    20361938<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The initial budget for the works was a tidy five million birr (ECU 620 000). Today, Adulis has an annual turnover of 20 million birr. Monthly salaries range from 400 birr (ECU 50) for maintenance staff to 1800 birr (ECU 225) for the director, Michael G. Bakhli. </P>
    2037 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1939
    20381940<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The printing works also acts as a testing ground for workers' social progress. According to Mohamed and the director, the 350 or so people employed at the works benefit from exceptional social cover. If a worker falls ill, his wage is guaranteed for one month, then it drops to 50% in the second month and stops altogether at the end of the third. if a woman is pregnant, she has to take a month's statutory leave and is granted a further two months on full pay. In the event of dismissal, an employee receives two months' wages, although this latter arrangement is gradually changing to one month's wages for each year of service.</P>
    2039 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1941
    20401942<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Far from resting on the laurels of their success, the Adulis works' directors have appealed for assistance. In order to be at the cutting edge of technology and to have the resources to break into new markets, they need to supplement their knowledge. Therefore, three 'volunteers' spent the three months from January to March this year working in Belgian companies, to the satisfaction of everyone, both hosts and visitors.</P>
    2041 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1943
    20421944<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Mohamed's gaze, the walls of the workshop have been brightened up with posters which provide a splash of colour. Although the noise from the presses often drowns out conversation, you cannot escape the feeling of hope here. It is like a breath of fresh air, and one leaves with the strong impression of a country that is rising from the ashes. </P>
    2043 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2044 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2045 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2046 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1945
     1946<B>
    20471947<!--
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     1955</B>
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    2063 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1963</B>
    20641964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eva Kaluzynska</P>
    2065 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1965
    20661966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a cyclone strikes in the Caribbean, beware of giant flying razorblades - airborne sheets of corrugated iron that kill and maim unsuspecting victims every time. 'The use of galvanised iron sheeting for roofing is extremely dangerous in cyclone-prone areas,' says Professor Debarati Guha-Sapir, Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. 'We know this, and we need to encourage the use of lighter materials, such as thatching, which doesn't kill if it flies off in a gale,' she adds.</P>
    2067 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1967
    20681968<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is the kind of issue facing people exposed to unavoidable natural disasters  -  in the Caribbean's case, every year. In 1995, there were 27 tropical storms in the region. CRED has been in the vanguard of monitoring natural disasters and in coming up with solutions to the problems they create since it was set up in 1973. Now it is assisting the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in developing its new Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) to cover the next two years.</P>
    2069 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1969
    20701970<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1994, ECHO has spent almost ECU 7 million on 50 disaster prevention operations, at both national and regional levels. Now, instead of just responding to requests for funding from non-governmental organisations, international organisations and governments, ECHO has decided to fine-tune its strategy. It will concentrate its efforts on specific regions known to be particularly vulnerable and prone to natural disasters. We may not know exactly when disasters will strike, but we certainly know where to expect them. The regions selected at present are: the Caribbean, Central America, South East Asia and Bangladesh.</P>
    2071 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1971
    20721972<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of them are exposed to repeated emergencies. All of them have a struggle to develop when their efforts are disrupted so frequently. They cannot just pick up where they left off. Loss of life and property is just the most visible aspect of what happens when disaster strikes.</P>
    2073 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1973
    20741974<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure, such as it is, takes a hammering. Road and rail links are severed. Communications, electricity and water supplies break down. Add loss of health care and sanitation, and you get populations exceedingly vulnerable to epidemics. Add loss of education facilites, and a vicious spiral of poverty sets in.</P>
    2075 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1975
    20761976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An expert in emergency aid cites the sad example of the Aetas, a tribal group that used to live a secluded life on the remote slopes of Mount Pinatubo, the volcano that erupted spectacularly in 1991 in the Philippines. Though the volcano was known to be menacingly active, the Aetas were not evacuated and resettled in time. They fled in panic as disaster struck, to the plains, where they faced a deadly, invisible enemy: measles, a disease to which they had never been exposed. Measles claimed more victims than the volcano itself did in the months that followed. They could have been resettled earlier. And they could have been immunised years before, but weren't.</P>
    2077 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1977
    20781978<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's easy to be wise after the event. DlPECHO aims to encourage action before it's too late. The idea behind ECHO's new policy is to take each region, and to identify its hazards and capacity for dealing with disasters. This will help to pinpoint the gaps. Then it will draw up Action Plans that slot into the wider picture of potential development in each case.</P>
    2079 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1979
    20801980<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO projects will involve training personnel in the regions affected to handle disasters, and to strengthen the institutions that can contribute to effective prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</P>
    2081 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1981
    20821982<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the solutions are ingenious, low-cost, low-tech ideas. Take, for instance, the use of light, widely-available, inexpensive materials for roofing in earthquake or cyclone-prone zones - an idea poorer countries could adapt from wealthy Japan's experience. Or the construction of safe, raised 'islands' that will stay above the waterline amid flooding in Bangladesh to offer shelter. Or adapting drainage, and changing cropping patterns in Andhra Pradesh, India, to mitigate the effects of cyclones.</P>
    2083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1983
    20841984<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake-prone Central America, protecting roads and bridges, or building schools less prone to collapse is very important. Using the radio or even neighbourhood watch systems to sound the alarm when disaster is imminent can make a big difference to its impact in terms of injuries. Drilling all at risk, from school-age up, to know what to expect and to know what to do is vital.</P>
    2085 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1985
    20861986<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO did not include Africa in its first selection of regions for Action Plans. This is not to underestimate the gravity or scale of the disasters experienced there, says Professor Guha-Sapir: 'Floods, drought and famine are very frequent events there.</P>
    2087 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1987
    20881988<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are often killers.' Overexploitation of scarce resources and political turmoil compound situations that lead to disasters which seem less dramatic than a volcano eruption, but are no less far-reaching in impact.</P>
    2089 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1989
    20901990<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The instability in many of the areas worst affected means that African countries lack the institutions needed to prepare for disasters in an organised way, she says. 'There are limits on ECHO's ability to intervene. It's unrealistic to expect the kind of grassroots, technical preparedness we are talking about in the current situation.'</P>
    2091 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1991
    20921992<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECHO's Jean-Claude Heyraud sums up the new policy: 'As far as preventing, mitigating and preparing for catastrophes goes, the new proactive approach reflects the importance ECHO attaches to this type of action. The DIPECHO programme meets the growing need to evaluate risks in order to reduce loss of life and damage to property. If and when emergency aid is needed, preparation and prevention can help to reduce the scale and cost of such actions.' </P>
    2093 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2094 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2095 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2096 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1993
     1994<B>
    20971995<!--
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    2105 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2003</B>
    21062004<B><P></P>
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    2113 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2011</B>
    21142012<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Seydou Sarr</P>
    2115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2013
    21162014<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third Festival of African Cinema was held in Brussels on 15-22 June. For one week, film-goers in the Belgian capital filled the auditoria of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where they discovered new images of an alternative Africa. And as always, when the time came to assess how the Festival had gone, professionals and organisers alike were left pondering the problems facing the African film industry.</P>
    2117 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2015
    21182016<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organised for the first time in 1994, on the initiative of Diaspora Productions, the Festival had a number of objectives, including that of bringing Africa's finest films to wider public notice. The initiative stemmed from two observations. In the first place, the European public's opinion of Africa is based on what it sees on television -  and that image is of a continent so ravaged by famine, misery and strife that it is incapable of progress. Second, from a professional standpoint, there is no effective distribution network in Belgium for African films. Samba Traore by Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo and Hyenes by the Senegalese Djibril Diop Mambety were two rare exceptions in succeeding in getting on to the circuit.</P>
    2119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2017
    21202018<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A forum for reflection</P>
    2121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2019
    21222020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In setting up film-industry meetings, the organisers of the Brussels Festival wanted the event to be a forum for reflection on the problems facing African cinema. In the 40 years it has existed, there has undoubtedly been some progress. It is even possible to speak of genuine mastery of images and cinematographic language. But there are also many problems -  involving production and distribution, a lack of official support, a shortage of private capital and limited access to international markets. At home, meanwhile, African firms face fierce competition from multi-million dollar productions coming out of the USA, Europe and Asia. </P>
    2123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2021
    21242022<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe has traditionally offered the only feasible route for those seeking technical and financial resources. The principal donors are the European Union, the ACCT (Cultural and Technical Corporation Agency) and the French Ministry of Cooperation. There are, of course, many instances of African directors producing films without taking this route, but these ventures usually have smaller budgets, and insufficient funds to devote to promotion (press releases, trailers etc). As regards distribution in Belgium, directors face an additional difficulty - they have to take the language issue into account (particularly when films are shown in Flanders).</P>
    2125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2023
    21262024<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African professionals are looking at various ways of solving these problems, including the possibility of coproduction with European operators. For some years now, public and private bodies have also been considering the idea of establishing combined co-production teams in a form of partnership, as a way of supporting African cinema. This topic has been on the agenda of other African film festivals (notably in Amiens) and it came up for discussion in Brussels as well.</P>
    2127 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2025
    21282026<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A colloquium on the subject of ACP/Europe co-production was staged on the fringe of the Brussels event. This served to highlight a number of successful experiments in North/South collaboration. One example was the Cape Verdian film Ilheu de Contenda, by Leao Lopes which was made with support from a Belgian production company, Saga Films. This film was screened at the Festival. It also gave an opportunity to discuss a range of other topics. African journalists accredited to the Festival were given the task of drafting a resolution whose conclusions will be submitted to various contributors including FEPACI (the Pan-African Federation of Film-Makers), the European Union, producers and other donors.</P>
    2129 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2027
    21302028<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement that a coherent legal framework for organising relationships between directors and producers, on the basis of mutual trust, was badly needed.</P>
    2131 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2029
    21322030<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Positive results</P>
    2133 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2031
    21342032<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth making a brief assessment of the efforts made by the organisers of the Brussels Festival to offer an improved programme. The showing of shorts at the beginning of a performance is undoubtedly a formula they should employ again. These works are a specialised genre which give young directors the chance to present their first work. The bulk of the shorts that were screened this year were in the form of 'documentaries' based on fiction - but with one foot in the real world. They dealt with people's lives, their daily concerns, and a variety of social phenomena. Thus, we were presented with films dealing with Aids, urban delinquency, the role of women in society and so on.</P>
    2135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2033
    21362034<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another positive point the organisers should concentrate on is the space resewed for English and Portuguese-language films. There were eight performances in this category including four feature films in English and two in Portuguese. A further worthwhile element was the space allocated to African women (from Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso) who have chosen to use the cinema as a means of expression.</P>
    2137 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2035
    21382036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diaspora Productions' managers are said to be reasonably satisfied with the way the Festival went. They hope it can continue to be held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, since they see this as one way of liberating African cultural events from the Afro-Brussels 'ghetto' where they have often been held. They are also keen, in future years, for African films to be shown in Brussels cinemas while the Festival is under way. If this happens, film-goers in Brussels will have the pleasure, from next year, of seeing quality works in their usual cinemas. The timing is appropriate since the 1997 Brussels event will follow the Ouagadougou Festival (Fespaco) which traditionally sees the launch of a number of new films.</P>
    2139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2037
    21402038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family meeting</P>
    2141 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2039
    21422040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The organisers chose to close the 1996 Festival with a fashion parade which gave Pathe 'O, the designer from Cot&eacute; d'Ivoire, the chance to present his collection to the Brussels audience.</P>
    2143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2041
    21442042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the fringes of the Festival, there was also a musical offering in the shape of the Toure Kunda brothers who came to lend their support to filmmakers and other African artistes.</P>
    2145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2043
    21462044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are those who would argue that the Brussels Festival has now entered the category of a 'not-to-bemissed' event. Every year, it attracts significant numbers of film-makers from Africa and the diaspora, even when they have no current projects or films to present. There was a real family atmosphere in the corridors of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, due in no doubt to the absence of competition. From the outset, the Diaspora Productions team chose to stage an event at which prizes were not awarded, thereby promoting reflection and contact with the public. It is generally agreed that the Brussels Festival offers a rare opportunity for film-makers to meet and discuss their productions and projects in a relaxed atmosphere.</P>
    2147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2045
    21482046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The credit for this, in the view of many of the participants, lies with Pape Mbaye Sene, one of the guiding lights of the event, who has also been dubbed the 'high priest' of African cinema. It has, in fact, been suggested tongue-in-cheek that 'in Brussels, they award a Pape, not an Oscar'. </P>
    2149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2047
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    2161 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2056</B>
    21622057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of African cinema seen through the eyes of the Malian film maker, </P>
    2163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2058
    21642059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, The Courier had the opportunity of meeting Souleymane Cisse, one of Africa's most celebrated film-makers, who has won several awards at major international film festivals. His films, such as Yeelen, which was awarded the Prix du Jury in Cannes in 1987 (the first African film to receive such a prestigious accolade), Waati, which was entered at the same festival, and Finye, have already become classics. Cisse is not just a director, he also produces his own films. In 1972, he impressed international critics by single-handedly producing a short film of exceptionally high quality Cinq jours d'une vie -  which won an award at the Carthage Film Festival. By relying, above all, on his own limited resources, combined with a powerful determination to develop and promote Africa's film industry, Souleymane Cisse has an implied but powerful message for the entire African continent. When he went on stage at the Palais des Festivals in 1987 to receive his award for Yeelen, he said that he was accepting it on behalf of all those who did not have the opportunity to speak for themselves. In particular, he dedicated the film to all the South African technicians who had worked together with him on the project. His has made spirited efforts to boost the African film industry and it was in this context that he helped set up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' last March. This organisation aims to encourage African countries (especially in West Africa), to take the necessary political decisions to ensure the survival and grouwth of African cinema. When we spoke to Souleymane Cisse, our discussion ranged far and wide. We began by asking the film director whether African art gets the recognition it deserves in Europe? He seemed surprised at the question but then, without hesitation, proceeded to explain his own approach - with the emphasis on the political rather than the aesthetic.</P>
    2165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2060
    21662061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The recognition that African art gets in the West has more to do with politics than aesthetic discernment. Such recognition evolves from the spirit of Africa's relations with the other continents, a spirit which is often devoid of all honesty. We stand at the threshold of the 21st century. We should be looking to develop ways of communicating with each other and finding common ground. We should be able to look each other in the eye. When, for example, people in France debate whether or not the Louvre should have a gallery of African art, it begs the question, 'who is asking for what ?'. When some people wonder whether or not African art really is art, they are asking themselves a pointless question. African art is. Nothing more, nothing less. In any case, the West has some highly contradictory views as far as the whole idea of art in Africa is concerned. On the one hand they dispute the fact that the culture of the Ancient Egyptians was, in essence, an African one, and yet on the other hand the characters of Ancient Egypt - in films for example - are always portrayed as dark-skinned. African art is the 'in' thing at the moment, despite the current tendency to belittle Africa. They think that today's Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans can be made to forget their African roots, but that just will not happen.</P>
    2167 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2062
    21682063<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Generally speaking, do you think that African politicians should devote time and energy to this battle to defend African culture when their countries face such insurmountable material problems ?</P>
    2169 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2064
    21702065<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Once they have gained power, the obsessive preoccupation of our politicians has been to concentrate on economic policies, neglecting their countries' cultural needs. But without a deeply-rooted culture, you cannot discuss matters on equal terms with representatives of other nations. In their heart of hearts, they will not respect you fully. There have been two or three countries which have tried to combine economic development with cultural development - I'm thinking of Guinea under Sekou Toure, Mali under Modibo Keita and Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, but in one way or another, all three have been thwarted, for their perceptiveness. I am not now commenting on, or necessarily agreeing with, their domestic policies, but rather with the broad vision they shared for Africa as a whole. The fact that Europe is currently in the process of forging the European Union will be an instrumental force in the opening up of other regions of the globe. It was Europe, after all, which divided much of the world into English speakers, French speakers, Portuguese speakers, Spanish speakers and so on. Now that Europeans are themselves seeking to unite their countries, how could they possibly object to a similar union in Africa - for the sake of its cultural identity. This idea of a United Europe is, therefore, a welcome one. What is more, I believe that the issue has already been tackled within relations between the European Union and ACP countries. Not only is Africa the continent closest to Europe; it is in helping to develop the African continent that Europe has most to gain.</P>
    2171 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2066
    21722067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The cultural aspect has already been incorporated into Lom&eacute; IV, but it seems that ACP countries do not attach as much importance as they should to such matters when drawing up their lists of priorities.</P>
    2173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2068
    21742069<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Many of the politicians in charge of these countries themselves lack any sort of culture. Alternatively, stripped of their own culture, they flaunt that of a foreign land. They say that health care is a priority, that food is a priority, but cultural needs do not figure on their list. Yet culture forms part of an urgent need. You'll see - as soon as any sort of cultural development takes place in a country, or wherever a country already has a viable, thriving culture, its economy will also flourish; of that there is no doubt. A nation which has a highly developed culture will always be able to stand on its own two feet economically. Take, for example, the nations of the former Soviet Union  - their economies may be unstable at the moment. It's only natural that they have to start from scratch, but as long as they manage to hold on to their cultures, they will pull through. These countries will not lag behind as Africa has done.</P>
    2175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2070
    21762071<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It costs money to operate a film industry. Have you found that your reputation as a director has made the financial side of things any easier for you ?</P>
    2177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2072
    21782073<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't honestly think much has changed in the way we finance our films. Perhaps I should only speak for myself, but I do not believe it is any easier for me than it is for young filmmakers. Mali has no film production facilities, so we are all in the same boat. That is why we organised a colloquium in March this year, aimed at getting a picture of the exact state of West Africa's film industry. What we learned was that it is in pretty bad state. We make films but, in a certain sense, we don't really exist as a film industry. I would dearly like my works to be screened, for example, in Mali, Guinea and Senegal, but that is not possible because the distribution and screening networks are no longer there. Even the most liberal Western countries have passed laws to promote and protect their local film industries, so why don't we do the same ? I cannot make films in the United States without first going through various unions and other professional associations. In France, I cannot distribute my films the way I want, and if I want to make a film, I have to make it through French producers. If people come to work here, they should have to use national producers. The relevant laws were drawn up three or four years ago, but they still haven't been passed. We want all those involved in the film industry to have the opportunity to be true professionals. There should be assistance available to modernise projection rooms and theatres. We are currently in the process of setting up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' which should help to persuade governments to take our requests into account.</P>
    2179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2074
    21802075<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Isn't African cinema also a victim of television ? </P>
    2181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2076
    21822077<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem in Mali is a very simple one. We live in a country where people like to get out and about. The cinema is somewhere they can do that quite easily. So people use it as a place where they can meet up in the evening, just as they like to congregate around the fire to sing and dance. So why are our cinemas empty ? Because when people do go to the cinema, they cannot see the screen properly or they cannot hear the soundtrack, or they are uncomfortable sitting on broken and rickety chairs. If you can provide a suitable and comfortable environment for them, people will start going to the cinema again. That doesn't mean that television doesn't have its place, but people like to go out. This is especially the case with our open air cinemas, which are the perfect places for people to come together, have a chat, enjoy each other's company and relax. A nice auditorium, a good film, and you'll see how the queues will form. All we need to do is upgrade the auditoria, re-equip the projection rooms, overhaul the sound systems, put new chairs in - just a few basic comforts. When people go out to the cinema, it's because they want to escape from their humdrum routine for a while, to dream and unwind.</P>
    2183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2078
    21842079<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African governments should do what they can to enable people to relax and enjoy themselves like this. Going to the cinema is like going to school. People go there to learn something - whether consciously or subconsciously - and to see something different. We really must get rid of this purely commercial vision of the cinema, especially in Africa. It should, first and foremost, be a cultural experience, and only subsequently a commercial exercise. But we also need to be realistic. When helping those involved in promoting the film industry, the government should lay down a precise set of conditions, specifying how and when the loans should be repaid and requiring something in return for their subsidies.</P>
    2185 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2080
    21862081<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So you think that if the Ministries of Culture in African countries were given greater powers, they would be in a position to carry out this task ?</P>
    2187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2082
    21882083<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is not something solely for the Ministry of Culture. This is the type of approach which should be adopted by the state as a whole, in each country. For example, the government should provide a support fund for the film industry and certain other branches of the arts. Even if they were increased substantially, the meagre budgets allocated to the Ministry of Culture in our countries would still represent paltry sums. In Africa, the department of culture is at the bottom of everybody's list.</P>
    2189 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2084
    21902085<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But if you look at the number of African films that have been shown in recent years at Cannes and other international festivals, surely one can afford to be a little more optimistic than you are ? More and more young African filmmakers are releasing films.</P>
    2191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2086
    21922087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - True, but as I said earlier, no progress has been made as far as film production is concerned. In that respect, contrary to what people may think, we are still at square one. Young filmmakers are put off and, as more and more avenues are closed to them, they gradually lose their fighting spirit. A film director has no choice but to be his own producer, his own manager - to do everything himself in fact. The result is that he becomes a jack of all trades and a master of none. During our recent colloquium, we decided to set up smallscale facilities which will deal solely with film production and where young people can go and use their services, thus leaving them free to channel their energies into actually directing their films. In the same way, we intend to set up other structures which will deal exclusively with other aspects of the cinema industry. The goal we have set ourselves is that of fostering professionalism in the West African film industry. Maybe then our governments will listen to us.</P>
    2193 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2088
    21942089<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there is any difference between African countries as far as opportunities are concerned ? For example, Burkina Faso would appear to be the cinema capital of Africa.</P>
    2195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2090
    21962091<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and no. More often than not, it is African film-makers who have chosen Burkina Faso to stage events connected with the cinema industry because it is a landlocked country. This is what has made it the film capital of Africa, not any deliberate move on the part of the politicians. Having said this, the government in Burkina Faso is also making great efforts, despite its limited resources. But each country has its own potential. We must stop trying to tear this continent apart.</P>
    2197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2092
    21982093<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the former President of your own country, Modibo Keita, as one of those far-sighted enough to appreciate the importance of nurturing African culture. Where does Mali stand at the moment in terms of strengthening its own cultural heritage identity ?</P>
    2199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2094
    22002095<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - After independence, in the years from 1960 to 1968, there was a time when young people would get together and become involved in various biennial art festivals. We had a series of events which encouraged a kind of a 'cultural vision' nationwide. They were so successful that other countries were soon following our example. After the coup in 1968, however, everything fell apart. In the following 23 years there was a total cultural vacuum, in which young people felt completely disorientated, despite superficial attempts to relaunch the festivals. We are now only just trying to rediscover our cultural roots after a long period of upheaval. What we in Mali do have working in our favour, is the fact that our country is a harmonious patchwork of different peoples, all living together without the slightest trace of bitterness or hatred. We are lucky here because our rulers rarely tried to manipulate our ethnic loyalties to set one group against another. A Malian, irrespective of his roots, will always rejoice in the success of his fellow countrymen, whatever tribe they happen to belong to. We owe our good fortune to a heritage in which our peoples have always respected one another - even when they have faced each other as enemies. It is only as a result of this historic mutual respect that we can now speak of a Malian culture where each individual group of people has its own idiosyncrasies, its own customs, is sensitive towards other cultures and actually rejoices in their differences. </P>
    2201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2203 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2204 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     2096
     2097<B>
    22052098<!--
    22062099</Section>
    … …  
    22112104  </Description>
    22122105-->
    2213 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2106</B>
    22142107<B><P></P>
    22152108<!--
    … …  
    22192112  </Description>
    22202113-->
    2221 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2114</B>
    22222115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of CTA's tasks is to provide information on request to researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organisations, trainers and information specialists involved in agricultural development in ACP states. In addition to requested publications, CTA also distributes publications on its own initiative to its target groups. These publications, some 550 titles, are also supplied free of charge and consist of books published by CTA, co-published, or purchased specially because of their relevance. In 1995, almost 65 000 books were posted to ACP countries.</P>
    2223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2116
    22242117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people who receive the publications to some extent select themselves, because they write to CTA with requests for information. They find out about its existence through attending CTA seminars held in ACP countries or in Europe, or through seeing copies of Spore (CTA's bi-monthly bulletin in English, French and Portuguese which goes to around 50 000 addresses and is seen by many more), or by word of mouth. Over the years, CTA has built up a mailing list of 42 500 addresses of people and organisations active in some way in agriculture and rural development. Of the total, 37 800 are in ACP countries.</P>
    2225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2118
    22262119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are questions. Are our books getting to those who need them and is the targeting accurate enough? And, most importantly, is this the best way of doing things ? For CTA does not - and cannot - satisfy the total demand for books on agriculture and rural development.</P>
    2227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2120
    22282121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way?</P>
    2229 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2122
    22302123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the number of addresses on the mailing list, many more people could in theory still be added. Should CTA even try to satisfy this demand ? The publications are free and, if CTA increased its coverage of the demand, it might in some countries hold back the development of local bookselling with a consequent detrimental effect on local publishing.</P>
    2231 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2124
    22322125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The majority of those now on the mailing list are 'individuals' rather than institutions, libraries, documentation centres, associations, organisations, etc. On the face of it, more people could be reached by sending CTA publications to groups rather than to individuals, but it's not always clear who is an individual in the sense of information not being shared with others. Some individuals are teachers, some are extension agents, some receive publications on behalf of a cooperative, for example.</P>
    2233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2126
    22342127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the importance of information - the driving force behind development  -  CTA has been investigating and giving support to technical publishing and book distribution in Africa over the last few years and is currently examining its own policy on book distribution over the ACP countries as a whole. Part of the context for this policy re-appraisal is the state of bookselling.</P>
    2235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2128
    22362129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulty of book distribution</P>
    2237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2130
    22382131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everyone involved in the books business in and for the ACP countries knows that getting books where you want them to go, book distribution, is not straightforward. The reasons for the difficulty are not straightforward either. One development officer remarked of Papua New Guinea that the lack of books outside the capital, Port Moresby, couldn't simply be explained by lack of roads, because in the most out of the way places you could be sure of finding Coca Cola. Is it, then, that the Coca Cola company has superior marketing and distribution arrangements ? Probably so, but it is the nature of the two products which also determines how far they get. Traders will more readily take goods which they know they will be able to sell easily and the immediate satisfaction given by cigarettes or Coca Cola tends to put them before books in the list of priorities for purchase.</P>
    2239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2132
    22402133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the ACP countries where CTA sends books and information, many have under-developed road and rail networks while the postal facilities provide a reliable service only to a relatively small part of the country. The local book publishing and bookselling industries are often themselves developing. Potential readers often cannot afford to buy the books and consequently book distribution is the weak link in the chain from writing and publishing a book to selling it. If books can't be sold, new ones can't be published, for the investment finance for a new publishing project has to come from somewhere.</P>
    2241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2134
    22422135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Africa, the lack of a strong local book sector was attributed in part to the traditional oral culture of the continent which left little need for reading. The majority of students would read in order to pass their exams, after which they hardly sought books again to buy or to read.</P>
    2243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2136
    22442137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main books distributed were therefore textbooks for schools, colleges and for higher education. As long as these were distributed through booksellers, a forum still existed for displaying and raising interest in other books.</P>
    2245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2138
    22462139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers could also function as sources and conduits of information about the variety of books in print and of their interest to particular groups.</P>
    2247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2140
    22482141<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This development was stunted because of the low purchasing power of many people, lack of foreign exchange (except in the CFA franc states), high cost of importing (either books or the raw materials, print machinery and spare parts to manufacture books) and, consequentially, shortage and lack of variety of locally-published books.</P>
    2249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2142
    22502143<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, in some countries the state intervened in school book publishing and supply (for example in Tanzania), so that the bread and butter of the bookselling business disappeared.</P>
    2251 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2144
    22522145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers then either diversified their stock so that they became bookseller-stationers or worse - books came after groceries, footballs, hats, etc., or the booksellers ceased trading in books or closed down.</P>
    2253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2146
    22542147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The publishing-distribution chain in Africa</P>
    2255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2148
    22562149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book distribution is part of a chain of activities in the book sector which depend on each other and support each other. The chain starts with an idea for a book which may come from an author or from potential readers who make known their needs and it ends with the published books being bought. The lack of a good book distribution infrastructure in Africa is linked to the lack of a wide variety of books from a good number of publishers and the lack of a market for the books.</P>
    2257 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2150
    22582151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least until South Africa became a democracy, Nigeria probably had the most active publishing industry in Africa with a high level of publishing professionalism. In such a huge country this may not be surprising: there is a large market, state administrations with urban headquarters, and a variety of arrangements for publishing and distributing books. But publishers suffer from a scarcity of investment funds, with high costs of borrowing, which affects their ability to keep books in print and to start new publishing projects. Relatively few technical books are published locally because of the risks when compared with, for example, publishing school textbooks.</P>
    2259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2152
    22602153<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a vast country, the state of book distribution varies from place to place, with cities and large towns obviously having a greater variety of books available for sale than small towns and rural areas. Small traders carry books to the latter; they do not take orders and the books they carry are those that they can get hold of which they think will sell. Would-be readers are frustrated unless they or their friends visit a city. Mail order is not a possibility because the domestic postal service is not trusted.</P>
    2261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2154
    22622155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the urban areas, where there are booksellers, an indeterminate number of potential readers cannot afford to buy books, especially those that have been imported. Book piracy is a consequence of this. Booksellers' sales have declined, their turnover has been reduced as has their ability to stay in business. Some institutions in the country buy direct from publishers or from overseas suppliers rather than from booksellers, which further damages them. Booksellers buy books from publishers in small quantities for a fast turn-round which affects publishers' ability to build up investment funds for the next publishing project or for a large reprint with its possibility of reducing unit book costs.</P>
    2263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2156
    22642157<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that technical books are totally unavailable from Nigerian booksellers, but it is clear that only specialised outlets which know their book-buying customers well can risk stocking some of them. Rural dwellers have no chance of buying them without making a big effort in time and money.</P>
    2265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2158
    22662159<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In contrast, Senegal has a less developed publishing and bookselling industry than Nigeria, with about a dozen professional publishers and a small network of booksellers, mostly in Dakar and the larger towns in the regions. The most important publishing opportunities in Senegal are in the field of primary school textbooks - where there is competition both within the country, with publishers from other developing states, and from the North. Senegal being a lot smaller than Nigeria, there is only room for one textbook, and primary school book production is not therefore the mainstay of local publishers. The publisher which used to supply all primary and secondary school textbooks for the Ministry of National Education is an exception and is still probably dependent upon educational publishing for its turnover. Few technical books are published; as with books for higher education, they are imported.</P>
    2267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2160
    22682161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The network of booksellers has been decreasing and it is difficult to make a living just by selling books without the back-up of other products to sell. Thus there are bookseller-stationers, bookseller-grocers, kiosks and street sellers, especially of secondhand books. Booksellers tend to order titles in small quantities because they cannot risk being left with unsold stock which ties up their capital. They order little and often. Most school textbooks are distributed through the Ministry of National Education, but booksellers still sell a variety of textbooks, some official and approved and some not. Before the devaluation of the CFA franc, booksellers ordered more from abroad. These books have now doubled in price, making them unaffordable, with a consequent opportunity opened for local publishers to fill a gap.</P>
    2269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2162
    22702163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the professional publishers, various sorts of publications are being produced and distributed by literacy and post-literacy organisations and a delegated literacy ministry. Some organisations promote literacy for its own sake, while others use the attainment of literacy as the means through which development can spread in rural areas. The publications concern rural development, agriculture, health and nutrition, and rural democracy, amongst others. There is a good variety of different titles and a good supply of cheap and affordable books. Some are sold through booksellers, but most people buy them when they take their literacy courses, while small traders carry them up-country to sell and buy more copies from the publishers with the proceeds.</P>
    2271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2164
    22722165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book aid schemes</P>
    2273 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2166
    22742167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A whole literature exists on book aid schemes. Briefly, book aid comes in two forms, one using the local book sector and the other not to any great extent. The British Government's Educational Low Prices Books Scheme (sadly scheduled to end, at least in its present form, in April 1997) and the French Government's Programme Plus both use the local bookselling industry to make available standard tertiary textbooks and others at subsidised rates. Not all students could afford to buy them, but the two schemes nonetheless promote bookselling and commercial life within ACP countries and beyond. To some extent they safeguard the continuation of fore where up-to-date books can be seen.</P>
    2275 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2168
    22762169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA's books aid scheme does not use the local book sector in terms of book distribution, although cooperation in co-publishing is beginning. The FAO, in distributing publications to ACP and other developing countries, is similar. Books supplied under multilateral and bilateral agencies' projects have tended to sidestep the local book sector, although this has been changing.</P>
    2277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2170
    22782171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with food aid, the question to be answered is whether continuing the aid prolongs the condition ? Or does the analogy with food aid break down in certain circumstances because books are different ?</P>
    2279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2172
    22802173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving book distribution in Africa</P>
    2281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2174
    22822175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various efforts are being made to improve book markets for African publishers. For example, the African Books Collective, based in Oxford, UK, markets and sells both anglophone and francophone African publishers' selected books in the North and also to other African countries. It is often easier for publishers in the North to sell their books in Africa than it is for African publishers to sell their books across frontiers and in the continent.</P>
    2283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2176
    22842177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publishers Associations have been formed in about a dozen countries with APNET, the African Publishers' Network, celebrating its fourth year as a continental association. CTA supported APNET in the production of the first catalogue of agricultural books published by African publishers. Very recently, an Africa-wide booksellers association has been created.</P>
    2285 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2178
    22862179<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA and future book distribution</P>
    2287 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2180
    22882181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since CTA started distributing books on agriculture and rural development, publishing and bookselling activities in many ACP countries have multiplied and the context has changed somewhat. As noted at CTA's Montpellier conference in 1995, there is now much information and many documents going from North to South, suited to the planners, research workers and extension agents who process the information and pass it down to the small-scale farmers. Rather, a two-way information route would be more efficient, between farmers who have information to offer as well as information needs and information providers. The growth in requests to CTA for publications from co-operatives and farmer associations and from non-academic libraries and documentation units is evidence that the publications distribution service is fulfilling a need. </P>
    2289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2290 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2182
    22922183<B><P></P>
    22932184<!--
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    2300 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2191</B>
    23012192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen architecture</P>
    2302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2193
    23032194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I read your article on 'Earthen Architecture', published by the CTA Bulletin in the September-October 1996 issue of The Courier (n° 159) with a great deal of interest.</P>
    2304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2195
    23052196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article presents such traditional products as rammed earth and adobe which have been used by man since time immemorial as witnessed by constructions and monuments to be found in the countries cited by the authors of the article, as well as industrial products such as the compressed earth block (CEB), which have provoked much interest in many parts of the world.</P>
    2306 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2197
    23072198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors also demonstrate that the use of the compressed earth block has a distinct advantage in that it valorises local raw materials, encourages the setting up of local enterprises and creates employment.</P>
    2308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2199
    23092200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, I would particularly wish to inform you that the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) has, for the last ten years, been working on the industrial development of the CEB sector through support to ACP promoters at various levels:</P>
    2310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2201
    23112202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - diagnostic studies of projects and setting-up of production units;</P>
    23122203<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - search for EU technical partners who have economically advantageous technologies and are ready to transfer their know-how;</P>
    23132204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- training of enterprise personnel in CEB production and in the utilisation of this product;</P>
    23142205<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support in the manufacturing of brick presses such as is currently the case in Nigeria.</P>
    2315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2206
    23162207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 100 small and mediumsized enterprises and non-governmental organisations in ACP countries involved in the CEB sector have benefited from direct CDI assistance. This assistance has, notably, led to the improved technical and economic performance of these enterprises.</P>
    2317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2208
    23182209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond support to projects, the CDI in collaboration with CRATerre actively participates in the industrial promotion of this technology. The Centre recently disseminated 2000 copies of a technical guide entitled 'CEB: Production Equipment' throughout the ACP countries. An exhibition on the compressed earth block and its application took place during the Industrial Mining Forum held in Lusaka, Zambia, in December 1994. Similar exhibitions were held during the Matconstruct Forum (Libreville, Gabon, October 1995) and at the Industrial Partnership event (Bordeaux, France, February 1995). </P>
    2319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2210
    23202211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The standardisation of the compressed earth block is a prerequisite for the development of this sector. The Centre therefore organised a workshop on this topic in Yaounde in 1996 as a follow-up to the Matconstruct Forum. This seminar brought together some 40 ACP and EU participants to discuss the 'CEB: Standardisation' guide currently being prepared by CRATerre for publication in December 1996.</P>
    2321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2212
    23222213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main objective of the guide is to encourage ACP promoters to manufacture products in conformity with accepted norms and thus facilitate CEB integration in the industrial construction market.</P>
    2323 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2214
    23242215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts made by the CDI, in collaboration with CRATerre, to develop the CEB sector deserve to be better known. We would therefore look forward to an opportunity to present the Centre's activities in this sector in a future issue of me Courier. </P>
    2325 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2216
    23262217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surendra Sharma, Director, Centre for the Development of Industry,</P>
    23272218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brussels, Belgium.</P>
    2328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2219
    23292220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    23302221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Map insets</P>
    2331 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2222
    23322223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank-you for your informative magazine. I wish you all the best in your endeavours to improve me Courier further. May I suggest that in the Country Report profiles, you include an inset map of the region highlighting the country in question for those readers who may not be familiar with the area.</P>
    2333 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2224
    23342225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Frederick Meya, Kampala, Uganda.</P>
    2335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2226
    23362227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of readers have raised this point with us since we have rearranged the cover pages and transferred the ACP and Europe 'regional' maps to the inside back cover. In future, we will endeavour to ensure that there is a cross-reference to this page in the Country Report profile. </P>
    2337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2339 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2228
    23402229<B><P></P>
    23412230<!--
    … …  
    23462235  </Description>
    23472236-->
    2348 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2237</B>
    23492238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
    2350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2239
    23512240<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La politique etrangere du Cameroun (Cameroon's foreign policy) </P>
    2352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2241
    23532242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Narcisse Mouelle Kombi. Pub. L'Harmattan, Collection «Points de vue» (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 238 pp. ISBN 2-73843701-X.</P>
    2354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2243
    23552244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon belongs to the zone formerly called the 'Third World' which is nowadays labelled the 'South'. This region of great diversity currently faces major socio-economic and political conflict, and receives 'multiform' and 'tied' aid from the developed countries.</P>
    2356 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2245
    23572246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not, however, prevent it from having a degree of freedom of action in diplomatic terms.</P>
    2358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2247
    23592248<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who is a specialist in international law, believes that as a player on the world scene, Cameroon puts its foreign-policy skills to good advantage and has acquired a certain respect in international relations and in global institutions.</P>
    2360 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2249
    23612250<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that Yaounde is attempting to implement a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy, reflecting its own sovereign status and the imperatives of development.</P>
    2362 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2251
    23632252<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, the country is endeavouring to implement the changes forced upon it by modern circumstances.</P>
    2364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2253
    23652254<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le developpement institutionnel - Les organisations a l'epreuve de la specificite et de la concurrence (Institutional development - Organisations based on specificity and competition) </P>
    2366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2255
    23672256<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Arturo Israel. Translated from the English by Alain Claisse. Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, me de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 235 pp. 140 FF. ISBN 2-73844322-2.</P>
    2368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2257
    23692258<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A graduate of the University of Chile and the London School of Economics, the author has devoted most of his career (particularly within the World Bank) to examining the problems of economic and social development.</P>
    2370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2259
    23712260<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He has been one of the pioneers of institutional development, a field which is nowadays seen as essential to all development strategies.</P>
    2372 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2261
    23732262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that institutional development requires not bureaucratisation but the promotion and recognition of two principles in both public and private organisations. These are competition and specificity. </P>
    2374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2263
    23752264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former induces those involved to improve the quality of their work, whilst forcing them to listen to the 'consumer'. The latter involves qualifications, specialisation and a precise definition of objectives, tasks, resources and results.</P>
    2376 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2265
    23772266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a critical review of assessment reports produced over a 15-year period by the World Bank in the field of institutional development, Arturo Israel tells us why such development is one of the keys to success in development projects. He demonstrates that a good project being implemented in an unfavourable institutional environment has little chance of achieving positive long-term effects.</P>
    2378 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2267
    23792268<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La justice internationale face au drame rwandais (International justice confronted by the Rwandan crisis) </P>
    2380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2269
    23812270<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the direction of Jean-Fran&ccedil;oise Dupaquier, with William Bourdon, Pierre-Serge Heger, Frederic Mutagwera, Fran,cois-Xavier Nsanzuwera, Rakiya Omaar, William A. Schabas and Anne-Marie Swartenbroekx. Pub. Karthala (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013, Paris). 1996. 248 pp. FF 130. BF. 715. ISBN 2-86537-662-1.</P>
    2382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2271
    23832272<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is two years since the genocide and political massacres which resulted in the death of a million people in Rwanda. In this work, the authors describe and analyse the progress made in various legal proceedings in Rwanda itself, in the international arena and in the jurisdictions of Belgium, France, Canada and Switzerland.</P>
    2384 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2273
    23852274<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have been slow and apparently reluctant to fulfil their international obligations and this has resulted in disappointment and impatience on the part of the victims' families, jurists and human rights activists.</P>
    2386 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2275
    23872276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the example of the Nuremberg trials, the authors suggest there are good grounds for concluding that international human rights have become less important over the last 50 years. This work allows one to reach a considered opinion. Modern legal instruments provide for the punishment of those responsible for the appalling tragedy in Rwanda. These instruments could be seen as a significant advance in the recognition of human rights by the international community. But what is missing at the moment is the political will (and public pressure) to implement them.</P>
    2388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2277
    23892278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methodologies d'analyse de la mortalite des enfants - Applications au Cameroun (Analytical methodologies in child mortality as applied to Cameroon) </P>
    2390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2279
    23912280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Amadou Noumbissi. Pub. Braylant-Academia (25, Grand Rue, B-134B Louvainla-Neuve) and L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 305 pp. ISBN 2-87209389-3 (Academia-Braylant) and ISBN 2-7384-3722-2 (L'Harmattan).</P>
    2392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2281
    23932282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child mortality, always very high in sub-Saharan Africa, varies according to social class, habitat and region. The identification of the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the survival of children depends on the quality of data, and on the relevance of the indicators and statistical models used.</P>
    2394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2283
    23952284<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the aid of specific examples, this work attempts to demonstrate the origin of a number of sources of bias in so-called classical approaches and the distortion of the truth which a poor choice or detrimental manipulation of statistical models can give rise to.</P>
    2396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2285
    23972286<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A teacher and researcher at the Demographic Institute of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the author proposes methods to take account of the interdependence and synergy which exist between the factors which affect the risk of mortality. He applies these methods to the data gained in two national surveys which were carried out in Cameroon in 1978 and 1991.</P>
    2398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2287
    23992288<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revue Region et Developpement (Region and Development Journal)</P>
    2400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2289
    24012290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). 1995. 238 pp. ISBN 2-7384-4125-4</P>
    2402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2291
    24032292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This half-yearly journal, first launched in 1995, deals with the various socio-economic aspects of regional development. The second issue contains articles which may be of interest to our readers, including: 'Regionalisation, globalisation and polarisation of the world economy: is there room for developing countries?', and 'Housing models in developing countries'.</P>
    2404 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2293
    24052294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria</P>
    2406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2295
    24072296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Eghosa E. Osaghae. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 66 pp. ISBN 91-7106373-0.</P>
    2408 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2297
    24092298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author is a lecturer who heads the politics department at the University of Transkei in South Africa. A significant conclusion from his study, undertaken at the Nordic Africa Institute, is that from the ethnic standpoint, the implementation of structural adjustment (with its corollary of reduced state involvement in public life), has had positive effects in Nigeria. This contrasts with the usual perception of the structural adjustment process.</P>
    2410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2299
    24112300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration experience in Africa</P>
    2412 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2301
    24132302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Jonathan Baker and Tade Akin Aina. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 353 pp. ISBN-91-7106366-8.</P>
    2414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2303
    24152304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume aims to take stock of migration in Africa. The causes of the phenomenon are varied and complex, and the authors have chosen an approach which illustrates the diversity of the theories, and methodological and analytical trends involved.</P>
    2416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2305
    24172306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book offers an empirical assessment of migration in contemporary Africa, focusing particularly on the problem of women migrants. Migration is an important element in the wider development equation and this work fills a gap in the literature.</P>
    2418 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2307
    24192308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa</P>
    2420 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2309
    24212310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Adebayo O. Olukoshi and Liisa Laakso. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden) in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki. 1996. 213 pp. ISBN 91-7106381-1.</P>
    2422 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2311
    24232312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge confronting the nation state in contemporary Africa are of great interest to specialists attempting to understand how deconstruction and recomposition of the political identity of populations affects the post-colonial unitarian project. The studies offered in this volume show that this process has often taken ethno-regionalist, religious or separatist forms -  reinforced by economic crisis and the negative effects of structural adjustment, not to mention the legacy of years of political authoritarianism and exclusion dating from the colonial period.</P>
    2424 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2313
    24252314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors believe that in order to promote national unity and a sense of citizenship in Africa, priority should be given, inter alia, to more representative forms of government, power-sharing and decentralisation, multi-party elections, the reinvention of the post-colonial social contract and cultural autonomy for minority groups.</P>
    2426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2315
    24272316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agenda for Africa's economic renewal</P>
    2428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2317
    24292318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle. Pub. Overseas Department Council (1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1012, Washington, DC 20009, USA). 1996. 246 pp. ISBN 1-56000900-4.</P>
    2430 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2319
    24312320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 20 years, sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Growth has been stagnant and the result has been reduced living standards for much of the population, and ever-increasing pressure on the continent's political structures. Structural adjustment, advocated by international organisations in an attempt to restore growth in Africa, has not had the anticipated results and has given rise to a number of disputes.</P>
    2432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2321
    24332322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book, 10 African, US and European experts attempt to look beyond the immediate horizon and identify strategies which could be implemented to give renewed vigour to the African economy. They analyse the choices which should be made in key areas such as agriculture, trade and industry, the role of the state and the social sectors. </P>
    2434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2323
    24372324<B><P></P>
    24382325<!--
    … …  
    24432330  </Description>
    24442331-->
    2445 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2332</B>
    24462333<I><P></P>
    24472334<!--
    … …  
    24512338  </Description>
    24522339-->
    2453 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2340</I>
    24542341<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World congress against the sexual exploitation of children</P>
    2455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2342
    24562343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first international congress dealing with the problem of the sexual exploitation of children for profit was held in Stockholm from 27 to 31 August. The initiative for the meeting came from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism), working in collaboration with the Swedish government, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a group of NGOs supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The congress was attended by government representatives from most of the UN countries, participants from various international and regional organisations (including the UN Centre for Human Rights, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organisation, UNESCO, UNHCR and Interpol), NGOs, health professionals and media representatives from across the globe.</P>
    2457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2344
    24582345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the congress was to draw the international community's attention to the issue of the sexual exploitation of children and to promote the development of national plans to tackle all forms of abuse in this area. It focused particularly on three aspects: child prostitution, the 'trade' in children for sexual purposes, and child pornography.</P>
    2459 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2346
    24602347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are a number of legal instruments which refer to these problems, the key one for the purposes of the Stockholm meeting was the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In Article 34 of this multilateral treaty, which has been ratified by 186 countries, the signatory states commit themselves to protect children against all forms of exploitation and violence of a sexual nature. For the purposes of the Convention, a child is defined as any human being less than 18 years old, except where the age of majority is lower than 18 in the relevant local legislation (Article 1).</P>
    2461 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2348
    24622349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that was responsible for planning the Congress drew up documents on a number of themes including: the revision and application of laws; psycho-social prevention; tourism and child prostitution; those who engage in abuse; hygiene and health; the role of the media; child pornography; education; and human values. These subjects were all examined by working groups during the two-day session.</P>
    2463 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2350
    24642351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress was addressed by Anita Gradin, Member of the European Commission with responsibility for internal and judicial affairs, and matters relating to immigration. She took the opportunity to underline the point that the traffic in women and children was international. Organised crime, she said, lay at the heart of the 'trade' and it was closely linked to a whole range of other criminal activities. She cited, in this context, kidnapping, forging of documents, 'false' marriages and adoptions, clandestine immigration, violence and forced labour. these, in turn were associated with the drug trade, extortion and murder. The conclusion was that a global action plan and more international cooperation were needed. Ms Gradin acknowledged that existing arrangements had been successful in exposing the existence of paedophile networks but she was convinced that international cooperation should be strengthened further, and that organisations such as Interpol and Europol would be called upon to play a bigger part in the future. The European Commissioner went on to declare that a commitment to the protection of children ought to be a priority. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - which is now eight years old -  should not merely tee 'adopted' by all countries. It should, rather, be applied in full and integrated into the legislation of every nation. There was no point, she suggested, in enacting new laws, if the existing ones were not being implemented and the financial resources had not been provided. Ms Gradin reaffirmed the European Commission's commitment to the fight against the exploitation of children. This would be reflected in communications to be drawn up by the Commission for presentation to the Council of Ministers and European Parliament, on the following subjects:  - the treatment of women (on the basis of the recommendations made by the Vienna Conference on this subject, which was held in June 1996);  - sex tourism, notably in certain countries in Asia and Latin America;  - actions designed to eliminate paedophile rings and child pornography networks which make use of new information technologies such as the Internet. During the congress, the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced that his country would be launching an initiative at the EC's Justice and Internal Affairs Council meeting scheduled for 26 and 27 September. They would be proposing common action designed to strengthen police and judicial cooperation in the fight against the sexual exploitation of children for profit. He believed that it should be possible to take measures both within the framework of the Europol Convention, and by means of new and specific cooperation instruments. The culmination of the Stockholm congress was the adoption of a declaration and an action plan. These foresee strengthened cooperation and coordination among local and national authorities, and a series of measures to protect children, prevent abuse and provide rehabilitation. </P>
    2465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2352
    24662353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    24672354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1997: European year against racism </P>
    2468 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2355
    24692356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a resolution adopted on 23 July, the Council of Ministers formally designated 1997 as the European year against racism. The aims, set out in the resolution, include:  - highlighting the threat posed by racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, in terms of both respect for fundamental rights, and in ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the European Community;  - encouraging reflection and discussion of the measures needed to tackle racism, xenophobia and antisemitism in Europe;  - promoting a sharing of experiences, best practice, and effective strategies drawn up at the local, national and European levels;  - disseminating information on the aforementioned best practice and strategies amongst those most closely involved in the fight against racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of their actions in this area;  - highlighting the advantages of integration policies implemented at the national level, in particular in the fields of employment, education, training and housing;  - taking account, wherever possible, of the experiences of victims of racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, and promoting the participation of these people in society. ECU 6 million will be spent on a series of activities designed to help achieve these objectives during the 'year against racism'. A logo and slogan will be devised, and seminars and conferences will be staged with the aim of strengthening international cooperation (themes will include the role of education in eliminating racism, ways of establishing dialogue, and establishing mutual respect between different communities living in towns and cities). Documents and audiovisual material will be distributed, and an effort will be made to get the message across in the media. There will also be action to encourage information exchanges on best practice, and to increase public awareness of the issue. Prizes will be awarded to media organisations which safeguard the quality of the information they put out and which seek to promote tolerance. A specific effort will be made to counter the racist propaganda now appearing on the Internet.</P>
    2470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2357
    24712358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO banana challenge</P>
    2472 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2359
    24732360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union has set out its legal defence of duty-free preferences for African and Caribbean banana producing countries that are members of the Fourth Lom&eacute; Convention. This took place in September at an initial hearing of a World Trade Organisation (WTO) panel  - convened at the request of a number of competing banana producer nations. African and Caribbean states were permitted to voice their opinion as third part)" in the case, despite an objection from the United States. The EU's banana market arrangements  - notably Protocol 5 of the Lom&eacute; Convention, which sanctions duty-free access  - have twice before come under attack in the Geneva body. Two earlier hearings in the WTO's forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concerned the EU's previous state-to-state regime, and the new single market arrangements which have been in operation since July 1993. The present panel was set up at the request of four Latin American banana producer nations - Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Guatemala - together with the United States which is arguing that its domestic banana companies are losing out. The complainants jointly claim that the tariff quota for Latin American nations, the core of regulation 404/93 establishing the EU regime, discriminates against them. They also challenge the licensing arrangements of the so-called 'framework agreement' made under the GATT framework in 1994 with four Latin American nations (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Venezuela). In return for a bigger share of the EU market, these four agreed to refrain from further challenges in the WTO against the EU's banana arrangements.</P>
    2474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2361
    24752362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel is expected to give its verdict in March 1997. The hearings are taking place behind closed doors, but it is understood that EU and ACP nations can count on the support of Japan - which currently imposes its own quotas on imports of other items and does not want to be challenged for these - and that of India which wants to show solidarity with the ACP countries.</P>
    2476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2363
    24772364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in Geneva, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire's Commodities Minister, Alain Gauze, stressed the heavy dependence of many African and Caribbean states on banana growing. 90% of Dominica's commodity exports are bananas and the crop accounts for 70% of its export receipts and 25% of its Gross Domestic Product.</P>
    2478 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2365
    24792366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One ACP representative in Brussels described the task ahead es 'convincing them (the panel) that the banana regime and regulation 404/93 are required to fulfil the obligations of the EU under the Lom&eacute; Convention and the subsequent waiver.'</P>
    2480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2367
    24812368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The waiver to which he referred was accorded by GATT to the Lom&eacute; Convention's various non-reciprocal trade preferences in 1994, but it is up for renewal at the end of the year.</P>
    2482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2369
    24832370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has already put in a request for its extension until February 29, 2000, coinciding with the expiry date of Lom&eacute; IV.</P>
    2484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2371
    24852372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The WTO was expected to rule on the renewal of the waiver in mid-October ahead of the panel's decision. If the renewal of the waiver were to be disallowed, the EU and ACP 'defendants' at the panel could find themselves on shaky legal ground.</P>
    2486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2373
    24872374<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, the EU has fixed its 1996 tariff quota, allowing a maximum of 2.553 million tonnes of Latin American bananas to be imported into the Union with a tariff of ECU 75 per tonne.</P>
    2488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2375
    24892376<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further quota of 72 440 tonnes has been allocated to this region following tropical storms Iris, Luis et Marilyn. The damage caused by these storms led to the suspension of supplies of bananas from several Caribbean islands. </P>
    2490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2377
    24912378<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU banana production is expected to reach 750 000 tonnes in 1996, while preferential imports from the African and Caribbean members of the ACP group have been fixed at 680 000 tonnes. According to latest predictions, the total consumption of this fruit in the European Union in 1996 will be 4030440 tonnes. </P>
    2492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2379
    24932380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
    2494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2381
    24952382<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    24962383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade and labour standards</P>
    2497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2384
    24982385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahead of the first ministerial meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) to be held in December in Singapore, the European Commission has published a discussion paper (COM (96) 402 final) on whether labour standards should be linked to trade - which could mean sanctions for nations which do not comply with globally recognised labour clauses. What is at stake is to draw up globally recognised criteria and implement them without accusations of protectionism from some developing nations.</P>
    2499 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2386
    25002387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At an informal meeting of EU trade ministers in Dublin on September 18, EC Trade Commissioner, Sir Leon Brittan, said that, in supporting an international code, the European Union had no intention of damaging the competitive advantage of developing nations.</P>
    2501 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2388
    25022389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many Asian countries, who view the move of the EU and of other industrialised nations as veiled protectionism, do not even want the subject broached at the Singapore meeting. However, mention was made of the link between trade and internationally recognised labour standards in the conclusions of the Uruguay Round of GATT in Marrakesh in 1994, which requested that the WTO do more work on this issue.</P>
    2503 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2390
    25042391<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent Commission paper advances the reasons for an international code: 'Workers in certain sectors in particular perceive that their jobs are under threat from imports from countries which allow unfair or unacceptable working practices.</P>
    2505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2392
    25062393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concerns cannot be ignored and should be addressed by the world trading system. Otherwise the perception will be - wrongly - that trade liberalisation is the problem and not the solution to the challenge to all societies to create a higher standard of living for all their citizens.'</P>
    2507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2394
    25082395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It further makes the point that such a policy is in line with others such as the promotion of democracy, respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. The EU has always upheld the view that there is a positive correlation between social progress, economic growth and trade liberalisation. According to the paper: 'There is no question of imposing on developing countries the higher wage levels and better working conditions which pertain in the industrialised world. Nor is this an action designed to re-erect new barriers to trade under cover of a social agenda.'</P>
    2509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2396
    25102397<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU and international bodies are already looking at the kind of global criteria that might be adopted. A report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), published in 1994, as well as the conclusions of the 1995 World Social Summit in Copenhagen, both suggest that freedom of association, collective bargaining, prohibition of forced labour and the elimination of child labour are top of the list.</P>
    2511 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2398
    25122399<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report entitled: 'Trade, Employment and Labour Standards - a study of core workers' rights and international trade', produced this year by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), looks at the options in depth.</P>
    2513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2400
    25142401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeff Atkinson, trade policy advisor for the NGO, Oxfam UK, suggests that initial negotiations should be limited to matters covered in ILO Conventions 87 and 98. The former deals with freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, while the latter is on the right to organise and collective bargaining. He argues that other Conventions, covering such matters as the right to equal renumeration for men and women workers, freedom from discrimination and the abolition of forced labour, depend on the first two. </P>
    2515 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2402
    25162403<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A notable omission from Jeff Atkinson's list is ILO Convention 138 on child labour. He does not feel that this Convention adequately addresses the issue. While international concern has focused on the most abusive forms of child labour such as slavery and prostitution, he points out not all child labour is so grossly abusive. Some forms can bring in money for food and shelter, which would otherwise not be available.</P>
    2517 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2404
    25182405<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that if conditions are right, employment (say on a family farm or business) can contribute positively to a child's development, by providing an informal learning environment in which social and physical skills can develop.</P>
    2519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2406
    25202407<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'To tackle the symptoms, for example by banning child labour, without addressing the underlying cause is likely to be counterproductive', says Mr Atkinson. He argues that it might induce children to seek illegal work in order to survive, or alternatively that they may end up becoming destitute.</P>
    2521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2408
    25222409<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some bodies are already trying to enforce improved standards. Although the ILO cannot implement sanctions, if an ILO member fails to comply with Conventions, a dialogue can be instituted with the defaulting country. It is also running an extensive public campaign against child labour and is assisting the development of social labelling for goods produced which fully respect ILO Conventions.</P>
    2523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2410
    25242411<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under its new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), the EU can remove some trade preferences if goods imported from non-Lom&eacute; developing nations are found to have been made with forced or slave labour. And from January 1, 1998, extra preferences can be given to countries which so request and comply with Conventions 87, 98 and 138. But if the enforcement of a socalled 'Social Clause' does reach the WTO level, some voices are already calling for joint monitoring involving the WTO and that long-time champion of human rights, the ILO. </P>
    2525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2412
    25272413<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    25282414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1996 UNCTAD Report</P>
    2529 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2415
    25302416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slow world growth rate is revealed in this year's annual report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), published in September. The global economy expanded by only 2.4% in 1995 compared with a 2.8% increase in 1994. And production is below what it could be, says the report. On the whole, developing nations achieved higher growth rates than their industrialised counterparts in 1995.</P>
    2531 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2417
    25322418<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1996, world growth is expected to slow further although there will still be 'star performers' in some regions, and particularly slow movers in others. Asia is the continent currently doing best and China has the fastest expanding economy - despite this having slackened in recent years.</P>
    2533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2419
    25342420<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, Africa recorded higher growth than Latin America, according to the Rubens Ricupero, UNCTAD Secretary General. It also managed the first real increase in average per capita income for a long time. This was partly due to commodity prices picking up - they rose 10% on average.</P>
    2535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2421
    25362422<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not such good news for the continent was a drop in private capital flows, notably direct investment. And the growth rate was highly variable across Africa. In some countries it was above 5% but in others, the economic situation was hit badly by political and armed conflicts.</P>
    2537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2423
    25382424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, drought led to lower production in the Sahel. The prospects for 1996 are uncertain according to the report. It noted that even countries whose economies have expanded during 1995 and 1996 will need another ten concurrent years of good economic results to get back to the per capita income they enjoyed 20 years ago.</P>
    2539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2425
    25402426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report highlights the tremendous difficulties facing many of the heavily-indebted, least developed nations. This is despite the fact that a number of donors have recently written off substantial amounts of some countries' public debts while the Paris Club has rescheduled repayments from other nations. Even if the new arrangements are followed through, UNCTAD is predicting that debt will remain a major burden for many countries.</P>
    2541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2427
    25422428<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One worrying factor is the weight of their multilateral debt and bilateral obligations to creditors other than the Paris Club. Multilateral institutions have implemented a number of measures, but these are of very limited scope. The UNCTAD Secretary General is encouraging multilateral creditors in particular, to put more muscle behind their debt relief plans.</P>
    2543 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2429
    25442430<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors of the report are also recommending the establishment of an agency, within UNCTAD itself, to help developing nations achieve trade diversification and industrialisation strategies for economic growth. </P>
    2545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2431
    25462432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    25472433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on NGOs and government relations in humanitarian emergencies</P>
    2548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2434
    25492435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Council is organising an international seminar on the above subject in Oxford, UK, from 12-17 December 1996. The main themes to be covered at the meeting will include:</P>
    2550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2436
    25512437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the actors in humanitarian assistance;</P>
    25522438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - funder and donor policy;</P>
    … …  
    25562442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- conflicts of interest and areas of cooperation between donor NGOs and host governments, and;</P>
    25572443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accountability and evaluation.</P>
    2558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2444
    25592445<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information can be obtained from the Marketing Manager, International Seminars, The British Council, 1 Beaumont Place, GB-Oxford, OX1 2PJ.</P>
    2560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2446
    25612447<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (44) 1B65 316 636, Fax. (44) 1865 57368.</P>
    2562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2448
    25632449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: International. [email protected] </P>
    2564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    2565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    2566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     2450
    25672451<I><P></P>
    25682452<!--
    … …  
    25732457  </Description>
    25742458-->
    2575 </I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2459</I>
    25762460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
    2577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2461
    25782462<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
    2579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2463
    25802464<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: condemnation of the massacre on 19 July</P>
    2581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2465
    25822466<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 23 July 1996</P>
    2583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2467
    25842468<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses grave concern at the deteriorating situation in Burundi especially at the killing of civilians and other gross violations of human rights which continue to be perpetrated in that country. It vehemently condemns the massacre of civilians in the Bugendana camp for displaced persons on 19 July last and deplores the expulsions of Rwandan refugees against their will. This massacre, following as it does those at Gishubi, Kivyuka, Teza, Mutoyi, Songa and Kamenge, represents a new stage in the vortex of violence, action and reaction putting Burundi at risk of being drawn ever further into a full civil war, the effects of which would be catastrophic for the people of Burundi.</P>
    2585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2469
    25862470<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all Burundians to turn away from violence and move singlemindedly along the road to a peaceful and negotiated solution of their problems. It would point to the undertakings given on 25 June 1996 at Arusha during the Summit of Heads of State of the region in favour of dialogue open to all sectors of Burundi's population together with provision of the security measures needed to create the conditions for such dialogue. It would also point out that these undertakings were given formal backing by the Heads of State and Government of the entire continent of Africa when they met from 8 to 10 July at Yaounde under the aegis of the Organisation for African Unity.</P>
    2587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2471
    25882472<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that only compliance with the undertakings given at Arusha and their swift implementation can restore a climate of confidence and prevent Burundi becoming embroiled in a generalised conflict. As it has already stressed in the Council's statement of 15 and 16 July, the EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist in pursuit of the Arusha objectives in order to restore peace and security in Burundi and it supports the efforts of former President Nyerere and the countries of the region to achieve this.</P>
    2589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2473
    25902474<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for reconciliation following the coup d'Etat </P>
    2591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2475
    25922476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 26 July 1996</P>
    2593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2477
    25942478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union shares the deep concern of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and others, about yesterday's military coup in Burundi.</P>
    2595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2479
    25962480<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides to avoid recourse to violence and to take all steps to resolve the crisis by exclusively peaceful means.</P>
    2597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2481
    25982482<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that the main immediate priority is the humanitarian situation. There must be no further loss of life.</P>
    2599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2483
    26002484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An immediate beginning of a national debate is essential, leading to a real process of national reconciliation, founded on democracy and security for all sections of society.</P>
    2601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2485
    26022486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, the EU commends the efforts of former President Nyerere and regional leaders to broker an all-inclusive, negotiated settlement in Burundi, in peaceful conditions, and urges them to examine the possibility of continuing their efforts in this respect.</P>
    2603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2487
    26042488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates its firm commitment to the re-establishment of peace in Burundi. The Union is following developments in the country closely, in active consultation with partners in the UN, with the OAU and others, towards the goal of restoring peace and security in Burundi. The EU Special Envoy, Mr Ajello, who is in the region, is actively assisting in this process.</P>
    2605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2489
    26062490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: doubts about the first round election results</P>
    2607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2491
    26082492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 1 August 1996</P>
    2609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2493
    26102494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses deep concern about the way in which the first round of the presidential elections in Niger on 7-8 July was conducted. In particular, it deplores the decision taken by the Niger authorities to dissolve the independent national electoral commission during the voting process and to replace it with an alternative body. It is the view of the EU that this decision, by the Niger authorities, casts serious doubts on the credibility of the election results. It requests the Niger authorities to explain this decision and why observers found it impossible to assist in gathering and collating the election results.</P>
    2611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2495
    26122496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges the Niger authorities, in dealing with the critical situation which has resulted from their decision, to respect fully the fundamental freedoms of movement, expression and association of the Niger people. It attaches great importance to the restoration of all civil rights.</P>
    2613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2497
    26142498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will examine, in the light of recent developments, its policies of economic and development cooperation with the Niger authorities.</P>
    2615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2499
    26162500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls for the full restoration of democratic civilian government in Niger through transparent processes. Free and fair elections will be crucial in this respect. The EU will continue to follow the situation in Niger closely and in particular the preparation, holding and transparency of the forthcoming legislative elections on 22 September. Iceland, the Central European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
    2617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2501
    26182502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: revision of the Constitution</P>
    2619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2503
    26202504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 6 August 1996</P>
    2621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2505
    26222506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the announcement by King Mswati III of the names of the new Prime Minister of Swaziland and of the Constitutional Review Commission and is pleased that its membership represents all shades of political opinion in Swaziland.</P>
    2623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2507
    26242508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to encourage all members of the Constitutional Review Commission to participate fully in its work and expresses confidence that their endeavours will bring about the adoption of a draft democratic constitution acceptable to the people of Swaziland as a whole. It hopes that the Commission will pursue its task energetically and is ready to offer appropriate assistance to the Commission if it so wishes.</P>
    2625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2509
    26262510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for talks and reconciliation</P>
    2627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2511
    26282512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 19 August 1996</P>
    2629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2513
    26302514<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declarations of 25 June and 5, 15, 23 and 26 July 1996, the European Union reiterates its deep concern about the situation in Burundi. It urges all sides to refrain from violence and to commit themselves to, and work actively towards, a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the crisis.</P>
    2631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2515
    26322516<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to express its support for the regional leaders, the Organisation of African Unity and the former President of Tanzania, Mr Julius Nyerere, in the efforts which they have been making to assist Burundi to overcome peacefully the grave crisis which it is experiencing, and encourages them to continue their efforts to facilitate the search for a political solution.</P>
    2633 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2517
    26342518<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers it essential for a dialogue to be organised without delay, bringing together all of Burundi's political forces without exception, including representatives of civil society, in order to negotiate a democratic, institutional consensus ensuring security for all.</P>
    2635 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2519
    26362520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that national reconciliation and civil peace in Burundi can be restored on a lasting basis only through the participation of all sections of society in the principal institutions and bodies of the State.</P>
    2637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2521
    26382522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides in Burundi to call an immediate halt to the violence and respect the safety of all Burundians.</P>
    2639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2523
    26402524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It reaffirms its willingness to support Burundi's recovery efforts, once the necessary national reconciliation is embarked upon with all the resolve required.</P>
    2641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2525
    26422526<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID FOR REHABILITATION</P>
    2643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2527
    26442528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of the 'European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa', the Commission has recently decided on financing for the following ten projects:</P>
    2645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2529
    26462530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 19.2 million for a development programme covering the management of the public service;</P>
    26472531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 17.2 million for technical assistance to the Ministry of Education;</P>
    … …  
    26552539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 2.3 million for the 'Soul City 1996' project designed to make full use of the mass media to promote health and development issues;</P>
    26562540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 1.9 million to support the 'Truth and National Reconciliation Commission'.</P>
    2657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2541
    26582542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26592543<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
    2660 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2544
    26612545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
    2662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2546
    26632547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
    2664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2548
    26652549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 4.125 million for studies relating to certain road infrastructures. </P>
    2666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2550
    26672551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius: ECU 9 million for an irrigation programme in the northern plains. </P>
    2668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2552
    26692553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica: ECU 1.65 million towards the establishment of refuse treatments systems.  Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
    2670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2554
    26712555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cot&eacute; d'lvoire: ECU 25.5 million to , support the structural adjustment programme. </P>
    2672 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2556
    26732557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 8.6 million for the fourth structural adjustment programme. </P>
    2674 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2558
    26752559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26762560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/rural development</P>
    2677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2561
    26782562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia-Kenya-Uganda: ECU 20 million for a programme to coordinate national activities aimed at achieving sustainable rural development in the region (notably involving the fight against the Tsetse fly)</P>
    2679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2563
    26802564<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26812565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
    2682 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2566
    26832567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean region: ECU 5.9 million towards a post-secondary education training programme in the countries of the OECS (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - Antigua &amp; Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent &amp; the Grenadines). </P>
    2684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2568
    26852569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26862570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
    2687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2571
    26882572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 4.4 million for a social/ participatory programme in the forestry sector as part of the implementation of a national forestry policy. </P>
    2689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2573
    26902574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26912575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
    2692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2576
    26932577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SADC member states: ECU 1.7 million to support the SADC (Southern African Development Community) secretariat in order to strengthen the SADC-EU regional programme. </P>
    2694 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2578
    26952579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA (West Africa Economic and Monetary Union): ECU 12 million to support the regional integration process in the member states (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) </P>
    2696 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2580
    26972581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for a support programme for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.</P>
    2698 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2582
    26992583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    27002584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN INVESTMENT  BANK</P>
    2701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2585
    27022586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first half of 1996, the Bank has provided the following loans from its own resources or in the form of risk capital:</P>
    2703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2587
    27042588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa/Madagascar: ECU 30 million for ASECNA (I'Agence pour la securite de la navigation aerienne en Afrique et a Madagascar) for the renewal and modernisation of air safety equipment. Botswana: ECU 6.6 million to the Botswana Power Corporation to help increase electricity-generating capacity.</P>
    2705 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2589
    27062590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 6 million to SOFITEX (Societe burkinabe des fibres textiles) for the renewal and extension of its cotton ginneries facility. </P>
    2707 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2591
    27082592<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 5.3 million to the Societe Energie du Mali for the financing of the Balingue thermal power station. </P>
    2709 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2593
    27102594<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 2 million to SNIM (Societe rationale industrielle et miniere) for the setting up and operation of a mechanical workshop. </P>
    2711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2595
    27122596<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 1.4 million to the Societe arabe du fer et de l'acier (Arab iron and steel company) for the construction of a foundry.</P>
    2713 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2597
    27142598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 to Grafites de Ancuabe for the exploitation of a graphite mine.</P>
    2715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2599
    27162600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 2 million to the Zambia Venture Capital Fund, set up to subscribe for minority equity stakes in SMEs. </P>
    2717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2601
    27182602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica: ECU 40 million to Telecommunications of Jamaica Ltd for expansion and modernisation of the domestic and international telecommunications network. </P>
    2719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2603
    27202604<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Virgin Islands: ECU 600 000 to the government for the design and feasibility study of the main airport at Beef Island, Tortola. </P>
    2721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2605
    27222606<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga: ECU 3.7 million to the Tonga Telecommunications Commission for the development of the country's domestic telecommunications network.</P>
    2723 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2607
    27242608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    27252609<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
    2726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2610
    27272611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
    2728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2612
    27292613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 5 million for the purchase and distribution of vegetable oils and cereals to refugees living in the country. </P>
    2730 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2614
    27312615<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 420 000 for emergency medical assistance in the fight against cholera in the Mandera region.</P>
    2732 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2616
    27332617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.9 million for emergency food aid to the victims of the continuing factional fighting. </P>
    2734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2618
    27352619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan: ECU 2.5 million for the purchase and distribution of maize in a transit camp close to the capital (154 000 people) and in the south of the country (1 million people), and for the distribution of sorghum to Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the east (200 000 people). </P>
    2736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2620
    27372621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 150 000 to help tackle the cholera epidemic. </P>
    2738 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2622
    27392623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 10 million for a programme to counter malnutrition and improve basic health care, in particular for women and children in isolated locations.</P>
    2740 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2624
    27412625<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat: ECU 380 000 to help evacuees in the wake of the recent volcanic eruption. </P>
    2742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2626
    27432627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
    2744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2628
    27452629<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 1 million for people displaced as a result of drug terrorism and the fighting that has been taking peace between government forces and guerillas. </P>
    2746 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2630
    27472631<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica: ECU 400 000 for the victims of Hurricane Cesar. </P>
    2748 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2632
    27492633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 220 000 to train teachers in order to improve education among repatriated communities in the department of Alta Verapaz. </P>
    2750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2634
    27512635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 440 000 to improve conditions for the social and economic reintegration of uprooted populations (people who have been repatriated, displaced or demobilised) in the department of Rio San Juan. </P>
    2752 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2636
    27532637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Caucasus: ECU 4.18 million for civilian victims of the war in Chechnya and for refugees in Ossetia and Dagestan. </P>
    2754 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2638
    27552639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq: ECU 9 million for food aid, medical provisions, rehabilitation of drinking water systems, sanitary equipment and educational material to assist 3 million people in the north and centre of the country.</P>
    2756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2640
    27572641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen: ECU 150 000 for flood victims. </P>
    2758 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2642
    27592643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cambodia: ECU 290 000 for a programme to construct and distribute artificial limbs to land-mine victims. </P>
    2760 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2644
    27612645<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 220 000 for 'Mon' refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who have fled the violence in their country. </P>
    2762 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2646
    27632647<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 500 000 for medical aid in favour of 'Karen' refugees from Burma (Myanmar). </P>
    2764 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2648
    27652649<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID</P>
    2766 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2650
    27672651<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to allocate the following aid: </P>
    2768 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     2652
    27692653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p90.png"></center><br>
    27702654Table</P>

  • main/trunk/greenstone2/collect/demo/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm

    r2814 r24011  
    1414  </Description>
    1515-->
    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
    1818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
    19 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     19
    2020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
    2121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102396-4</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    25 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     24
     25<B>
    2726<!--
    2827<Section>
    … …  
    3130  </Description>
    3231-->
    33 </B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     32</B>
    3433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Did you know that many kinds of snails are good to eat?</P>
    35 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     34
    3635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Snail meat tastes good and it is also good for you. If you have snail meat to eat, it will help to keep you and your family strong and healthy.</P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     36
    3837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p60a.png"></center><br>
    3938 Family kept strong and healthy</P>
    40 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     39
    4140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If you want to have snails to eat you can get them in different ways.</P>
    42 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     41
    4342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Many people gather wild snails that live nearby. Sometimes you can buy snails at the market or from people who gather them to sell to others.</P>
    44 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     43
    4544<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You can also raise your own snails. This is called snail farming. Today, a great many people all over the world farm snails.</P>
    46 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     45
    4746<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you farm your own snails, you will always have a supply of fresh snail meat whenever you want it.</P>
    48 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     47
    4948<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Then, if your family is not too big and you grow more snails than you need to eat, you can sell what you do not use to your neighbours or at the market.</P>
    50 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     49
    5150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61a.png"></center><br>
    5251 Selling snails at the market</P>
    53 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     52
    5453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. With more food to eat and the money you get by selling snails, you and your family can live better.</P>
    55 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     54
    5655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. However, if your family is big you will need to grow many more snails if you are going to have enough to eat and to sell at the market.</P>
    57 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     56
    5857<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61b.png"></center><br>
    5958 You need to grow more snails if your family is big</P>
    60 <P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
    61 <P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
     59
    6260<B><P></P>
    6361<!--
    … …  
    6765  </Description>
    6866-->
    69 </B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     67</B>
    7068<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need</P>
    71 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     69<DIR>
    7270
    7371<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• enough snails to start your snail farm</P>
    74 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     72</DIR>
    7573
    7674<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61c.png"></center><br>
    7775 Snail</P>
    78 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     76<DIR>
    7977
    8078<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• a place near your house with the right kind of soil and the right amount of water for snails to live and grow</P>
    81 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     79</DIR>
    8280
    8381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61d.png"></center><br>
    8482 A place near your house</P>
    85 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     83<DIR>
    8684
    8785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• the kinds of plants that snails need for food and shelter</P>
    8886<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• the materials to build a pen for the snail</P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     87</DIR>
    9088
    9189<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62a.png"></center><br>
    9290 Plants that snails need; The materials to build a pen</P>
    93 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     91
    9492<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If you have or can get all of these things, you can raise snails.</P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    96 <P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
    97 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     93
     94<B>
    9895<!--
    9996</Section>
    … …  
    104101  </Description>
    105102-->
    106 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103</B>
    107104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. To farm snails is not hard; however, it is quite different from keeping chickens or ducks or from growing crops such as maize, rice, cassava or groundnuts.</P>
    108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    109106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Since farming snails is so different from other kinds of farming, you will have to learn a lot of new things.</P>
    110107<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. One way to learn about snails so that you will be able to farm them is to watch the wild snails that live near you.</P>
    111 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     108
    112109<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62b.png"></center><br>
    113110 Watch the wild snails</P>
    114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    115112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Try to see how they live, how they move and where they go, what plants they like best and what they eat.</P>
    116 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     113
    117114<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. You can learn many things by watching wild snails that will help you later if you decide to start a snail farm.</P>
    118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     115
    119116<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63a.png"></center><br>
    120117 Wild snail</P>
    121 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     118
    122119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Another way to learn about snails is to ask an older farmer who knows a lot about your area. If there are people near you who gather snails to sell to others, they may be able to help you.</P>
    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     120
    124121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. In the next part of this booklet, you will begin to learn some things that you need to know to farm snails.</P>
    125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     122
    127123<B><P></P>
    128124<!--
    … …  
    132128  </Description>
    133129-->
    134 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     130</B>
    135131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. The kind of snails that you can farm are snails that live on land, and there are many kinds of land snails that are good to eat.</P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     132
    137133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. However, some kinds of land snails are not good to eat and they may even make you very, very sick.</P>
    138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     134
    139135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. So, you must be very careful when you choose snails to farm. If you are not sure that a snail is good to eat, do not use it.</P>
    140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     136
    141137<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63b.png"></center><br>
    142138 Do not use snail unless you are sure it is good to eat</P>
    143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     139
    144140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. Now look at the drawings on pages 8 to 11 and you will see four kinds of good snails that live in different places.</P>
    145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     141
    146142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. You may be able to find one of these kinds of snails where you live. Notice that two of them are small and two of them are large.</P>
    147 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     143
    148144<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. The smaller kinds of snails, shown on pages 8 and 9, can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold.</P>
    149 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     145
    150146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. The larger kinds of snails, shown on pages 10 and 11, can often be found in places where it is warm all year round.</P>
    151 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     147
    152148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64a.png"></center><br>
    153149 Helix pomatia</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     150
    156151<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
    157152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
    … …  
    160155<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two to three years if it is well fed</P>
    161156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 30 to 50 eggs each growing season</P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     157
    163158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64b.png"></center><br>
    164159 Helix Pomatia - 30 to 50 small eggs</P>
    165 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     160
    166161<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64c.png"></center><br>
    167162 Helix aspersa</P>
    168 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     163
    169164<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
    170165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
    … …  
    173168<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in one year if it is well fed</P>
    174169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 40 to 170 eggs one to three times each growing season</P>
    175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    176171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64d.png"></center><br>
    177172 Helix aspersa - 40 to 170 small eggs</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     173
    179174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65a.png"></center><br>
    180175 Achatina achatina</P>
    181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    182177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
    183178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
    … …  
    186181<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
    187182<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 100 to 300 eggs one to two times each growing season</P>
    188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     183
    189184<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65b.png"></center><br>
    190185 Achatina achatina - 100 to 300 small eggs</P>
    191 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     186
    192187<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65c.png"></center><br>
    193188 Archchatina marginata</P>
    194 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     189
    195190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
    196191<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
    … …  
    199194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
    200195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from five to ten eggs four to eight times each growing season</P>
    201 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     196
    202197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65d.png"></center><br>
    203198 Archchatina marginata - five to ten large eggs</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     199
    205200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. If you cannot get one of these snails, you may be able to get others very much like them where you live.</P>
    206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     201
    207202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. There are many other kinds of good snails. There may even be several kinds of good snails that are eaten where you live.</P>
    208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     203
    209204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. If snails are eaten where you live, you can farm one of these. Then you will be sure that it is good to eat.</P>
    210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    211 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     205
    212206<B><P></P>
    213207<!--
    … …  
    218212  </Description>
    219213-->
    220 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     214</B>
    221215<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. When you are ready to get snails, perhaps you can get them by gathering wild snails that live near you.</P>
    222 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     216
    223217<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66a.png"></center><br>
    224218 Gathering wild snails</P>
    225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     219
    226220<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Perhaps you can buy them from people who gather wild snails to sell to others.</P>
    227 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     221
    228222<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66b.png"></center><br>
    229223 Buying from one who gathers wild snails</P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     224
    231225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. You may even be able to buy them from another snail farmer.</P>
    232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     226
    233227<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66c.png"></center><br>
    234228 Buying from another snail farmer</P>
    235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     229
    236230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    237231<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never term snails that you buy at the market. Snails at the market may have been washed, kept too cold or hurt and they may die soon.</P>
    238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     232
    240233<B><P></P>
    241234<!--
    … …  
    246239  </Description>
    247240-->
    248 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     241</B>
    249242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. A good place for a snail farm is one where there already are snails. If there already are snails, you will know that the soil and the water in the soil are right for snails to live and grow.</P>
    250 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     243
    251244<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. However, if there are no snails near where you live it does not mean that you cannot raise snails there.</P>
    252 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     245
    253246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. If you have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water, you can bring good snails from another place to start your snail farm.</P>
    254 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    255 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     247
    256248<B><P></P>
    257249<!--
    … …  
    262254  </Description>
    263255-->
    264 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     256</B>
    265257<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Soil is important for snails. Part of the time they live on the soil and part of the time they live in the soil, and to live well, snails need good soil.</P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     258
    267259<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67a.png"></center><br>
    268260 Snail on the soil; Snail in the soil</P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     261
    270262<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. When snails are not on the soil or in the soil, they are on plants which grow in the soil. So, the soil must also be good for the kinds of plants that snails need.</P>
    271 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     263
    272264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67b.png"></center><br>
    273265 Snail on plant</P>
    274 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     266
    275267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. When snails are in the soil, they are resting or laying their eggs. If the soil has the right amount of water, snails will live well, the eggs they lay will hatch well and the baby snails will come out of the soil easily.</P>
    276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     268
    277269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. Snails cannot live in hard soil such as heavy clay soils. When heavy clay soil is too dry, snails cannot dig into it to rest and lay their eggs. When heavy clay is too wet, snails and the eggs they lay may die.</P>
    278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     270
    279271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">38. Snails cannot live in loose soil such as soils that have a lot of sand. Sandy soils do not hold enough water for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
    280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     272
    281273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39. The drawings on the next page show how a snail digs a hole, lays its eggs, closes the hole and how the baby snails come out when they have hatched.</P>
    282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     274
    283275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40. Snails need calcium from the soil to make their shells. All snails grow better and have stronger shells when there is a lot of calcium in the soil.</P>
    284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     276
    285277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41. So, if you are going to farm snails, you must have a good medium soil that has neither too much clay nor too much sand. It must also have enough calcium and the right amount of water for your snails to live and grow.</P>
    286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     278
    287279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    288280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a garden, you can easily tell if your soll is good for snails. If your green leafy vegetables grow well, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil</P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     281
    290282<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68a.png"></center><br>
    291283 Snails will grow well in a garden</P>
    292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284
    293285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 snail digging a hole</P>
    294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286
    295287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68b.png"></center><br>
    296288 1 snail digging a hole</P>
    297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     289
    298290<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 laying the eggs and closing the hole</P>
    299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     291
    300292<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68c.png"></center><br>
    301293 Snail laying eggs</P>
    302 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     294
    303295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
    304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     296
    305297<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68d.png"></center><br>
    306298 Baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
    307 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     299
    309300<B><P></P>
    310301<!--
    … …  
    315306  </Description>
    316307-->
    317 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     308</B>
    318309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42. Snails need plants for both food and sheller. Most kinds of snails use several kinds for food and several other kinds for shelter.</P>
    319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     310
    320311<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69a.png"></center><br>
    321312 Plants for food and plants for shelter</P>
    322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     313
    323314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43. They may also use different plants for food and shelter at different times of the year. Sometimes during the growing season snails eat and find shelter on the same plants.</P>
    324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    325316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">44. Snails usually hide on shelter plants during the day when it is dry and move to food plants to eat at night or early in the morning when they are wet with dew. However, sometimes snails do eat during the day after it has rained.</P>
    326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    327318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45. If you live in a place which has a season when plants do not grow, snails will dig into the soil to rest and they do not eat then.</P>
    328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     319
    329320<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">46. During the growing season snails will eat a lot and grow very fast if they have food plants that they like.</P>
    330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     321
    331322<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">47. So, before you begin you will have to find out exactly what plants they like to eat. To do this you will have to watch snails at night when they eat.</P>
    332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     323
    333324<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69b.png"></center><br>
    334325 See what snails eat at night</P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     326
    336327<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48. You can tell that snails are eating when you see their heads moving as they scrape food into their mouths. You can also tell when a snail has been eating by the holes it makes in the leaves.</P>
    337 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     328
    338329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69c.png"></center><br>
    339330 Snail on leaf</P>
    340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     331
    341332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49. You will also have to find out what plants they like for shelter. To do this you will have to watch snails during the day when they rest.</P>
    342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     333
    343334<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70a.png"></center><br>
    344335 See where snails rest during the day</P>
    345 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336
    346337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50. It is often difficult to find snails on shelter plants because they are hiding. So, you will have to look very carefully.</P>
    347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     338
    348339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70b.png"></center><br>
    349340 Snails are hiding on shelter plants</P>
    350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     341
    351342<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51. In addition to the food plants, there are many other kinds of foods that you can put into a pen for your snails to eat. You will learn about these foods and when you should use them in the next booklet in this series.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     343
    354344<B><P></P>
    355345<!--
    … …  
    360350  </Description>
    361351-->
    362 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     352</B>
    363353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">52. Dew at night in the growing season helps the plants to grow and makes the leaves and the ground wet so that snails can move about.</P>
    364 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     354
    365355<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">53. Rain in the growing season also helps the plants to grow and it cleans the plants of dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about. The dirt that snails leave may make them sick.</P>
    366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     356
    367357<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">54. So, it is very important that the food and shelter plants are wet and clean.</P>
    368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     358
    369359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55. When the leaves are wet, snails move easily, eat more and grow well. When the leaves are dry, snails move very little, or not at all, and they grow poorly.</P>
    370 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     360
    371361<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70c.png"></center><br>
    372362 Wet leaves are good for snails</P>
    373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     363
    374364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56. When it rains and the plants are clean, the snails will be healthy. When it does not rain and the plants are dirty, the snails may get sick.</P>
    375 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     365
    376366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57. Dew and rain also keep the ground moist so that the snails can move easily and dig into it to rest and to lay their eggs.</P>
    377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     367
    378368<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58. In the next booklet, you will be told how to wet the leaves of plants and moisten the ground when it is too dry.</P>
    379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    380 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     369
    381370<B><P></P>
    382371<!--
    … …  
    387376  </Description>
    388377-->
    389 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378</B>
    390379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59. Land that is very wet, low land that does not drain well or land that floods in the rainy season is not good for snail farming.</P>
    391 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    392381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71a.png"></center><br>
    393382 Low, wet land is bad for snails</P>
    394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     383
    396384<B><P></P>
    397385<!--
    … …  
    402390  </Description>
    403391-->
    404 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     392</B>
    405393<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60. Wind during the growing season is bad because it dries the dew and dries out the snails.</P>
    406 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     394
    407395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71b.png"></center><br>
    408396 Wind is bad for snails</P>
    409 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     397
    410398<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61. If you decide to farm snails, try to keep them in a place that is protected from the wind.</P>
    411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     399
    412400<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71c.png"></center><br>
    413401 Snails should be farmed in a place protected from the wind</P>
    414 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     402
    416403<B><P></P>
    417404<!--
    … …  
    422409  </Description>
    423410-->
    424 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     411</B>
    425412<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">62. If you decide to farm snails you must keep them in a pen. Snails kept in a well- built pen will not get away easily and you can watch them and take care of them well.</P>
    426 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     413
    427414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63. After the first year you will need at least two pens. If you decide to farm more snails you may want even more pens. You will learn how to use two or more pens in the next booklet.</P>
    428 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     415
    429416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72a.png"></center><br>
    430417 Two pens the second year</P>
    431 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     418
    432419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">64. In each pen you can give your snails the right kinds of plants for them to eat and to use as shelter.</P>
    433 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     420
    434421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">65. In each pen you can put the food and shelter plants near each other so that the snails can move easily from one to the other.</P>
    435 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     422
    436423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66. Each pen you build must also keep the snails safe from their enemies. Snails have many enemies. You must be careful to protect them from</P>
    437 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     424<DIR>
    438425
    439426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• mice and rats</P>
    … …  
    444431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• frogs and toads</P>
    445432<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• thieves</P>
    446 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     433</DIR>
    447434
    448435<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72b.png"></center><br>
    449436 Protect them from
    450437</P>
    451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    452439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67. A snail pen can be small or large depending on how many snails you want to raise. However, when you first begin, start with a small pen. You will need fewer materials. It will be easier to take care of.</P>
    453 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     440
    454441<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">68. In addition, with a small pen you will need fewer snails to begin. When you know more about raising snails, you can build a bigger pen and get more snails to raise.</P>
    455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     442
    456443<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69. A good size for a pen is 5 x 5 metres. Later in this booklet you will learn how to build a small pen of this size.</P>
    457 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     444
    459445<B><P></P>
    460446<!--
    … …  
    465451  </Description>
    466452-->
    467 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     453</B>
    468454<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70. If you are using small snails like those you have seen on pages 8 and 9 in this booklet, you will need more snails to begin.</P>
    469 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     455
    470456<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">71. If you are using large snails like those you have seen on pages 10 and 11 in this booklet, you will need fewer snails to begin.</P>
    471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     457
    472458<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72. With a pen of 5 x 5 metres (25 square metres) you will need</P>
    473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     459
    474460<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• 150 snails if you use the small kind (6 for each square metre)</P>
    475461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• 25 snails if you use the large kind (1 for each square metre).</P>
    476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     462
    477463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73a.png"></center><br>
    478464 150 small snails; 25 large snails</P>
    479 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    480 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     465
    481466<B><P></P>
    482467<!--
    … …  
    487472  </Description>
    488473-->
    489 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     474</B>
    490475<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73. The amount of snail meat that you will get from small snails will be about the same as what you would get from large snails. This is because you will use many more small snails than large snails and the meat will be about equal.</P>
    491 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     476
    492477<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">74. With one 5 x 5 metre pen you will get 12 to 13 kilograms of snail meat each year and with two 5 x 5 metre pens you will get 24 to 26 kilograms each year.</P>
    493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     478
    494479<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73b.png"></center><br>
    495480 12 to 13 kilograms each year; 24 to 26 kilograms each year</P>
    496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    497 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     481
    498482<B><P></P>
    499483<!--
    … …  
    504488  </Description>
    505489-->
    506 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     490</B>
    507491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75. In the first part of this booklet you have learned many things about snails and farming snails. You have learned</P>
    508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     492<DIR>
    509493
    510494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• why it is good to farm snails</P>
    … …  
    514498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• what kind of soil and how much water in the soil snails need</P>
    515499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• where to keep snails and how many you need to start</P>
    516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     500</DIR>
    517501
    518502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">76. You may also have been able to learn a lot about snails by watching the wild snails near where you live.</P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     503
    520504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77. An old farmer may have told you what he knows about snails. Someone who gathers snails to sell to others or another snail farmer may have helped you to learn.</P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505
    522506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78. So, now that you know a lot about snails it is time to decide if you would like to start your own snail farm.</P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    524508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79. If you would like to begin you will learn exactly what to do in the rest of this booklet and in the next booklet.</P>
    525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    527 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     509
     510<B>
    528511<!--
    529512</Section>
    … …  
    534517  </Description>
    535518-->
    536 <P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
    537 <P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
     519
    538520<P></P>
    539521<!--
    … …  
    543525  </Description>
    544526-->
    545 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     527</B>
    546528<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80. Try to choose a place that is close to your house. That way you will be able to watch your snails, protect them from their enemies and take care of them easily</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     529
    548530<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74a.png"></center><br>
    549531 Close to your house</P>
    550 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     532
    551533<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81. In Items 34 to 41 you were told that to farm snails you must have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water.</P>
    552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     534
    553535<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82. Remember, if green leafy vegetables grow well in your soil, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil.</P>
    554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     536
    555537<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74b.png"></center><br>
    556538 If your garden grows well, so will your snails</P>
    557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     539
    558540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">83. In Items 59 to 61 you were told that low, wet land and wind are bad for snails. So, avoid low, wet places and try to put your snail farm where it is protected from the wind.</P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     541
    560542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75a.png"></center><br>
    561543 Avoid low, wet land; Find a place protected from wind</P>
    562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     544
    563545<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">84. In Item 63 you were told that after the first year you will need at least two pens and later you may want even more. In Item 69 you were told that it is best to start with a small pen of 5 x 5 metres.</P>
    564 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     546
    565547<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85. So, try to find a place where you can put at least two or three 5 x 5 metre pens.</P>
    566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     548
    567549<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75b.png"></center><br>
    568550 two or three 5 x 5 metre pens</P>
    569 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    570 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     551
    571552<B><P></P>
    572553<!--
    … …  
    577558  </Description>
    578559-->
    579 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     560</B>
    580561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">86. Clean the site and prepare the ground a little before the growing season so that you can build the pen in time to plant the food and shelter plants.</P>
    581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     562
    582563<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">87. First, mark out a square of 8 x 8 metres on the place that you have chosen.</P>
    583 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     564
    584565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75c.png"></center><br>
    585566 Mark and clear the 8 x 8 metre square</P>
    586 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     567
    587568<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">88. That way, with a pen of 5 x 5 metres in the centre of the square, you will have a path of 1.5 metres all the way around it (see Item 92). If you have enough land, the path can be even wider.</P>
    588 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     569
    589570<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89. Clear the square of trees, bushes grass, creeping grass and weeds. Take away all of the roots and the big stones that you can.</P>
    590 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     571
    591572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76a.png"></center><br>
    592573 Take away roots and big stones</P>
    593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     574
    594575<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90. Spread the plant material that you have cleaned evenly on the ground and cover the whole square. If there is not enough, bring more plant material from another place.</P>
    595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    596577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76b.png"></center><br>
    597578 Cover the square with plant materials</P>
    598 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     579
    599580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91. When the plant material is dry, burn it. This will kill the insects, the weed seeds and the roots of creeping grass, and rid the ground of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
    600 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     581
    601582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76c.png"></center><br>
    602583 Burn the plant materials</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     584
    604585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    605586<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides and poisons can also be used to rid your pen of insects, mice, rats and other enemies of snails. However, if you use them, do not use them by yourself because they are very dangerous. Ask someone who knows how to use them, such as your extension agent.</P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     587
    607588<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92. Now mark out a smaller square of 5 x 5 metres inside the big square. This is for your first snail pen.</P>
    608 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    609590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77a.png"></center><br>
    610591 Mark the 5 x 5 metre square</P>
    611 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592
    612593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">93. Dig the ground in the smaller square to a depth of 20 centimetres and turn it over well. As you dig, remove any rubbish or roots that you find.</P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    614595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77b.png"></center><br>
    615596 Dig in the ground</P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     597
    617598<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94. While you are digging, if you see any more insects or any of the enemies of snails, bring more dry plant material and burn the ground again. To farm snails, the area must be free of insects, mice, rats and other enemies.</P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     599
    619600<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95. When you have finished digging, the ground in the 5 x 5 metre square should be as smooth and well worked as it would be if you were planting a vegetable garden.</P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     601
    621602<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77c.png"></center><br>
    622603 The 5 x 5 metre square should be smooth</P>
    623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    624605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96. However, do not use any fertilizer, animal manure or compost as you might with a vegetable garden. Fertilizers may burn the snails and animal manure or compost may bring in insects and weed seeds.</P>
    625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    627 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     606
     607<B>
    628608<!--
    629609</Section>
    … …  
    634614  </Description>
    635615-->
    636 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     616</B>
    637617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97. Build a pen for your snails as soon as you can after you have burned the plant material. This is to keep other insects, mice, rats or shrews from getting into your pen.</P>
    638 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     618
    639619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98. A snail pen is a simple fenced- in area and you can build a fence using</P>
    640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     620<DIR>
    641621
    642622<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
    643623<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• woven plant material</P>
    644624<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     625</DIR>
    646626
    647627<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78a.png"></center><br>
    648628 Materials for fence</P>
    649 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     629
    650630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
    651 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     631
    652632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99. A fence of corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets makes the best pen for snails because it keeps out their enemies very well. However, sheet metal or plastic costs a lot of money.</P>
    653 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     633
    654634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78b.png"></center><br>
    655635 A fence of corrugated sheet metal</P>
    656 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     636
    657637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100. If you are going to build a pen using corrugated metal or plastic, you must build it in such a way that the enemies of snails cannot get in between the sheets.</P>
    658 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     638
    660639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     640
    662641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">101. To save money, you can build a fence of woven plant material such as split bamboo. If the woven material is tight, it will keep out enough of enemies for you to farm snails.</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     642
    664643<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79a.png"></center><br>
    665644 Woven material</P>
    666 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    667646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
    668 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    669648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">102. If you can get fine- mesh chicken wire, you can improve a fence that is made of woven material.</P>
    670 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     649
    671650<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79b.png"></center><br>
    672651 Chicken wire</P>
    673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     652
    674653<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103. To do this, first make the fence of chicken wire and then cover it with woven material.</P>
    675 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     654
    676655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79c.png"></center><br>
    677656 First use chicken wire then cover it with woven material</P>
    678 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     657
    679658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">104. The chicken wire will keep out rats and other small animals. The woven plant material will keep most of the insects out and keep the snails in.</P>
    680 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     659
    681660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79d.png"></center><br>
    682661 Keep out small animals</P>
    683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     662
    684663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    685664<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any kind of pen animals such as rats may get in, and this is especially true with pens made only of woven plant material. So, you must always watch for rats and other animals and keep them out.</P>
    686 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     665
    687666<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to build the fence</P>
    688 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     667
    689668<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">105. Build the fence as you would any fence, by driving posts into the ground. Use posts 1.40 metres long. When the posts are in place they should be 1.00 metre above and 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
    690 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     669
    691670<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80a.png"></center><br>
    692671 Drive posts into the ground</P>
    693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     672
    694673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">106. Whatever material you use for the fence of your pen, it should be buried 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     674
    696675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">107. If you are using woven material you will have to change the bottom of the fence when it rots.</P>
    697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     676
    698677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">108. This can be done more easily by making the woven material in two parts, one for the top and one for the bottom. When the bottom part rots, you can change it without having to change the whole fence.</P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     678
    700679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80b.png"></center><br>
    701680 Attach top parts first; attach bottom parts second</P>
    702 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     681
    703682<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping your snails in the pen</P>
    704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     683
    705684<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">109. Many of your snails may crawl over the fence and get out of the pen. If you build a flap on the inside at the top of the fence, it will be more difficult for your snails to get out.</P>
    706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     685
    707686<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">110. However, even with a flap some snails may get out, and for this reason many snail farmers put two flaps on their fence. With two flaps they find that fewer snails get out.</P>
    708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     687
    709688<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81a.png"></center><br>
    710689 With two flaps, your snails will not easily crawl out of the pen</P>
    711 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     690
    712691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    713692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you make your pen using galvanized sheet metal, you will not need flaps. Snails will not crawl on galvanized sheet metal.</P>
    714 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    715694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">111. The drawings show you how to build a 5 x 5 metre pen using woven plant material, with and without chicken wire and how to build flaps to keep your snails in.</P>
    716 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    717696<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81b.png"></center><br>
    718697 How to build a 5 x 5 metre small pen</P>
    719 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     698
    720699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if you are using woven material only, attach it as you were told to do in Item 108</P>
    721 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     700
    722701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82a.png"></center><br>
    723702 Attach woven material</P>
    724 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     703
    725704<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 If you are using chicken wire and woven material, attach the chicken wire first and then the woven material</P>
    726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     705
    727706<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82b.png"></center><br>
    728707 Attach the chicken material first</P>
    729 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     708
    730709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 be sure that the fence cover goes all the way to the bottom of the 0.40- m trench</P>
    731 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     710
    732711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82c.png"></center><br>
    733712 0.40- m trench</P>
    734 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     713
    735714<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 fill in the trench</P>
    736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     715
    737716<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82d.png"></center><br>
    738717 Fill in the trench</P>
    739 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     718
    740719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 attach the flaps to the inside of the pen</P>
    741720<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: use woven material 0.25 m wide for the flaps</P>
    742 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     721
    743722<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 first attach the bottom flap using heavy cord</P>
    744 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     723
    745724<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p83a.png"></center><br>
    746725 Use heavy cord</P>
    747 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     726
    748727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 then attach the top flap</P>
    749 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    750 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    751 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     728
     729<B>
    752730<!--
    753731</Section>
    … …  
    757735  </Description>
    758736-->
    759 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     737</B>
    760738<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112. You have already been told that you should clean and prepare the site and build your snail pen in time for the planting season.</P>
    761 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     739
    762740<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">113. If it has been only a short time since you dug the ground and worked the soil in your pen, you can begin to plant.</P>
    763 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     741
    764742<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">114. If it has been a long time, dig and work the soil again before you plant. However, as you were told in Item 96, do not use fertilizer, animal manure or compost.</P>
    765 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     743
    766744<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">115. Now you can begin to plant the food and shelter plants. Remember that you should use</P>
    767 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     745<DIR>
    768746
    769747<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• plants that grow well where you live</P>
    770748<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• plants that last a long time</P>
    771749<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• plants that snails like</P>
    772 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     750</DIR>
    773751
    774752<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">116. The drawings, show you two ways to plant food and shelter plants in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
    775 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     753
    776754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">117. On pages 50 to 55 you will see some food and shelter plants that snails are known to like. Look at them carefully. Perhaps you can find some of them where you live.</P>
    777 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     755
    778756<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two ways plant food and shelter plants</P>
    779 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     757
    780758<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 if your shelter plants are small, plant your pen like this</P>
    781 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     759
    782760<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84a.png"></center><br>
    783761 Mark three places for small shelter plants</P>
    784 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     762
    785763<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
    786 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     764
    787765<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84b.png"></center><br>
    788766 First plant the shelter plants</P>
    789 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     767
    790768<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if your shelter plants are large, plant your pen like this</P>
    791 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     769
    792770<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84c.png"></center><br>
    793771 Mark only one place for large shelter plants</P>
    794 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     772
    795773<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
    796 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     774
    797775<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84d.png"></center><br>
    798776 Leave a path inside the fence</P>
    799 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    800 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     777
    801778<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RAMPE</P>
    802 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     779
    803780<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85a.png"></center><br>
    804781 Some plants for food</P>
    805 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     782
    806783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rape is one of many kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage. It grows from seed and lasts a number of months. Rape is the best food plant for Helix snails (see pages 8 and 9 in this booklet). Many of the other kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage also make good food plants for snails.</P>
    807 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     784
    808785<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85b.png"></center><br>
    809786 Rape</P>
    810 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     787
    811788<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN SPINACH (Amaranthus)</P>
    812789<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This green leafy vegetable is a good food plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, if you plant African spinach for your snails, they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
    813 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     790
    814791<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85c.png"></center><br>
    815792 African spinach</P>
    816 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     793
    817794<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPAYA</P>
    818795<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that snails can be given food to eat other than the food plants that you have planted in the pen (see also Items 175 to 179 in the next booklet). The tender green leaves and cut- up fruit of the papaya tree are very good for Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, the papaya should not be planted inside the pen.</P>
    819 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     796
    820797<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86a.png"></center><br>
    821798 Papaya</P>
    822 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     799
    823800<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HORSE- RADISH</P>
    824801<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horse- radish is a good food and shelter plant for young Helix snails. However, when they are older they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
    825 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     802
    826803<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86b.png"></center><br>
    827804 Horse- Radish</P>
    828 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     805
    829806<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEAF BEET</P>
    830807<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf beet grows well from seed and lives for one year. It can be used with He/ix snails for both food and for shelter. As a food plant alone it is not the best and you will have to give your snails other food plants as well. However, as a shelter plant it is very good for Helix snails. These snails lay eggs under the beet plants and find shelter around the roots in cold weather.</P>
    831 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     808
    832809<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86c.png"></center><br>
    833810 Leaf Beet</P>
    834 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     811
    835812<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURDOCK</P>
    836813<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burdock grows from seed and lives for more than a year. It grows very slowly and you should plant it as soon as you can so that it can grow big enough for your snails. However, once it has grown it makes a good food and shelter plant for almost any kind of snail.</P>
    837 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     814
    838815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87a.png"></center><br>
    839816 Burdock</P>
    840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     817
    841818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANANA and LOOFAH</P>
    842819<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banana and loofah plants together provide both food and shelter for Achatina and Archachatina snails. Ripe bananas can be cut up and fed to the snails and they can use the loofah plant for food and for shelter. However, your snails will need other food plants as well.</P>
    843 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     820
    844821<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87b.png"></center><br>
    845822 Banana and Loofah</P>
    846 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     823
    847824<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANTAGO</P>
    848825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantago grows well from seed and lasts about two years. It is the best shelter plant for Helix snails.</P>
    849 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     826
    850827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87c.png"></center><br>
    851828 Plantago</P>
    852 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     829
    853830<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASPARAGUS</P>
    854831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asparagus lives for many years and it is a good shelter plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, it is not good for older snails because they are too heavy for asparagus plants.</P>
    855 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    856 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     832
    857833<B><P></P>
    858834<!--
    … …  
    862838  </Description>
    863839-->
    864 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     840</B>
    865841<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118. The food plants must be big enough to feed your snails and the shelter plants tall enough to cover them and to protect them from the sun.</P>
    866 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     842
    867843<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">119. Depending on the kind of snails that you are raising, most plants will be big enough after they have been growing for about five to six weeks or when they have reached a height of 10 to 20 centimetres.</P>
    868 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     844
    869845<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p88a.png"></center><br>
    870846 Plants will grow to a height of 10 to 20 cm.</P>
    871 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     847
    872848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">120. When you are sure that the plants are big enough to provide food and shelter, you can begin to collect the snails and put them into the pen.</P>
    873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     849
    874850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">121. In Booklet No. 34, Farming snails 2, you will learn</P>
    875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     851<DIR>
    876852
    877853<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• how to choose good snails and how to put them in the pen</P>
    … …  
    879855<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• when and how to harvest snails</P>
    880856<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• how to prepare snails for cooking</P>
    881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     857</DIR>
    882858
    883859<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">122. You will also be told some things that you can do to improve your snail farm so that later when you have more experience you can raise more and better snails.</P></FONT>

  • main/trunk/greenstone2/collect/demo/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm

    r17060 r24011  
    1414  </Description>
    1515-->
    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
    1818<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
    19 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     19
    2020<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
    2121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102397-2</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    25 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    26 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     24
     25<B>
    2726<!--
    2827<Section>
    … …  
    3130  </Description>
    3231-->
    33 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     32</B>
    3433<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first twenty- six volumes in FAO's Better Farming Series were based on the Cours d'apprentissage agricole prepared in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire by the Institut africain de d&eacute;veloppement &eacute;conomique et social for use by extension workers. Later volumes, beginning with No. 27, have been prepared by FAO for use in agricultural development at the farm and family level. The approach has deliberately been a general one, the intention being to constitute basic prototype outlines to be modified or expanded in each area according to local conditions of agriculture.</P>
    35 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     34
    3635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the booklets deal with specific crops and techniques, while others are intended to give the farmer more general information which can help him to understand why he does what he does, so that he will be able to do it better. Booklets No. 33 and 34 were added to the series owing to a growing interest in small- scale snail farming for food and profit in many countries where FAO's Better Farming Series is widely used.</P>
    37 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     36
    3837<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptations of the series, or of individual volumes in it, have been published in Amharic, Arabic, Bengali, Creole, Hindi, Igala, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Malagasy, SiSwati, Thai and Turkish.</P>
    39 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     38
    4039<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requests for permission to issue this manual in other languages and to adapt it according to local climatic and ecological conditions are welcomed. They should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.</P>
    41 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    42 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    43 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     40
     41<B>
    4442<!--
    4543</Section>
    … …  
    4947  </Description>
    5048-->
    51 <P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
    52 <P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
     49
    5350<P></P>
    5451<!--
    … …  
    5855  </Description>
    5956-->
    60 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     57</B>
    6158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">123. All of the snails that you choose for your pen must be of the same kind.</P>
    62 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     59
    6360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p093a.png"></center><br>
    6461 All of the snails that you farm must be the same kind</P>
    65 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     62
    6663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">124. You may have found one of the kinds of snails shown on pages 8 to 11 in the last booklet living in your area. You may also have found a different kind of snail.</P>
    67 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     64
    6865<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125. Now you must learn to choose the beat of the kinds of snails that you have found. When you first begin you will need fully grown snails.</P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     66
    7067<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">126. Remember, that all snails are both male and female and all snails lay eggs. So, when you are looking for snails, you can choose any one that is fully grown.</P>
    71 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     68
    7269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">127. You can tell that a snail is fully grown because it has a lip on the mouth of its shell. The drawings below show two fully grown snails with lips.</P>
    73 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     70
    7471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094a.png"></center><br>
    7572 Snails which fill and which does not fill their cells</P>
    76 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     73
    7774<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">128. Look at the drawings again. Notice that although both snails are fully grown, one of them fills its shell and one of them does not.</P>
    78 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     75
    7976<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">129. The snail that does not fill its shell may be sick or it may have lost its water because of dry weather. This snail may not grow well.</P>
    80 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     77
    8178<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">130. Choose only snails that fill their shells. Snails that fill their shells will usually grow well.</P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     79
    8380<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">131. Choose snails that have good, strong shells. Strong shells protect snails from their enemies, and snails with strong shells sell better at the market.</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     81
    8582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">132. Choose the largest of the fully grown snails that you can find from the kind of snail that you are going to farm.</P>
    86 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     83
    8784<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094b.png"></center><br>
    8885 Choose the largest snails</P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     86
    9087<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">133. The larger snails of any kind of snail will be better and healthier and lay more eggs than a snail that is smaller.</P>
    91 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     88
    9289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">134. In addition, the eggs of large, healthy snails hatch better and the baby snails grow bigger and faster.</P>
    93 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     90
    9491<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">135. Later, when you have more experience in choosing snails, you will learn just how large a fully grown snail should be. You will also learn the different colours of the kind of snail that you are farming.</P>
    95 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     92
    9693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">136. Then you can choose snails that are the same size and colour that you want your baby snails to be.</P>
    97 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     94
    9895<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    9996<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you collect your snails, handle them very gently and put them carefully into a container such as a basket so that you can carry them to the pen without hurting them.</P>
    100 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     97
    10198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095a.png"></center><br>
    10299 Handle your snails carefully</P>
    103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    104 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     100
    105101<B><P></P>
    106102<!--
    … …  
    111107  </Description>
    112108-->
    113 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     109</B>
    114110<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">137. Just before you put your snails in the pen, take out all the grass, the creeping grass and the weeds that may have grown while the food and shelter plants were growing.</P>
    115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     111
    116112<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095b.png"></center><br>
    117113 Take out all grass, creeping grass and weeds</P>
    118 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     114
    119115<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">138. Never put snails in a pen in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always put them in the evening when it is cool. This is when they begin to move about and to eat.</P>
    120 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     116
    121117<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095c.png"></center><br>
    122118 Always put snacks in the pen in the evening</P>
    123 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     119
    124120<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">139. If there is no dew and leaves of the plants and the ground are dry, wet them. Items 160 to 165 in this booklet will tell you how.</P>
    125 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     121
    126122<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096a.png"></center><br>
    127123 Wet the plants</P>
    128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     124
    129125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">140. When you put snails in the pen, put an equal number of them in four different places.</P>
    130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     126
    131127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">141. In the last booklet you were told that for a 5 x 5 metre pen you would need 150 snails if you use the small kind, and 25 snails if you use the large kind. So, if you need</P>
    132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     128<DIR>
    133129
    134130<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• 150 snails, put 35 to 40 snails in four places</P>
    135131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• 25 snails, put 6 snails in three places and 7 snails in one place.</P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     132</DIR>
    137133
    138134<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">142. The arrows in the drawing at the top of the next page will show you where to put snails in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
    139 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     135
    140136<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096b.png"></center><br>
    141137 Where to put the snails</P>
    142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     138
    143139<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    144140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you put snails in a pen, never put them near the fence or in a corner of the fence. If you put them near the fence it is easier for them to get out than it is if you put them near the centre of the pen.</P>
    145 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     141
    146142<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096c.png"></center><br>
    147143 Do not put snails in the corner or near the fence</P>
    148 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     144
    149145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">143. The morning after you have put your snails in the pen, look to see that they have all moved. If any of them have not moved, put them under shelter plants.</P>
    150 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     146
    151147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144. If any snails die, take them out and put in the same number of new snails.</P>
    152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     148
    153149<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097a.png"></center><br>
    154150 Take out the dead snails</P>
    155 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     151
    156152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">145. At first your snails will try to crawl out of the pen. During this time, go around the pen each morning and put them back.</P>
    157 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     153
    158154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">146. After about two weeks your snails will become used to their new home and most of them will not try to crawl out.</P>
    159 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     155
    160156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">147. However, it is a good idea, even after the first two weeks, to check from time to time and put back any of the snails that may have got out of the pen.</P>
    161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    162 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     157
    163158<B><P></P>
    164159<!--
    … …  
    169164  </Description>
    170165-->
    171 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166</B>
    172167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">148. When you see a lot of baby snails in your pen, you will no longer need to keep the fully grown snails.</P>
    173 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    174169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">149. So, take out all of the fully grown snails that you first put into your pen. You can either eat them or sell them at the market.</P>
    175 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    176171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097b.png"></center><br>
    177172 Take out all fully grown snails</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     173
    179174<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150. Now, with only the baby snails left, the food plants in the pen will be more likely to last until the baby snails are big enough to harvest.</P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     175
    181176<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">151. Later in this booklet, you will be told when the baby snails are big enough to harvest and how to harvest them.</P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    184 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     177
     178<B>
    185179<!--
    186180</Section>
    … …  
    191185  </Description>
    192186-->
    193 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     187</B>
    194188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">152. After you have put your snails in their pen, watch them carefully to see that they are eating well.</P>
    195 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     189
    196190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">153. If you have given them enough of the right kinds of food plants, they will eat a lot and you will have very little to do for them.</P>
    197 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     191
    198192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">154. However, here are some things that you must do</P>
    199 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     193<DIR>
    200194
    201195<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• wet the plants and moisten the ground</P>
    202196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• take care of the plants</P>
    203197<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• take away the weeds and the creeping grass</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    205 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
    206198
    207199<B><P></P>
    … …  
    212204  </Description>
    213205-->
    214 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     206</B>
    215207<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">155. You have already been told that the leaves of the food and shelter plants must be wet and clean and that the ground must be moist (see Items 52 to 58 in the last booklet).</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     208
    217209<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156. If there is too lime dew and not enough rainfall during the time when the plants and the snails are growing, you will have to water the plants and the ground yourself.</P>
    218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     210
    219211<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">157. If it is dry, you should water the plants and the ground at least every second day. However, if it is very dry, you may have to water them every day.</P>
    220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     212
    221213<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">158. Never water in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always water in the evening at about sunset.</P>
    222214<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">159. If you water when the sun is hot, the snails will begin to move away from the shelter plants and the hot sun may kill them before they can find shelter again.</P>
    223 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     215
    224216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160. An easy way to wet the plants and moisten the ground is by hand. First fill a bucket with water and wrap a piece of cloth around your hand.</P>
    225 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     217
    226218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p098a.png"></center><br>
    227219 Wrap a cloth around your hand</P>
    228 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     220
    229221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">161. Then, dip your hand with the cloth into the bucket of water and gently splash the plants and the ground.</P>
    230 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     222
    231223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099a.png"></center><br>
    232224 Gently splash plants and ground</P>
    233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     225
    234226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">162. Continue to splash the plants and the ground gently until you have watered the whole pen.</P>
    235 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     227
    236228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">163. When you have finished, the leaves of the plants should be wet and the ground should be moist.</P>
    237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     229
    238230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">164. You can tell when the plants are wet enough and the ground is moist enough when you can see your snails moving about easily.</P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     231
    240232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099b.png"></center><br>
    241233 Snails move about easily</P>
    242 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     234
    243235<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">165. Remember: the soil must be moist and not wet in order for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
    244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     236
    245237<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    246238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that if you live in a place that has a dry season when the plants do not grow, snails dig into the ground to rest. Never water at this time or your snails may come out of the ground when they should not.</P>
    247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    248 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     239
    249240<B><P></P>
    250241<!--
    … …  
    255246  </Description>
    256247-->
    257 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     248</B>
    258249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">166. Watch all of your plants to see that they are growing well and that they do not get too tall or too thick.</P>
    259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     250
    260251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">167. Plants that are too tall or thick stop the dew from reaching the leaves and stop the rain from washing away the dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about.</P>
    261 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     252
    262253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">168. If you see that the plants are not being wet or washed by dew or rain, cut them back.</P>
    263 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     254
    264255<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101a.png"></center><br>
    265256 Cut back the plants</P>
    266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     257
    268258<B><P></P>
    269259<!--
    … …  
    274264  </Description>
    275265-->
    276 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     266</B>
    277267<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">169. After your snails are in their pen you must be sure to take away all weeds and especially creeping grass as soon as you see them.</P>
    278 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     268
    279269<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170. Creeping grass grows very fast and so thick that it can kill the food and shelter plants. If this happens, your snails will have no food and no place to find shelter.</P>
    280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     270
    281271<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">171. Taking away weeds and creeping grass when snails are in the pen is very difficult. So, you must be very careful not to hurt them or step on them.</P>
    282 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     272
    283273<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">172. If the weeds and creeping grass get too thick, it may be better to move the snails before you take weeds and creeping grass away (see Item 183 in this booklet).</P>
    284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     274
    285275<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">173. Keep the path around the pen clear of weeds, grass and creeping grass. This will help to keep weed seeds and unwanted plants out of the pen.</P>
    286 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     276
    287277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101b.png"></center><br>
    288278 Keep the path clean</P>
    289 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     279
    290280<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">174. If the path is clean, insects will be less likely to cross it to get into the pen and you will be able to see signs of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    292 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     281
    293282<B><P></P>
    294283<!--
    … …  
    299288  </Description>
    300289-->
    301 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     290</B>
    302291<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">175. There are a number of reasons for giving your snails other kinds of food. Here are a few</P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     292<DIR>
    304293
    305294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• when you have not planted the right kinds of food plants</P>
    306295<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• when you have too many snails for the number of food plants that you have planted</P>
    307296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• when most of the food plants in the pen have been eaten by the snails</P>
    308 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     297</DIR>
    309298
    310299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">176. If you decide for any of these reasons that you must give your snails other kinds of food, here are some foods that snails like to eat</P>
    311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     300<DIR>
    312301
    313302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• the outside leaves of vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower</P>
    … …  
    316305<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• most waste fruit and vegetables</P>
    317306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• cut- up papaya, melon or squash</P>
    318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     307</DIR>
    319308
    320309<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p102a.png"></center><br>
    321310 Food snails eat</P>
    322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     311
    323312<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177. There are many other foods that snails like to eat. If you have some food that you think might be good, try it with your snails and see if they like it.</P>
    324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     313
    325314<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">178. If your snails are not eating their food plants well, you also can try some others. Cut pieces from the plant that you want to try and put them in the pen.</P>
    326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    327316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">179. If you see that your snails like the new food plants better, you can use these plants when you build the second pen.</P>
    328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    330 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     317
     318<B>
    331319<!--
    332320</Section>
    … …  
    337325  </Description>
    338326-->
    339 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     327</B>
    340328<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180. In the last booklet you were told that to farm snails you will need at least two pens.</P>
    341 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     329
    342330<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103a.png"></center><br>
    343331 Two pens needed</P>
    344 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     332
    345333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">181 . With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other to get rid of any enemies that may have got in.</P>
    346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     334
    347335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">182. You can also move your snails to dig the ground and work the soil so that they can dig into the soil to rest and can lay their eggs easily.</P>
    348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336
    349337<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">183. With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other if the weeds and creeping grass get too thick to take away with snails in the pen.</P>
    350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     338
    351339<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">184. You can also plant new food plants when the old ones have been eaten. When you are moving the snails, you can get rid of any of them that have not grown well.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    353 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     340
    354341<B><P></P>
    355342<!--
    … …  
    359346  </Description>
    360347-->
    361 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     348</B>
    362349<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">185. Build your second pen a little before the growing season and exactly one year after you built the first pen.</P>
    363 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     350
    364351<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">186. Begin just as you did before, by cleaning and preparing the ground (see Items 86 to 96 in the last booklet).</P>
    365 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     352
    366353<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">187. However, if you put your second pen near your first pen, be very careful when you burn the plant material not to burn your first pen or harm the snails in it.</P>
    367354<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">188. For this reason it is best to leave an open space of at least 3 metres between your first and second pens.</P>
    368 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     355
    369356<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103b.png"></center><br>
    370357 Be very carefull when you burn the plant material</P>
    371 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     358
    372359<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">189. Now you are ready to build the second 5 x 5 metre pen and to plant the food and shelter plants (see Items 97 to 117 in the last booklet).</P>
    373 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    374 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     360
    375361<B><P></P>
    376362<!--
    … …  
    381367  </Description>
    382368-->
    383 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     369</B>
    384370<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190. When the plants in your second pen have grown big enough to provide food and shelter, you can put in the snails.</P>
    385 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     371
    386372<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104a.png"></center><br>
    387373 When the plants are grown, you can bring the snails</P>
    388 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     374
    389375<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">191. If the snails in your first pen have grown well, you can use some of them for your second pen. So, collect the right number of the biggest and best snails from your first pen to put in your second pen.</P>
    390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     376
    391377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">192. If the snails in your first pen have not grown well, you will have to begin again with new fully grown snails for your second pen.</P>
    392 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     378
    393379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">193. Remember, with your first pen you put in 150 snails if you used the small kind and 25 snails if you used the large kind.</P>
    394 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     380
    395381<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">194. However, different snails lay different amounts of eggs. So with your second pen you may want to change the number of snails that you put in.</P>
    396 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     382
    397383<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">195. If there were too many baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put fewer fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
    398 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     384
    399385<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">196. If there were too few baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put more fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
    400 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     386
    401387<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">197. If you are not sure how many snails to use, it is best to continue to put in 150 if you use small snails and 25 if you use large snails.</P>
    402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     388
    403389<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104b.png"></center><br>
    404390 25 Large snails; 150 small snails</P>
    405 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     391
    406392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">198. Later, when you have learned more about the kind of snails that you are using and how many baby snails they have, you will be better able to judge just how many fully grown snails that you should use.</P>
    407 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     393
    408394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    409395<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not forget to take out all of the fully grown snails that you have put in after you see a lot of baby snails in your second pen (see Items 148 to 151 in this booklet).</P>
    410 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    411 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    412 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     396
     397<B>
    413398<!--
    414399</Section>
    … …  
    419404  </Description>
    420405-->
    421 <P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
    422 <P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
     406
    423407<P></P>
    424408<!--
    … …  
    428412  </Description>
    429413-->
    430 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     414</B>
    431415<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199. If your snails have grown well, some of them will be big enough to harvest about one year after you have first put snails in the pen.</P>
    432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     416
    433417<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200. If you need any snails to put in another pen, collect them first. So, choose the right number (see Items 193 to 198 in this booklet) of the biggest and best snails.</P>
    434 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     418
    435419<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">201. Carefully put these snails into a container so that you can carry them to the other pen without hurting them.</P>
    436 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     420
    437421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105a.png"></center><br>
    438422 Put snails into a container</P>
    439 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     423
    440424<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">202. Now you are ready to harvest the rest of your biggest snails. Remember, the best way to harvest is a few snails at a time when you want some to eat or to sell at the market.</P>
    441 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     425
    442426<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">203. However, harvest all of the snails by the end of the second year so that you can plant the pen in time for the next growing season.</P>
    443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    444 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     427
    445428<B><P></P>
    446429<!--
    … …  
    451434  </Description>
    452435-->
    453 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     436</B>
    454437<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">204. Harvesting snails is done by hand. It is often hard work to find them because they may be hiding.</P>
    455 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     438
    456439<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105b.png"></center><br>
    457440 Harvesting snails</P>
    458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     441
    459442<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">205. The easiest time to find the snails is when the plants are wet, after it has rained or at night when there is dew and they are moving about or eating.</P>
    460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     443
    461444<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">206. You can also put out some of the food that snails like and when they come to eat it, you can collect them easily.</P>
    462 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     445
    463446<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105c.png"></center><br>
    464447 Put out some food</P>
    465 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     448
    466449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">207. When you are harvesting, handle your snails carefully and put them into a container such as a box or basket or a net sack. However, do not put more than 10 kilograms in a container or you may hurt them.</P>
    467 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     450
    468451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106a.png"></center><br>
    469452 Put snails in a container</P>
    470 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    471 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     453
    472454<B><P></P>
    473455<!--
    … …  
    478460  </Description>
    479461-->
    480 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     462</B>
    481463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">208. If you are going to sell the snails, you can carry them to the market in containers like the ones above. However, you must be very careful not to hurt them or break their shells.</P>
    482 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     464
    483465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">209. Remember, snails with clean shells and well- cared- for snails will sell better at the market.</P>
    484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     466
    485467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">210. If you want to keep the snails for you and your family to eat later, you can store them alive in containers filled with material such as sawdust or chopped maize husks.</P>
    486 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     468
    487469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">211. That way you can keep them for as long as six to eight weeks before you use them. The drawings below show you how to store snails this way.</P>
    488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     470
    489471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 a box is a good container to store snails in</P>
    490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     472
    491473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106b.png"></center><br>
    492474 A box</P>
    493 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     475
    494476<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cover the bottom of the box with about 5 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
    495 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     477
    496478<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106c.png"></center><br>
    497479 Cover the bottom of the box with sawdust</P>
    498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     480
    499481<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 carefully put in a layer of snails</P>
    500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     482
    501483<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 cover the snails with about 3 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
    502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     484
    503485<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106d.png"></center><br>
    504486 Cover the snails</P>
    505 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     487
    506488<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 continue to do this until the box is full</P>
    507 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     489
    508490<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: be sure that the top layer of snails is covered</P>
    509 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    511 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     491
     492<B>
    512493<!--
    513494</Section>
    … …  
    518499  </Description>
    519500-->
    520 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     501</B>
    521502<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">212. Before snails can be used you must be sure that there is no food in them. They must be clean inside.</P>
    522 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     503
    523504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">213. Snails that have been stored in a container (see Items 210 and 211 in this booklet) for more than four days will have no food left in them. They are clean inside.</P>
    524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505
    525506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">214. However, snails which have just been taken from the pen have been eating and are usually full of food.</P>
    526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    527508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">215. So, before you can use them you must wait for them to become clean inside. To do this you need only to keep them from eating.</P>
    528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     509
    529510<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">216. Put them in a container where they can get no food but plenty of air. You can use a covered basket or a net sack.</P>
    530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     511
    531512<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107a.png"></center><br>
    532513 Use a covered basket or a net sack</P>
    533 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    534515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">217. Put the basket or sack in a cool place away from the sun. After four days the snails will be clean inside.</P>
    535 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    536517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107b.png"></center><br>
    537518 Put the container away from sun</P>
    538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     519
    539520<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">218. All snails must be washed and boiled just before cooking them.</P>
    540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     521
    541522<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">219. First, put them in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
    542 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     523
    543524<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107c.png"></center><br>
    544525 Put them in clean water</P>
    545 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     526
    546527<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220. After a short time the water will begin 10 turn white and you will know that the snails are being washed inside.</P>
    547 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     528
    548529<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">221. When the water is very white, take the snails out and empty out the old water. Then put them again in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
    549 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     530
    550531<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108a.png"></center><br>
    551532 Empty out dirty water; wash snails again</P>
    552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     533
    553534<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">222. Continue to wash them this way until the water no longer turns white. Then you will know that the snails are completely washed.</P>
    554 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     535
    555536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">223. Now put the snails in boiling water, again with salt and vinegar, and boil them at least five minutes. The snails are now ready to be cooked.</P>
    556 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     537
    557538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108b.png"></center><br>
    558539 Boil snails with salt and vinegar for five minutes</P>
    559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    560541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
    561542<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snail meat can be cooked like any meat or it can be cut into pieces and added to a stew or vegetables. If snails are eaten where you live, there will be many ways to cook them.</P>
    562 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    564 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     543
     544<B>
    565545<!--
    566546</Section>
    … …  
    570550  </Description>
    571551-->
    572 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     552</B>
    573553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">224. After you have been farming snails using two pens for some time, you may find that you and your family could eat or sell more snails if you had them.</P>
    574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     554
    575555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">225. You can raise more snails by building another pen. You can either build another 5 x 5 metre pen or you can build a still bigger pen.</P>
    576 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     556
    577557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">226. You can also raise more snails by taking better care of the snails that you have. If you take better care of your snails, year after year they will become bigger, healthier and stronger and produce more baby snails.</P>
    578 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     558
    580559<B><P></P>
    581560<!--
    … …  
    585564  </Description>
    586565-->
    587 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     566</B>
    588567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">227. Perhaps the most important thing that you can do to improve your snail farm is to build a third pen.</P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     568
    590569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109a.png"></center><br>
    591570 Build a third pen</P>
    592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     571
    593572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">228. Up until now, using only two pens, you have had to use both of them all of the time so that you could take fully grown snails from one after you had harvested the other.</P>
    594 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     573
    595574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109b.png"></center><br>
    596575 Using two pens</P>
    597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     576
    598577<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">229. Today, farmers know that it is not good to grow the same crops in the same place all of the time.</P>
    599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     578
    600579<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">230. This is also true if you grow the same food and shelter plants in the same pen all of the time.</P>
    601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     580
    602581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">231. However, if you plant vegetables in one of your three pens for a year, the vegetables will grow well because of the snail manure in the soil. Afterwards, your food and shelter plants will also grow better because the soil has had a rest.</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     582
    604583<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">232. Also, if you raise snails in the same place all of the time, the sicknesses that they may get would do more harm year after year.</P>
    605 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     584
    606585<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">233. So, if you plant something else for a year or two and then start with snails again, they will be less likely to get sick.</P>
    607 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     586
    608587<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">234. The diagram below shows you how to improve a snail farm by planting a vegetable garden in each pen from to time.</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     588
    610589<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110a.png"></center><br>
    611590 Diagram</P>
    612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    613 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     591
    614592<B><P></P>
    615593<!--
    … …  
    620598  </Description>
    621599-->
    622 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600</B>
    623601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235. You may want to build a still bigger pen for your third pen so you can grow many more snails.</P>
    624 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    625603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">236. If you build a 5 x 10 metre pen, you can grow two times as many snails. If you build a 10 x 10 metre pen, you can grow four times as many snails as you did in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
    626 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     604
    627605<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110b.png"></center><br>
    628606 Pens</P>
    629 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     607
    630608<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">237. However, building a bigger pen is a lot more work and you will need</P>
    631 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
     609<DIR>
    632610
    633611<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• more land</P>
    … …  
    635613<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• more food and shelter plants</P>
    636614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• more fully grown snails to begin</P>
    637 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
     615</DIR>
    638616
    639617<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">238. You must also be sure that you and your family have enough time to take care of a bigger pen.</P>
    640 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     618
    641619<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">239. If you do decide to build a bigger pen, build it exactly the same way that you built your first 5 x 5 metre pen (see pages 43 to 46 in the last booklet).</P>
    642 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     620
    643621<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111a.png"></center><br>
    644622 Building a bigger pen</P>
    645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    646 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     623
    647624<B><P></P>
    648625<!--
    … …  
    653630  </Description>
    654631-->
    655 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     632</B>
    656633<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">240. The better you understand the snails that you are farming, the better you can take care of them. So, you should always watch them and learn as much as you can.</P>
    657 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     634
    658635<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">241. When you have learned the exact kinds of food plants that your snails like to eat, you will see that they grow well.</P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     636
    660637<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242. Then, if you always choose the biggest and best snails each time you begin, you will improve the quality of the snails that you are farming.</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     638
    662639<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">243. So, with bigger and better snails and with more pens or bigger pens, you will be able to raise many more snails to eat or to sell and you arid your family will be able to live better.</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     640
    664641<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111b.png"></center><br>
    665642 Your family will be able to live better</P>

  • main/trunk/greenstone2/collect/demo/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm

    r2814 r24011  
    1414  </Description>
    1515-->
    16 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     16</B>
    1717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P>
    18 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     18
    1919<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">@ 1995 The Intentional Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK</P>
    20 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     20
    2121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1995</P>
    22 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     22
    2323<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Development in Practice series publishes reviews of the World Bank's activities in different regions and sectors. It lays particular emphasis on the progress that is being made and on the policies and practices that hold the most promise of success in the effort to reduce poverty in the developing world.</P>
    24 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     24
    2525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book is a product of the staff of the World Bank. and the judgments made herein, do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.</P>
    26 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     26
    2727<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo credits: Maurice Asseo</P>
    2828<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congers Cataloging-in-Publication Data</P>
    2929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toward gender equality: the role of public policy.  p. cm-(Development in practice)</P>
    30 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     30
    3131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Includes bibliographer references (p. 70)</P>
    32 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     32
    3333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 0-8213-3337-2</P>
    3434<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Women-Government policy. </P>
    … …  
    3636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sex discrimination against women. </P>
    3737<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Economic development.</P>
    38 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     38
    3939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Series:</P>
    4040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development in practice (Washington. D.C.)</P>
    … …  
    4242<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">305.4-dc20 95-631</P>
    4343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIP</P>
    44 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    45 <B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    46 <P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     44
    4745<!--
    4846<Section>
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    5149  </Description>
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    53 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    54 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     51</B>
    5552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P>
    56 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     53
    5754<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In low-income countries women are often denied health care and basic education. Worldwide. women face limited access to financial services, technology. and infrastructure. They are locked into relatively low-productivity work. In addition to performing household tasks and child-rearing duties, women work longer hours for lower pay than most men. And. most discouraging of all. hundreds of thousands of women each year are subject to gender-related violence.</P>
    58 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     55
    5956<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persistent inequality between women and men constrains a society's productivity and, ultimately slows its rate of economic growth. Although this problem has been generally recognized evidence on the need for corrective action is more controlling today than ever.</P>
    60 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     57
    6158<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written for the Fourth World Conference on Women is intended as a reference to strategies for promoting gender equality and. consequently enhancing economic efficiency. It pulls together evidence, including case studies, that demonstrates the need for governor action to improve the economic status of women. It points out how public policy can and should support services and infrastructure that provide the highest social returns and that are most heavily used by women. The report also aims to stimulate creative solutions to the problem of gender inequality by high lilting innovative and sometimes not obvious strategies that have proved successful. A study in Morocco, for instance, shows that paving public roads to schools increases by 40 percent the probability that local girls will attend classes.</P>
    62 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     59
    6360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy reform that provides an enabling environment for economic growth goes hand in hand with investing in people. The success of one strategy draws on the success of the other. No efforts at gender equality. however, can be successful without the participation of women themselves.</P>
    64 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     61
    6562<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the international community gathers in Beijing for the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank stands ready to assist client governments in response to the challenges ahead. The Bank believes that by advancing gender equality, governments can greatly enhance the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
    66 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     63
    6764<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P>
    68 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    69 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    70 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     65
     66<B>
    7167<!--
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    78 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     74</B>
    7975<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P>
    80 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     76
    8177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background papers for the report were prepared by team members and by Anjana Bhushan; Lynn Brown and Lawrence Haddad; Florencia Castro-Leal, with Ignacio Tavares and Ramon Lopez; Roberta Cohen; Monica Fong: Roger Key, with Beverly Mullings; Andrew Mason; and Veena Siddharth.</P>
    82 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     78
    8379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An external review group and a Bankwide advisory committee provided valuable guidance at all stages of the report's preparation. Kalpana Bardhan. Pranab Bardhan, Nancy Folbre. and T. Paul Schultz were the external reviewers. Harold Aldennan, Jean-Jacques Dethier, Louise Fox, Sunita Gandhi, Chris Grootaert, Jeffrey Hammer, Tariq Husahl, Elizabeth King, Augusta Molnar, Helena Ribe, and Paula Valad made up the advisory committee. The report was edited by Jo Bischoff, Richard M. Crum, and Fiona Mackintosh; Benjamin Crow provided word-processing and graphics support.</P>
    84 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     80
    8581<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also reflects the contributions of the participants in consultations held with nongovenamental organizations on March 1S, 1995, in New York. Data supplied by the United Nations and its agencies. particularly the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Statistical Office, and the World Health Organization, were invaluable for the preparation of the report.</P>
    86 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     82
    8783<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P>
    88 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    89 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    90 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     84
     85<B>
    9186<!--
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    98 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    9994<B><P></P>
    10095<!--
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    10499  </Description>
    105100-->
    106 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     101</B>
    107102<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P>
    108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     103
    109104<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy rate. The proportion of the adult population that can read or write. This indicator is not always accurate because it is self-reported and represents past investments in schooling. It is often defined only with respect to selected languages and may not take into account the progress being made in many countries through literacy campaigns.</P>
    110 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     105
    111106<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy AT BIRTH The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain unchanged throughout the child's life.</P>
    112 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     107
    113108<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P>
    114 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    115 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     109
    116110<B><P></P>
    117111<!--
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    122116  </Description>
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    124 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     118</B>
    125119<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P>
    126 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     120
    127121<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data used in this report cover a range of time periods and are from more than 100 countries (both developing and industrial).</P>
    128 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     122
    129123<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, geographic regions are those used by the World Bank in its analytical and operational work and are defined as follows:</P>
    130 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     124
    131125<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sub-Saharan  Africa countries south of the Sahara except Africa.</P>
    132 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     126
    133127<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia and the Pacific: low- and middle-income economies of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.</P>
    134 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     128
    135129<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe and Central Asia. middle-income European countries and the countries that formed the former Soviet Union.</P>
    136 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     130
    137131<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America anti the Caribbean all American and Caribbean economies south of the United States.</P>
    138 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     132
    139133<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East and North Africa all the economies of North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
    140 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     134
    141135<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P>
    142 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    143 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     136
    144137<B><P></P>
    145138<!--
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    150143  </Description>
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    152 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     145</B>
    153146<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P>
    154 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     147
    155148<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• The causes of gender inequality are complex, linked as they are to the intrahousehold decisionmaking process. However the decisions are made. the intrahousehold allocation of resources is influenced by market signals and institutional norms that do not capture the full benefits to society of investing in women. Low levels of education and training. poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources depress women's quality of life and hinder economic efficiency and growth.</P>
    156 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     149
    157150<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• It is therefore essential that public policies work to compensate for market failures in the area of gender equality. These policies should equalize opportunities between women and men and redirect resources to those investments with the highest social returns. Of these investments. female education, particularly at the primary and lower-secondary level, is the most important, as it is the catalyst that increases the impact of other investments in health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.</P>
    158 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     151
    159152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P>
    160 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    161 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     153
    162154<B><P></P>
    163155<!--
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    168160  </Description>
    169161-->
    170 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     162</B>
    171163<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P>
    172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     164
    173165<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• In 1960. for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school. there were 65 girls. In 1990 the ratio had risen to 85.</P>
    174 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     166
    175167<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• In 1980 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 7.3 years. By 1990 this figure had Increased to 8.4 years.</P>
    176 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     168
    177169<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Since the 1950s the female labor force has grown twice as last as the male labor force. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of women over 15 years of age are now in the labor force; in developing countries women account for 30 percent of the labor force (These figures. it should be noted, do not fully reflect women's participation in the informal sector as unpaid family members in agriculture.)</P>
    178 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     170
    179171<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless. inequalities between men and women persist in many important areas.</P>
    180 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     172
    181173<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Despite women s biological advantage, their mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
    182 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     174
    183175<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Traditionally women are employed in lower-pay jobs and in a narrower range of occupations than are men. Women's wages are typically only 60-70 percent of wages earned by men.</P>
    184 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     176
    185177<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P>
    186 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    187 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     178
    188179<B><P></P>
    189180<!--
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    194185  </Description>
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    196 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     187</B>
    197188<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P>
    198 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     189
    199190<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities in the allocation of household resources matter because education, health. and nutrition are strongly [hiked to well-being, economic efficiency. and growth. Low levels of educational attainment and poor health and nutrition aggravate poor living conditions and reduce an individual's capacity to work productively. Such economic inefficiency represents a significant loss to society and hampers future economic growth.</P>
    200 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     191
    201192<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social returns to investments in women's education and health  a? e significantly greater than for similar investment in men.</P>
    202 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     193
    203194<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The social and economic losses are greatest when women are denied access to basic education and health care. Data from around the world show that private returns to investments in education are the same for women as for men and may even be marginally higher (Psacharopoulos 1994). More importantly. social returns (that is, total benefits to society) to investment in women's education and health are significantly greater than for similar investments in men, largely because of the strong correlation between women's education, health, nutritional status. and fertility levels and the education. health, and productivity of future generations. These correlation are even stronger when women have control over the way resources are allocated within the household.</P>
    204 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     195
    205196<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wage differentials between women and men in the market are closely linked to educational levels and work experience. since on average. women earn 30-40 percent less than teen' it is not surprising that fewer women than men participate in the labor force. This wage disparity, reinforced by discriminality institutional norms, in turn influences the intrahousehold division of resources. A vicious circle ensues as households invest less in daughters than in sons in the belief that investment in girls yields fewer benefits. As a result. many women are unable to work outside the household because they lack the education or experience that men have.</P>
    206 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     197
    207198<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision not to participate in the labor force does not necessarily reflect a woman's own choice, no' does it always correspond to the optimum use of household resources. Furthermore. the market wage does not take into account the social benefits of educating and hiring women. Discrimination in households and in the market carries not only private costs for individuals and households but social costs for society as well.</P>
    208 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     199
    209200<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public policies for reducing gender inequalities are therefore essential for counteracting market failure and improving the well-being of all members of society. Investing in women's education and health expands their choices in labor markets and other income-generating activities and increases the rate of return on a household's most valuable asset-its labor.</P>
    210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     201
    211202<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision to allocate women's time to the type of non wage work women typically carry out within the household. such as child care. food preparation, and, in low-income countries especially, subsistence farming and the collection of fuel wood and water, has less to do with economics than with social conventions and norms. These nones can have a strong influence on the household division of labor, even in industrial economies, where women's levels of human capital are equal to-and some times higher than those of most men</P>
    212 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     203
    213204<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economy pays to this inequality in reduced labour productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow</P>
    214 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     205
    215206<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether this division of labor is appropriate is, essentially, for society to decide. However. there is no doubt that women's entry into the labor market and other spheres of the economy is directly affected by the extensive amounts of time they traditionally devote to household maintenance and family care. Most men do not make similar allocations of time in the home. Such inequality constrains women's employment choices and can limit girls' enrollment in schools. The economy pays for this inequality in reduced labor productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow. Public policy can address inequalities in the household division of labor by supporting initiatives that reduce the amount of time women spend doing unpaid work. Examples of such interventions include improved water and sanitation services, rural electrification, and batter transport infrastructure.</P>
    216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     207
    217208<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constraints on female employment opportunities arising from the household division of labor are compounded by institutional norms operating within the labor market. Although overt wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers frequently segregate jobs or offer less training to women workers. Employers often perceive the returns to investing in women workers as lower than those for men mainly because of women's primary role in childbearing.</P>
    218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     209
    219210<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P>
    220 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     211
    222212<B><P></P>
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    230 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     220</B>
    231221<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P>
    232 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     222
    233223<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Modifying the legal and regulatory framework to ensure a opportunities </P>
    234224<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Ensuring macroeconomic stability and improving, microeconomic incentives</P>
    235225<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Redirecting public policies and public expenditures to those investments with the highest social returns</P>
    236226<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">• Adopting targeted interventions that correct for gender inequalities at the micro-level.</P>
    237 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     227
    238228<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the law to eliminate gender discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important first step. However. legal reform by itself does not ensure equal treatment. Further public action is required to make sure that gender-neutral laws are enforced at the national and local levels.</P>
    239 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     229
    240230<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound economic policies and well-functioning markets are essential for growth, employment generation, and the creation of an environment in which the returns to divesting in women and owls can he fully realized. Economic instability and price distortions can hinder the process. Consequently. sound macroeconomic management is critical. In general. two sets of policies are necessary: one emphasizing macroeconomic stability and the elimination of price distortions. the other focusing on labor-demanding growth and a reorientation in public spending toward basic services with high social returns- such as education. health care and water supply.</P>
    241 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     231
    242232<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequalities in the distribution of the benefits of public spending frequently arise because of a bias within households that limits women's access to publicly provided services. In addition, the services provided by public spending often are of less benefit to women than to men. Public policy can help remedy this problem by rearranging expenditure priorities among sectors and within the social sectors. It can ensure support for those services and types of infrastructure that offer the highest social returns to public spending and that are most heavily used by women and children. such as water supply anti sanitation services and rural electrification.</P>
    243 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     233
    244234<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase  internal efficiency</P>
    245 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    247 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     235
     236<B>
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    256 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     245</B>
    257246<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
    258 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    259 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    260 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     247
     248<B>
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    268 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    269 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     256</B>
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    277 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     264</B>
    278265<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P>
    279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    280 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     266
    281267<B><P></P>
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    289 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     275</B>
    290276<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P>
    291 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     277
    292278<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
    293279 School enrollment ratios in developing countries </P>
    294 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     280
    295281<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest available figures show that 77 million girls of primary school age (6-11 years) are not in school, compared with 52 million boys (figure 1.3). Moreover, even these gross enrollment rates often mask high absenteeism and high dropout rates. Dropout rates are notably high in low-income countries but vary by gender worldwide and within regions. The rates for girls tend to be linked to age, peaking at about grade 5 and remaining high at the secondary level (Herz and others 1991) Cultural factors, early marriage, pregnancy, and household responsibilities affect the likelihood that girls will remain in school.</P>
    296 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     282
    297283<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gross enrollment rate is an acceptable indicator of progress in education, most studies use literacy rates as an indicator of well-being. Overall illiteracy rates have decreased among adults in low- and middle-income countries, but the percentage of illiterate women in the world is still higher than the percentage of illiterate men. Older women constitute the largest share of the illiterates in the world today, a consequence of past inequalities in access to education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more than 70 percent of women age 25 and older are illiterate (United Nations 1991).</P>
    298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     284
    299285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At post-secondary levels. where the gap in enrollment between women and men is wider, there is implicit "gender streaming," or sex segregation, by field of study, even in areas with snore female than male enrollees. Gender streaming. which is widespread in both developing and industrial countries, prevents women from acquiring training in agriculture, forestry, fishing, "hard" sciences, and engineering (figure 1.4).</P>
    300 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     286
    301287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p17.png"></center><br>
    302288 Expected years of schooling </P>
    303 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    304 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     289
    305290<B><P></P>
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    313 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     298</B>
    314299<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
    315 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     300
    316301<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the reproductive period the most Important causes of morbidity and mortality among women are high fertility and abortion rates, vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), genital mutilation. and gender violence. Each year, about 500,000 women worldwide die from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Maternal mortality ratios for developing and industrial countries vary greatly: the rates in parts of South Asia are among the world's highest, in some cases exceeding 1,500 per 100.000 live births. In Sub-Saharan Africa where the ratio is 700 maternal deaths per 100.000 live births, a woman runs a 1 in 22 lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes, but in northern Europe the risk falls to 10 in 100,000 (United Nations 1993). In the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, the rates are around 40 to 50 per 100,000 live births</P>
    317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     302
    318303<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p18.png"></center><br>
    319304 Figure 1.3 children not in school 1990 </P>
    320 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     305
    321306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major cause of maternal deaths is complications from unsafe abortions. Abortion-related deaths are highest in South and Southeast Asia. followed by Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. Lack of access to contraceptives can mean that abortion, is used as a form of birth control. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia abortions are more numerous than live births (World Bank 1994b), and abortion rates were as high as 1.76 per live birth in Russia prior to the transition.</P>
    322 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     307
    323308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As increasing numbers of women become aware of and learn to use contraceptives, total fertility rates are falling worldwide. The exception is Sub-Saharan Africa where the total fertility rate averaged 6.4 between 1985 have been infected by HIV. The World Health organization (WHO 1994) estimates that more than 13 million women will have been infected by HIV by 2000 and that about 4 million of that number will have died (figure 1.5 In Atrica, where 10 million adults are infected with the virus, ode-half of all newly infected adults are women, and more than 5 million are women of childbearing age. In Asia almost half of all adults newly infected with the virus are women, compared with less than 25 percent just six years ago.</P>
    324 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     309
    325310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p19.png"></center><br>
    326311 Figure 1.4 fields of study</P>
    327 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     312
    328313<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p20.png"></center><br>
    329314  Figure 1.5 HIV infected women 1995 </P>
    330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     315
    331316<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mortality risk for females is high during the reproductive years. but it is even higher during infancy and early childhood. Between 1962 and 1992 INFANT mortality in the developing world decreased by 50 percent (UNICEF 1993 However, in seventeen of the twenty-nine developing countries for which recent survey data are available, female children age 1-4 were found to have higher mortality rates than male children. despite girls? biological advantage (World Bank 1994b). In many of these countries the underlying cause of high mortality among girls is the parents' bias toward boys, who receive the best food and medical care.</P>
    332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     317
    333318<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P>
    334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    335 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     319
    336320<B><P></P>
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    344 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     328</B>
    345329<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P>
    346 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     330
    347331<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole. labor force participation rates for women are lower than those for men (figure 1.6). However. these differences are often exaggerated because the definition of the participation rate fails to capture many aspects of women's work, particularly time spent on childbearing, childbearing. and other household tasks. Men are usually in the labor force throughout the prime working years (age 20-60), and their participation rates are typically more than 90 percent in virtually every country. Female participation rates vary widely across countries. In 1990, for every ten men in the labor force there were two women in the Middle East and North Africa, three in South Asia. six in Sub-Saharan Africa, and seven in Southeast Asia (United Nations 1991). Worldwide, 41 percent of women age 15 years or over are in the labor force, but in developing countries the corresponding figure is 31 percent.</P>
    348 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     332
    349333<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These numbers are deceptive, however, because they do not take into account the agricultural work for which women in developing countries are responsible within the family For example, the Dominican census of 1981 reported that only 21 percent of rural women participated in the labor force, but just three years later a special study suggested a figure of 81 percent. The census had omitted such activities as cultivating gardens and caring for domestic animals In India different definitions of what constitutes "work" have resulted in estimated participation rates as low as 13 percent and as high as 88 percent (Beneria 1992).</P>
    350 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     334
    351335<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tens of Millions of Women Suffer Female Genital Mutilation.</P>
    352 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     336
    353337<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.1 female genital mutilation</P>
    354 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     338</B></FONT>
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    … …  
    419403</TABLE>
    420404
    421 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     405<FONT SIZE=2>
    422406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sri Lanka's Dry Zone, Women Work Longer Hours than Men.</P>
    423 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     407
    424408<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.2 distribution of monthly work hours per month)</P>
    425 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     409</B></FONT>
    426410<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
    427411<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
    … …  
    510494</TABLE>
    511495
    512 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     496<FONT SIZE=2>
    513497<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are usually employed in different sectors than men. Most of women's nonagricultural employment is in the service sector. but in developing countries female employment in manufacturing has been increasing and is catching up with female employment in services (ILO/ INSTRAW 1985). Women in manufacturing tend to be concentrated in only a few sub sectors: more than two-thirds of the global labor force in garment production is female. and this subsector absorbs almost one-fifth of the female labor force in manufacturing (UNIDO 1993). Men's employment is more evenly distributed across other sectors such as mining manufacturing, construction, utilities, and transport.</P>
    514 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     498
    515499<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over their lifetime, women change their employment status more often than do men. They are also more likely to be self-employed or employed in occupations with flexible house such as subcontracted home work. Regardless of the sector in which they are employed, women tend to work in a narrow range of occupations. Only a few women are in high-paying jobs or in positions with significant responsibility. Nearly two-thirds of the women in manufacturing ate laborers, machine operators. and production workers; only 5 percent ate professional and technical workers and only 2 percent are administrators and managers (UNIDO 1993). However. there are regional differences: women occupy nearly 60 percent of clerical, sales. and service jobs in Latin America and the Caribbean but fewer than 20 percent of similar positions in South Asia North Africa. and the Middle East (figure 1.7).</P>
    516 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     500
    517501<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
    518502 Figure 1.6 rates of participation in the labor force by gender</P>
    519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     503
    520504<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wages paid to women are typically about 60-70 percent of those paid to men. About one-quarter of the gender wage gap is explained by differences in educational levels, labor market experience, and other human capital'' characteristics (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1992 Horton 1994). The gender wage gap can also be explained in part by women's lower participation in the labor market-a consequence of domestic and other demands on their time and, possibly, of discriminatory employment practices.</P>
    521 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     505
    522506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant changes in the global economy have affected patterns of employment and working conditions for men and women worldwide. "Globalization" is associated with the deregulation of product and labor markets, with regionalization. and with the liberalization of international trade. In turn. these processes at-e associated with increased female participation in the labor force and with the at-owing "casualization'' of employment, as seen in the growth of part-time work in industrial economies. However, the net effect of globalization on women workers is not yet clear. Growth in the international traded service sector (for example, banking and telecommunications) seems to have offered women in developing countries greater employment opportunities. In addition, the participation rate of women in manufacturing jobs has increased faster than that of men. Women's average participation in the manufacturing labor force is now around 30 percent for both developing and industrial countries.</P>
    523 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     507
    524508<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24.png"></center><br>
    525509 Figure 1.7 types of jobs held by women </P>
    526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     510
    527511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, the number of women employed in export manufacturing has been increasing rapidly, even though this sector employs only a small fraction of all women workers. In Mexico, for example, the number of women employed in export manufacturing rose by nearly 15 percent a year in the 1980s (Jurisman and Moreno 1990). However, employment in this sector has been increasing more rapidly for men than for women, partly because of</P>
    528 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     512
    529513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">technological upgrading over time and partly; because women are less educated and tend to remain in low-skill occupations (Baden 1992).</P>
    530 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     514
    531515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women now account for a growing share ret wage employment they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before</P>
    532 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     516
    533517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite persistent gender inequalities in the labor market. some recent trends  are encouraging. Increasing educational opportunities and decreasing fertility  rates have fed to an increase in the number of women entering the labor market. since the 1950s the female labor force has expanded twice as fast as the male  labor force. Women now account for a growing share of wage employment. and they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before The narrowing of the gender gap in labor force participation is enabling women to accumulate the work experience necessary tot- improving their job opportunities and increasing their amines. In the formal sector more and more women are working in occupations and sectors once dominated by men. and in many countries women s wages relative to men s have increased over time</P>
    534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     518
    535519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P>
    536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    537 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    538 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     520
     521<B>
    539522<!--
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    547 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    548 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     530</B>
    549531<B><P></P>
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    556 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     538</B>
    557539<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P>
    558 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     540
    559541<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality.  higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P>
    560 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     542
    562543<B><P></P>
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    570 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     551</B>
    571552<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P>
    572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     553
    573554<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household decisions about the allocation of resources have a profound effect on the schooling, health care, and nutrition children receive. The mechanisms used to make these decisions and the effect of the decisions on the well-being of individual household members are not fully understood. Two frameworks for thinking about household decisions are the unitary household model and the collective household model (see box 3.1)</P>
    574 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     555</FONT>
    575556<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    576557<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    577558<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOX 2.1 </P>
    578 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     559</B>
    579560<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two models of household members having their own prefer decisionmaking encase. Decisions on allocating resources reflect market rates of return. The unitary household model assumes but they also mirror the relative bar that household members pool regaining power of household members sources and allocate them according within the collective (Manser and to a common set of objectives and Brown 1980: McElroy and Homey goals. Households maximize the joint 1981). Bargaining power is a function welfare of their members by allocating of social and cultural norms. as well income and other resources to the in as of such external factors as opposed individuals and enterprises that promise "unities for paid work, laws governing the highest rate of return as reflected inheritance, and control over producing prices and wages. An increase initiative assets and property rights. These household income increases the well factors influence the terms governing being of all household members.</FONT></TD>
    580561</TR>
    581562</TABLE>
    582563
    583 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     564<FONT SIZE=2>
    584565<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy interventions based on the sources and decisions about how unitary household model aim to in those resources are used within the crease household welfare, but they household. Thus, an increase in do not necessarily affect all household income may benefit some hold members in the same way. Some household members but leave others household members may be worse unaffected or worse off. The outcome off, for example, if they lose control depends on a member's ability to exover certain resources; others may excise control over resources both in be better off. in which case house-side and outside the household, and it hold welfare is not maximized. cannot be assumed that individual well</P>
    585 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     566
    586567<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the collective household being increases as household income model. the welfare of individual house-rises. (Collective household models do hold members is not synonymous with not exclude the possibility that the universal household welfare. Resources unitary model may be the best approximate not necessarily pooled, and the motion of household decisionmaking household acts as a collective, with in some contexts.)</P>
    587 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     568
    588569<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collective household model helps explain why gender inequalities persist even though household becomes increase over time The next sections adopt a collective household framework to explain how these inequalities exact costs in forgone productivity, seduced welfare for individuals and households, encl. ultimately. slower economic growth.(fender Inequalities in Human Capital )</P>
    589 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     570
    590571<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P>
    591 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    592 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     572
    593573<B><P></P>
    594574<!--
    … …  
    599579  </Description>
    600580-->
    601 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     581</B>
    602582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P>
    603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     583
    604584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
    605585 Figure 2.1 private returns to education</P>
    606 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     586
    607587<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29a.png"></center><br>
    608588 Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (a)</P>
    609 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     589
    610590<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29b.png"></center><br>
    611591 Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (b)</P>
    612 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     592
    613593<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More importantly. the social externalities linked to female education are crucial. Evidence from a large number of countries shows that female education is linked with better health for women and their children and with lower levels (figure 2.2). This link stems from the direct effect of education on the value of a woman's time and consequently. on private returns to her labor. It also stems from the indirect effect of education on the average age at which women marry on their knowledge of basic health care and nutrition, and on reproductive choices (Rosenzweig and Schultz 1982, 1987).</P>
    614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     594
    615595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating girls and women reduces maternal mortality and fertility rates and increases the demand for health services. A simulation study of seventy two developing countries shows that, with all other factors held constant, a doubling of female secondary school enrollments in 1975 would have reduced tile average fertility rate in 1985 from 5.3 to 3.9 children per household and would have lowered the number of births by 29 percent (Subbarao and Raney 1992. Studies for individual countries have found that one additional year of female schooling can reduce the fertility rate. on average, between 5 and 1 (i) percent (Summers 1994)</P>
    616 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     596
    617597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are more vulnerable than men to micronutrient deficiencies that aggravate poor health (World Batik 1994b). Poor health and nutrition reduce productivity and the chances of reaping gains from investment in education. Intrahousehold inequalities in consumption and nutritional allocations can therefore be a signal of inefficiency Recent estimates suggest that the com effects on morbidity and mortality of just three types of deficiency-in vitamin A, iodine. and iron-could waste as much as 5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), yet correcting these deficiencies would cost less than 0.3 percent of low-income countries' GDP (World Bank 1994c, pp. 50-51). Studies of women tea producers in Sri Lanka and of women workers in Chinese cotton mills document the reduction in productivity associated with iron deficiencies and the positive effects of in-on supplementation on work and output (Edgerton and others 1979). A study of six villages in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that disabling conditions caused by malnutrition and the prevalence of diseases reduced female labor force participation by 22 percent (Chatterjee 1991).</P>
    618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     598
    619599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Physical anti mental abuse can also have deleterious effects on the well-being and productivity of women (table 2.1). Violence against women is widespread in all cultures and cuts across all age and income groups Its consequences. include unwanted pregnancy. infection with STDs, miscarriage partial or permanent disability. and psychological problems such as depression anti low self-esteem. Recent World Bank estimates indicate that in both industrial and developing countries domestic violence and rape cause women of reproductive age to lose a significant percentage of really days. Domestic violence appears to be an example of how the relatively weaker bargaining power of women and the paucity of options for them outside the home can affect the intrahousehold distribution of welfare.</P>
    620 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     600
    621601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence against Women Starts in the Womb and Continues  trough Life</P>
    622 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     602
    623603<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.1 Violence against women through the life cycle</P>
    624 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     604</B></FONT>
    625605<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    626606<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
    … …  
    657637
    658638<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Heise 1993 </P>
    659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     639
    660640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for gainful employment. as well as the availability of basic social services such as water supply and sanitation. also influence women's well-being. The survival chances of female children in India appear to increase as the employment rate for women rises and the earnings differential between men and women decreases Battilan 1988 Dowry and marriage practices. along with household ownership of land are closely linked to women's chances of survival The effect of such practices cannot be over late. Sen's (1990) comparison of female-male mortality rates in China. India. and Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that more than 100 million women are "missing"</P>
    661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     641
    662642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on social services affects the ability of individuals and households to benefit from their own private spending on human capital. In most industrial countries mortality rates decreased even before modern medical care became widely available, mainly because of improved water supplies and sanitation. The same is likely to hold for the developing world. Public interventions that address market under provision of water and sanitation facilities and shortages of health set-vices such as immunization and family planning-have a significant effect. and one that is probably greater for women than for men.</P>
    663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     643
    664644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effects of public spending on the educational attainment and health of women and men Very little empirical evidence in this area exists, but there is some indication that the proportion of public subsidies for education that benefits females is lower than the proportion that benefits males. In Kenya in 1992-93. for example. public spending on education amounted to the equivalent of an annual subsidy of 605 Kenyan shillings per capita: males received. on average. 670 shillings and females only 543 shillings. In Mexico the gender difference in public education subsidies was somewhat less: in Pakistan males received almost twice the female subsidy. Gender inequalities in the distribution of subsidies are greater at high than at primary levels. In Pakistan girls receive, on average. only 96 rupees a year for secondary school bag. compared with 58 rupees for boys. Box 2.2 explains how these figures are calculated.</P>
    665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     645
    666646<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supply-side differences are partly a function of poorly targeted resources (as. for example, when more is spent on tertiary than on primary schooling). More importantly. they reflect differences in household demand for education for girls and boys. If more girls attended anti stayed in school. the proportion of public subsidy going to girls would he greater.</P>
    667 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     647
    668648<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care assessing the incidence of public spending by gender is particularly difficult because of the marked differences in the health needs of women and men. These differences are related to different biological re</P>
    669 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     649</FONT>
    670650<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
    671651<TR><TD></TD>
    … …  
    675655<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main advantage of this type of analysis is that it measures how well public  services are targeted to certain groups in the population, including women, the  poor, and residents of regions of interest.  Requirements anti to women's reproductive and childbearing roles. Some evidence suggests that because of these differences. per capita health cat-e subsidies to women are the same as and sometimes larger than those to men What is clearer is that women are less likely than men to seek health care. including in many countries. hospital care when it is netted and ate mote likely to consult a non medical health cat-e worker (lather than a qualified medical practitioner). Education tends to increase the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or  ace the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or private (World Bank 1994b). </P>
    676656<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of private and public investments in education and health services that will improve women's well-being is cleat. These services at-e also important for another season: these is important evidence that increases in women's well-being yield important intergenerational benefits and productivity gains in the future World Bank Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys car-tried out in Nicaragua (1993 Viet Nam 1993) Pakistan (1991), and Cote (1988) suggest that the probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mother's educational level and that (controlling, for income and household size) girls. particularly those in non poor households. are mote likely to attend school if their mothers attended school. Other studies show that households with educated mothers lend to provide children with greater quantities of mote nutritious food often at a lower cost. than households with poorly educated mothers (Thomas 1990b)</P>
    677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     657
    678658<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from Brazil show that giving women more control over nonlabor income has a larger impact on child measures, nutritional intakes, and the proportion of the household budget devoted to human capital inputs than if men had control of this income (Thomas 1993) Other studies indicate that women spend proportionately mote of the income they control on health care for children than do men. Women also spend more on food products (as opposed to such goods as alcohol and tobacco) than men do (Duraiswamy 1992: Hoddinot and Haddad 1992) But fathers education is also important especially in interaction with mothers' education (Thomas 1990a) </P>
    679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     659
    680660<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other studies have shown that children's educational attainment is lowest in households whet-e the male head has no schooling In Ghana the impact of a mother's education on her children's schooling is reduced when  their father has no schooling. even after controlling for income and household size (Lavy 1992).</P>
    681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     661
    682662<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P>
    683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    684 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     663
    685664<B><P></P>
    686665<!--
    … …  
    691670  </Description>
    692671-->
    693 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     672</B>
    694673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than  from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services.  transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P>
    695 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     674
    696675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of time women contribute to household production and maintenance, direct income generation. and family care combined is widely held to exceed that of men Analysis of data from Bangladesh. Botswana. Ghana. Kenya. Pakistan. the Philippines. and Zambia on how rural women spend their time confirms that, although use of time by women, and by different generations of women varies according to location. available technology. household characteristics. and cultural norms. gender bias in time use is widespread.</P>
    697 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     676
    698677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are generally responsible for collecting fuelwood and carrying water. Girls and alder women often do most of this work, although cultural norms in some countries affect women s mobility. The amount of time allocated to these activities is influenced by seasonal patterns of agricultural activity. the availability of substitute goods and services. and environmental changes. A study in Nepal, for instance, found that deforestation associated with a 75 percent rise in the time per trip would increase the time spent gathering fuelwood by 45 percent for all adults and by 50-60 percent for women.</P>
    699 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     678
    700679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to fuel and water collection, child care is another activity that dominates women s time-although. considering the importance of children to future household welfare, the amount of direct time spent with children is limited. The seven-country study suggests that more time is spent on child cat-e in female-headed households. Female-headed households tend to have high dependency ratios and relatively large numbers of children, Implying more child-care time overall, but not necessarily on a per child basis. (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988).</P>
    701 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     680
    702681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P>
    703 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     682
    705683<B><P></P>
    706684<!--
    … …  
    711689  </Description>
    712690-->
    713 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     691</B>
    714692<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a woman’s responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P>
    715 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     693
    716694<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Countries, Single Women Earn More Than Married Women and Younger Women More Than Older Women.</P>
    717 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     695
    718696<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.2 female-male earnings (adjusted for hours worked) by marital status and age (percent)</P>
    719 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     697</B></FONT>
    720698<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=345>
    721699<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
    … …  
    834812
    835813<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Blau and Kahn 1992 Sedlacek Gutierrez. and Mohindra 1993 </P>
    836 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     814
    837815<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus. women s labor market outcomes can be substantially poorer than those of men because women's employment opportunities are constrained by social arrangements at the family or household level. These social demands are reinforced by legal conventions. Within the labor market itself, social or employer discrimination can affect women and men differently. and these differences are reflected in the resource allocation decisions taken within the household. Although wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers may respond to an increase in the supply of workers by segregating jobs by gender or offering less training to women who they perceive as being temporarily attached to the labor force (even if in fact most women never drop out). For example, women in the former Soviet Union are fairly well educated and have high labor force participation. but they are concentrated in occupations requiring fewer skills and less vocational training than men, and, on average. they earn less than men (Fong 1993).</P>
    838 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     816
    839817<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female Wages Are Lower than Male Wages, but This Is Changing.</P>
    840 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     818
    841819<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.3 female-male earnings ratio over time Female-male earning 1 ratio (percent) </P>
    842 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     820</B></FONT>
    843821<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=496>
    844822<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
    … …  
    933911<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Monthly earnings for Indonesia and Thailand rural and urban: for all others urban only</P>
    934912<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Tzanntors 1995</P>
    935 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     913
    936914<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's earnings relative to men's tend to increase over time. A study of six developing countries shows that female earnings relative to male earnings increased by 1 percent a year in the 1980s (table 2.3). There were two reasons for this increase: over the years women entered higher-paying sectors. and within sectors, their pay increased in relation to that of men. This gain would have been even greater had it not been for the effect on wages of increased female participation in the labor force. However, the most visible dimension of gender inequality in the formal labor sector remains the wage difference between men and women. Women's wages are. on average lower those of men by about 30 to 40 percent.</P>
    937 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     915
    938916<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social or employer discrimination can affect women and men difference and these difference are reflected i/? the resource allocation decisions taken within the household</P>
    939 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     917
    940918<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P>
    941 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    942 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     919
    943920<B><P></P>
    944921<!--
    … …  
    949926  </Description>
    950927-->
    951 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     928</B>
    952929<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P>
    953 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     930
    954931<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L competitiveness of women's informal sector activities is  constrained by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public sectors.</P>
    955 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     932
    956933<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study in Mexico estimates that 41 percent of the work force in Mexico's major-cities is employed in the informal sector (World Bank 1995c). Data from a 1989 survey show that 60 percent of men working in the sector are salaried workers' compared with only 18 percent of women. By contrast. 80 percent of women working in the sector are unpaid family members, as against 27 percent of men. By far the most common activity in the informal sector is commerce (fixed-location or itinerant), followed by repair works food preparation. and sales, and small-scale manufacturing. The sectoral distribution of informal employment reflects the hey role informal workers play in supplying goods and services to low-income consumers. Women tend to be concentrated in commerce and men in services and manufacturing, although the percentage differences are relatively small. Two generalizations can be made on the basis of this study: informal sector workers earn less than workers in large firms and women earn less than men.</P>
    957 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     934
    958935<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another recent study of tour communities in Lusaka. Guayaquil (Ecuador), Metro Manila, and Budapest shows that informal sector activities ate especially important for during periods of economic reform Although the numbers both of men and of women in the labor force tend to increase during these times women rely more on the informal sector than men clot The competitiveness of women’s informal sector activities is informal by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public services. Women also tend to specialize in non traded goods and services that show relatively low average returns to labor. Across the tour cities in the study, women earn between 46 and 68 percent of men's wages (Moser 1994)</P>
    959 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     936
    960937<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of informal sector workers to increase their returns depends on access to physical and human capital and their relationship to the institutional and regulatory environment. Contrary to the common belief, many microenterprises face considerable costs associated with the regulatory environment, including registration and licensing fees, as well as outlays for contracts with public authorities concerning zoning regulations and use of public utilities. In Argentina regulatory costs are estimated to absorb as much as 21 percent of the average microfirm's operational expenses. In some sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, the costs of regulation are about 44 percent (World Bank 1994d). In Mexico real regulatory costs. including the costs of compliance and evasion, are about 20 percent of total costs.</P>
    961 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     938
    962939<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regulatory costs also inhibit Job creation in the informal sector. In Argentina across-the-board deregulation could generate as many as 170,000 jobs in small-scale manufacturing alone. Furthermore. poor workers in family-based firms or micro enterprises and particularly women entrepreneurs-often lack access to such basics as water and power. Targeting infrastructure investments to the poor, which takes account of the needs of women entrepreneurs s. can significantly enhance their productivity and earnings.</P>
    963 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     940
    964941<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rural area where formal markets often are not well developed. informal employment activities play a vital role. In Asia the proportion of female rural wage laborers increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s. In India women make up a larger proportion of rural wage laborers than of the entire labor force, probably because of growing landlines and poverty among rural households. Rural household labor accounts for a disproportionately large share of employment among the poor and an even larger share among women. Furthermore, a larger proportion of female than male laborers are hired on a casual basis, largely because family arrangements, especially lack of control over property, limit women's ability to work (Hart 1986: Bardhan 1993). Low status in the labor market is also linked to low female indicators in education, health, and nutrition.</P>
    965 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     942
    966943<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on  household and individual welfare and improved gender equality.</P>
    967 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     944
    968945<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social norms affecting decisions within the family about occupational choices or migration can also lead to differential patterns of male and female earnings in informal markets (Bhiswanger and Rosenzweig 1984). Family responsibilities hinder women's geographic mobility, constraining their ability to command high wages and limiting them to certain areas or industries. The concentration of women in certain sectors, especially nontraded goods and set-vices. intensifies competition between women entrepreneurs and wage workers and lowers the returns to female labor. These effects are compounded by women's lack of access to credit. training, and technology.</P>
    969 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     946
    970947<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P>
    971 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    972 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     948
    973949<B><P></P>
    974950<!--
    … …  
    979955  </Description>
    980956-->
    981 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     957</B>
    982958<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P>
    983 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     959
    984960<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities between women and men in access to financial services- particularly credit--are widely documented. Collateral requirements, high transaction costs. limited mobility and education, and other social and cultural barriers contribute to women's inability to obtain credit (Holt and Ribe 1991). The implications tot household efficiency and individual well-being differ, however, depending on whether the household pools its financial resources. If, as the unitary household model assumes. a household pools its resources the characteristics of individual borrowers are less important than if there is little or no pooling. In the first case. credit resources will be used to meet household needs that have been jointly determined, regardless of who the borrower is. In the second case, the use credit is put to and the needs it then satisfies depend on which household member is borrowing.</P>
    985 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     961
    986962<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of credit programs in Bangladesh sponsored by the World Bank shows that providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on variables typically associated with household and individual welfare and improved gender equality (Pitt and Khandker 1995). The study looks at three programs in Bangladesh: the Grameen Bank. the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), and the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB). in 1992, women accounted for 94 percent of Grameen Bank members. 82 percent of BRAC members. and 68 percent of BRDB members (Khandker and Khalily 1995; Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer 1994). Only the results for the Grameen Bank are presented here.</P>
    987 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     963
    988964<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.4 presents the impact of credit obtained by women and men on a variety of social and economic indicators. The results show a clear and positive impact of both male and female borrowing on all indicators of Toward gender equality family welfare especially through an increase in per capita expenditures increases in both boys' and girls schooling, anti a reduction in fertility. Females borrowing has a greater effect on girls' schooling anti per capita expenditure than does male loot-rowing: male borrowing has a greater effect on boys' schooling and fertility than does female borrowing. Interestingly. female borrowing also results in mote female ownership of nonoland assets and an increased supply of female labor to cash - income -earning activities (Pitt and Khandker 1995).</P>
    989 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     965
    990966<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans to Women and Men Have Important Welfare Implications.</P>
    991 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     967
    992968<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2 4 welfare effects of Grameen Bank loans (percentage increase)</P>
    993 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     969</B></FONT>
    994970<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=545>
    995971<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
    … …  
    10441020</TABLE>
    10451021
    1046 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1022<FONT SIZE=2>
    10471023<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The introduction of programs such as the Grameen Bank in a village has a positive effect on agricultural and nonagricultural production (Khatidketati Chowdhuty 1994: Rahman and Khandke 1994 The probability that women will be self-employed rather than work for wages increases by 52 percent. The latter finding is important because much of the wage employment open to women in rural areas is very poorly remunerated and can be quite exploitative. Self employment can bring the opportunity of higher returns for women, plus the freedom to integrate their earning activities into other work as they see fit.</P>
    1048 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1024
    10491025<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P>
    1050 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1051 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1026
    10521027<B><P></P>
    10531028<!--
    … …  
    10581033  </Description>
    10591034-->
    1060 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1035</B>
    10611036<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P>
    1062 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1037
    10631038<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The possibility of receiving credit may give e women   greater bargaining power within the  household which  can be used to improve child health and nutrition.</P>
    1064 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1039
    10651040<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While independent land rights may increase efficiency and household welfare, lack of secure land  appears to be associated with low investments by women in land conservation. In Zimbabwe's communal areas, land that a women acquires is often allocated to her only temporarily: for example, the location of land allotment received from husbands or borrowed from neighbors is usually subject to periodic change (Jackson 1993). The same is true in parts of West Africa (David 1992 Jackson 1994). Uncertainly about the permanence of their control over the land means that women may be reluctant to invest in improvements that will benefit the landowner rather than the user.</P>
    1066 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1041
    10671042<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant trend in recent decades in developing countries has been the move toward private ownership In some countries this trend has been encoulagecl by reforms dealing with land redistribution tenancy or land titling Such reforms are considered important for promoting long-term investments and the adoption of the latest technology They also provide the collateral people need to gain access to credit and other factor markets Ironically, evidence also suggests that perform inequalities in male and female land rights are reinforced by land reform programs For example, in Latin America most reforms are based on the premise that the man of the household its the household head. This presumption means that women (except for widows  and ownership. Even where women and men benefit equally from land reform differences exist between nominal and real land rights (see box 2.3).</P>
    1068 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1043
    10691044<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the central part of European Russia and in Moldova the lands and assets of state and collective farms are being parceled out in allotments as part of wider economic reforms. Every person who lived and worked on a collective farm receives a share of the land Data show that although on average, women have received a slightly higher proportion of land shares than men, the nonland capital assets of the old farms ale being distributed as property shares on the basis of a formula heavily weighted toward an individual's wage rate and years of employment. Such criteria favor men over women and give men more valuable property chares. Dividends paid on these property shares also tend to be higher than those paid 011 land shares Holt 1995).</P>
    1070 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1045
    10711046<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Land reform programs that fail to account for gender differences in rights</P>
    1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1047</FONT>
    10731048<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    10741049<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    10751050<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.3 who gets access to land? Honduras and Cameroon</P>
    1076 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1051</B>
    10771052<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras' Agrarian Modernization Law of 1974 includes a provision giving men age 16 or older the right to access to land, independent of any other qualification. For women. however, this right is restricted to unmarried mothers or widows with dependent children. Furthermore. if a male beneficiary dies or becomes incapacitated. the law gives preference in inheritance rights to a male child over the child's legally married mother. Some 30 percent of rural Honduran households are headed by women at least part time because of the seasonal migration of men to look for work (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
    10781053</TR>
    10791054</TABLE>
    10801055
    1081 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1056<FONT SIZE=2>
    10821057<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the northwest and southwest provinces of Cameroon. an estimated 50 percent or more of those who claimed land within the first ten years of land registration (1974-85) were classified as public servants. Over 32 percent of all the remaining land titles went to businesses.</P>
    1083 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1058
    10841059<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women make up more than 51 percent of Cameroon s population and do more than 75 percent of the agricultural work. but they are virtually absent from land registers. Only 3.2 percent of all land titles issued in the Northwest Province were given to women; in the Southwest Province the figure was 7.2 percent. For the country as a whole. it is estimated that women obtained under 10 percent of all land certificates (World Bank 1995a).  to own. use, and transfer land may actually exacerbate the insecurity of women's land claims and. as a result, harm household welfare. For example, there is evidence that land titling focused on male household heads has adversely affected women's ability to farm independently. Moreover. intrahousehold inequalities in income and decisionmaking have increased (FAO 1993) In Africa some titling programs have allowed men to take advantage of their control over land to redesignate land formerly cultivated by women as household land. This switch provided the opportunity for men to increase the amount of work they expect from women on household plots. In other cases women have received smaller and less fertile plots than they had before for their personal crops (FAO 1993).</P>
    1085 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1060
    10861061<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P>
    1087 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1088 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1062
    10891063<B><P></P>
    10901064<!--
    … …  
    10951069  </Description>
    10961070-->
    1097 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1071</B>
    10981072<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P>
    1099 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1073
    11001074<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture it is in most regions providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current  and future of productivity.</P>
    1101 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1075
    11021076<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of five African countries shows that extension agents are most likely to visit male farmers than female farmers (table 2.5) The impact of this inequity on female productivity depends in part on whether women and men within households pool information. There is, however. little evidence to suggest that this happens (see box 2.4). It is important to ensure that extension services reach omen directly, not only to redress gender inequalities but also to maximize productive efficiency. omen play a critical role in production of food and cash crops for the household. in postharvest activities. and in livestock care Men and omen perform different tasks they can substitute for one another only to a limited extent. and this imitation creates different demands for extension information Also, as men leave farms in search of paid employment ill urban areas. women are increasingly managing and operating farms on a regular and full-time basis. Hence. omen are becoming a constituency for extension and research services in their own right (World Bank 1994e)</P>
    1103 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1077
    11041078<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.5 visits by agricultural extension agents (percentage of households visited)</P>
    1105 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1079</B></FONT>
    11061080<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=439>
    11071081<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
    … …  
    11631137</TABLE>
    11641138
    1165 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1139<FONT SIZE=2>
    11661140<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
    11671141<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    11681142<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    11691143<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.4 do women farmers learn from their husbands?</P>
    1170 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1144</B>
    11711145<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of women farmers in Burkina Faso found that 40 percent had some knowledge of modern crop and livestock production technologies. For most of these women, relatives and friends were the source of information; nearly one-third had acquired their knowledge from the extension service, and only 1 percent had heard of the technologies from their husbands.</P>
    1172 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1146
    11731147<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Men are less likely to pass information on to their wives when crops and tasks are gender specific. In Malawi women claimed that their husbands rarely passed on advice to them: if their husbands did tell them something. the women did not find it relevant to their needs. In India women learned from friends, relatives. neighbors. and sometimes from their husbands. but this second-hand information seldom changed their production patterns (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
    11741148</TR>
    11751149</TABLE>
    11761150
    1177 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1151<FONT SIZE=2>
    11781152<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expansion of agricultural services beyond the public sector is a growing phenomenon in developing economies. The inadequacies of public funding plus the need to provide snore client-oriented services, suggest that the private sector has an important role to play However, women's limited access to land and credit put the many potential benefits offered by extension services out of reach. For example in Kenya's Meru and Maranga areas more than half the women surveyed cited a shortage of cash as their reason for not adopting, technologies that would maximize their output and increase their efficiency. The amount of education omen receive and the efficiency with which they run their farms are also closely linked This tie is particularly significant in light of the fact that one purpose of extension services is to advise farmers on use of modern technology.</P>
    1179 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1153
    11801154<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three studies of Kenya found that the gender of the farm manager was, by itself. an insignification factor in output per hectare but that the manager's educational level had a significant effect on farm productivity (Moock 1976: Saito and Spurling 1992: Bindlish and Evenson 1993). Simulations based on these studies suggest that significant gains could accrue to increased investment in women's physical and human capital. As the data in table 2.6 show, if women and men shared the same educational characteristics and input levels. farm-specific yields would increase between 7 and 22 percent. Giving women primary schooling, by itself. would increase yields by 24 percent. Thus under investment in women's education limits growth of agricultural productivity. Well-targeted extension services can help to narrow the differences in productivity that arise from educational inequalities (Schultz 1988)</P>
    1181 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1155
    11821156<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing Human Capital and Input Levels Would Increase tile Yield for Women Farmers.</P>
    1183 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1157
    11841158<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.6 effects of increasing women farmers' human capital and input levels Increase  yields</P>
    1185 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1159</B></FONT>
    11861160<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    11871161<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
    … …  
    12301204</TABLE>
    12311205
    1232 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1233 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1206<FONT SIZE=2>
    12341207<B><P></P>
    12351208<!--
    … …  
    12401213  </Description>
    12411214-->
    1242 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1215</B>
    12431216<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P>
    1244 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1217
    12451218<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see  Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P>
    1246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1247 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1248 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1219
     1220<B>
    12491221<!--
    12501222</Section>
    … …  
    12551227  </Description>
    12561228-->
    1257 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1229</B>
    12581230<B><P></P>
    12591231<!--
    … …  
    12631235  </Description>
    12641236-->
    1265 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1237</B>
    12661238<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P>
    1267 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1268 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1239
    12691240<B><P></P>
    12701241<!--
    … …  
    12751246  </Description>
    12761247-->
    1277 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1248</B>
    12781249<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P>
    1279 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1250
    12801251<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the legal framework to  eliminate discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important goal for public policy at the national and international levels. A supportive legal environment is also vital for other aspects of public policy that have a direct bearing on the opportunities available to women. such as regulations affecting the formal and informal sectors.</P>
    1281 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1252
    12821253<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P>
    1283 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1284 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1254
    12851255<B><P></P>
    12861256<!--
    … …  
    12911261  </Description>
    12921262-->
    1293 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1263</B>
    12941264<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P>
    1295 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1265
    12961266<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P>
    1297 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1298 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1267
    12991268<B><P></P>
    13001269<!--
    … …  
    13051274  </Description>
    13061275-->
    1307 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1276</B>
    13081277<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P>
    1309 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1278
    13101279<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main issue for public policy its to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced.</P>
    1311 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1280</FONT>
    13121281<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    13131282<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    13141283<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.1 some NGO efforts to promote women's legal literacy</P>
    1315 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1284</B>
    13161285<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler and Kadirgamar - Rajasingham (1992) describe innovative approaches by  non governmental organizations to provide women with useful legal knowledge and tools.</P>
    1317 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1286
    13181287<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA) has launched "women and the law" projects in five English-speaking Caribbean countries. Using a participatory methodology. the projects aim to create awareness of the law. provide women with legal information that will be useful to them in their daily lives, identify specific areas for action, and influence overall legislative policy. The projects develop educational materials for legal literacy and offer topic specific paralegal training for women's organizations.</P>
    1319 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1288
    13201289<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The legal literacy program of the Ugandan Women Lawyers' Association (FDA-Uganda) conducts legal literacy campaigns on specified dates each month in different districts. Pairs of FIDA volunteers conduct sessions, using role playing and discussions, on legal topics of relevance to women's lives and provide advice on contacting the FIDA legal clinic for advice and representation. In addition, FIDA and Action for Development broadcast regular radio and television programs on women and the law and publish pamphlets on legal issues of interest to women. </FONT></TD>
    13211290</TR>
    13221291</TABLE>
    13231292
    1324 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1293<FONT SIZE=2>
    13251294<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India the Self - Employed Women's Association (SEWA) holds worker education meetings to provide members with legal information and offers one day training sessions on specialized legal information for community leaders. Members of SEWA paralegal staff research cases, prepare briefs, and argue all cases in labor courts for members. SEWA'S legal literacy efforts are part of its overall strategy of action for supporting self-employed women and women in the informal sector.</P>
    1326 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1295
    13271296<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard. the main issue for public policy is to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced. Such laws should cover employment and employment-related benefits and should not be applied in a way that restricts women's access to the labor market.</P>
    1328 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1297
    13291298<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries women are protected by special standards in the workplace. These safeguards are of two types. The first includes measures intended to end discrimination in the labor market by requiring equal pay for work of equal value or by prohibiting the exclusion of workers from certain jobs because of gender. The second type protects women in their role as mottles by requiring employers to pay the full cost of maternity leave and provide childcare facilities. restricting night work, and limiting work categorized as dangerous or hazardous.</P>
    1330 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1299
    13311300<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first type of labor standard is often difficult to enforce. although nearly 120 countries have enacted equal opportunity laws. In most cases the law is in place but is not enforced. Furthermore. it often applies only to the formal sector of the labor market. leaving large number of women in the informal sector with little protection. More concerted public and private action is required to devise appropriate for enforcement. In additions complementary measures are needed to increase women’s chances of entering the labor force. Such measures would include mote met-it-based hiring of women in the public sector and the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework that encourages the establishment of day-care centers private nursery schools. and kindergartens for the children of workers in both the formal and informal sectors. (Box 3.2 describes a day-care projects in Bolivia)</P>
    1332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1301
    13331302<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have laws that limit night work. over theme and the use of heavy machinery by women. While well intentioned. these laws. too. can reduce women's employment options by raising the employer's cost of hiring women and perpetuating the notion that women workers are less flexible than male workers. This adverse result occurs because women already tend to have lower levels of capital than men and are limited by traditional notions of what women’s work. Devising effective protective legislation for women is thus a difficult balancing act.</P>
    1334 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1303
    13351304<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective laws to protect women must honor the fine line between ensuring sate working conditions for all workers, including women in the informal sector. and providing equal opportunities for all workers seeking employment. Standards relating to maternity leave and child-care benefits are common in the formal sector. To ensure that such standards do not raise the costs of female labor unnecessarily employment legislation should avoid having employers pay benefits directly. Maternity benefits should be funded through general revenue taxes</P>
    1336 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1305
    13371306<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.2 day-care center in Bolivia to enhance the status of women by increasing their employment opportunities in other Latin American countries, and their knowledge of women in Bolivia are over represented , health, and nutrition. The project among the poor, and many live in will establish day-care centers to proficult circumstances. They are twice vice non formal,  home-based, integrals likely as men to be illiterate, their child development for children unaccess to child care is limited, they the age of 6 in thirty-four poor subject to discrimination in hiring ban and purebred areas. Women and wages, and they are restricted benefit from the project either as by law from engaging in certain procure givers employed at the minimum ductive activities. wage or as clients of the centers. The Integrated Child Development children in day care gives women Project, financed by a credit from the more time to search for jobs or to in World Bank's International Development their current situations (Winkler opponent Association designed and Guedes 1995).</P>
    1338 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1307
    13391308<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or social security systems rather than by direct contributions from individual employers. In Eastern Europe and Latin America, however, this method of funding benefits has imposed a significant cost on the treasury, raising the question of how much should be paid and for how long.</P>
    1340 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1309
    13411310<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P>
    1342 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1343 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1311
    13441312<B><P></P>
    13451313<!--
    … …  
    13501318  </Description>
    13511319-->
    1352 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1320</B>
    13531321<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women  should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P>
    1354 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1355 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1322
    13561323<B><P></P>
    13571324<!--
    … …  
    13621329  </Description>
    13631330-->
    1364 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1331</B>
    13651332<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P>
    1366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1333</FONT>
    13671334<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    13681335<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    13691336<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.3 innovative approaches to combating gender violence</P>
    1370 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1337</B>
    13711338<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil's women-only police stations are an innovative approach to the problem of violence against women. They have been so successful that other countries-including Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Peru, and Uruguay-have emulated them. The police stations have made it easier for women to report gender based crimes of violence, and, with that experience, women are now demanding more support from the police, such as legal counseling and advice. Despite the program's success, the number of convictions for gender-based crimes has not increased, largely because similar innovations have not been made in the  judicial system (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994). </FONT></TD>
    13721339</TR>
    13731340</TABLE>
    13741341
    1375 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1342<FONT SIZE=2>
    13761343<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Zimbabwe the Mussasa project provides support and counseling to abused women and sensitizes police and prosecutors to the issues of domestic violence and rape. To ensure the credibility and acceptability of the training, legal professionals are involved in the program. One branch of the criminal justice system-the police department, for example-often hosts training for another, such as prosecutors (Stewart 1992).</P>
    1377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1344
    13781345<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Costa Rica El Instituto Legal de las Naciones Unidas y Desarrollo runs gender sensitization training for prosecutors, judges, lawyers, and other professionals who deal with crimes of violence against women (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994).</P>
    1379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1346
    13801347<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P>
    1381 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1382 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1348
    13831349<B><P></P>
    13841350<!--
    … …  
    13891355  </Description>
    13901356-->
    1391 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1357</B>
    13921358<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P>
    1393 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1359
    13941360<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changes in the laws governing access to credit are also vital because women's business profiles often differ from men's. Compared with men. women are more likely to work in low-risk small, and home-based businesses (Rhyne and Holt 1994). This situation creates a demand for small loans that can be obtained without formal, legally secured collateral and that offer relatively flexible repayment terms. Legislation that encourages broad access to financial institutions can increase the availability of these types of loans. but legal changes may also be needed to extend the range of acceptable collateral.</P>
    1395 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1361
    13961362<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries the regulatory framework contains provisions that are especially punitive to small firms. This adds an additional constraint on women, whose businesses are concentrated at the small end of the size The deregulation of the microentreprise sector would remove implicit disincentives to small-film activity and would relieve some of these Such action would enhance women entrepreneurs' prospects of benefiting from training or credit programs targeted to the microentreprise sector (World Bank 1994d. 1995c).</P>
    1397 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1363
    13981364<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Redirecting Public Policies and Expenditure to Promote (tender Equality)</P>
    1399 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1365
    14001366<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P>
    1401 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1402 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1367
    14031368<B><P></P>
    14041369<!--
    … …  
    14091374  </Description>
    14101375-->
    1411 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1376</B>
    14121377<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P>
    1413 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1378
    14141379<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P>
    1415 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1416 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1380
    14171381<B><P></P>
    14181382<!--
    … …  
    14231387  </Description>
    14241388-->
    1425 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1389</B>
    14261390<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P>
    1427 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1391
    14281392<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shots. broadly based economic reforms benefit the poor, as the experiences of diverse countries have shown. Data from the LSMS and similar studies confirm that in Costa Rica, Ethiopia. Than Indonesia, Peru, the Philippines, and Tanzania, declines in poverty rates have accompanied economic reforms. Because of underlying gender inequalities, reductions in poverty do not necessarily improve the economic status of women. Nonetheless. although empirical evidence on changes in women's welfare following reforms is scarce, data from the Philippines suggest that for women. economic reform is by improvements in social indicators and important employment gains (box 3.4). An analysis of household data from Peru indicates that reforms there have not only led to renewed growth and reduced poverty but have also improved the status of female-headed households (box 3.5).</P>
    1429 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1393
    14301394<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their seminal role in encouraging sustainable. long-term growth. some economic reforms involve transitional costs. for two reasons: the need to implement radical shifts in government policy, and the lag. perhaps of years, between acceleration of economic growth and the realization of the
    14311395</P>
    1432 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1396</FONT>
    14331397<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    14341398<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    14351399<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.4 social progress and labor force gains for women in the Philippines</P>
    1436 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1400</B>
    14371401<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines began implementing economic reforms in the early 1980s. While political turmoil and some policy slippage have weakened GDP growth over the period and led to the need for further reforms, quality of life indicators have improved during adjustment. For example, by 1990 the incidence of absolute poverty had declined by about one-third (to approximately 20 percent of the population). Maternal and infant mortality rates also declined over the period: in 1980 the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1,000 live births, but by 1990 it had fallen to 41 per 1,000 births (Johansen 1993). </FONT></TD>
    14381402</TR>
    14391403</TABLE>
    14401404
    1441 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1405<FONT SIZE=2>
    14421406<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water increased between 1980 and 1990, from 65 to 93 percent of the urban population and from 43 to 72 percent of the rural population. The figures for sanitation services showed the same increase, climbing from 81 percent with access in 1980 to 98 per  cent in 1990 among urban dwellers and from 67 to 85 percent among those in rural areas. Secondary school enrollment rates for boys and girls also showed gains. Girls and boys have traditionally reached similar educational levels in the Philippines, a trend that contributed to women's gains in the labor market during adjustment in the 1980s. While labor force participation rates for men rose only slightly, the rates for women increased dramatically, from 23 to 37 percent.</P>
    1443 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1407
    14441408<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, women's wages as a percentage of men's grew from 71 to 80 percent between 1978 and 1988 (Tzannatos 1995). A recent study of a low-income community in Manila found that in some private sector jobs women earn more than men, reflecting in part the high educational level among women in the sector. Earnings in the informal sector are generally low for both women and men. although some women have been so successful in their informal sector businesses that their spouses have opted to leave low-paying jobs in the formal sector to participate in their wives enterprises (Moser 1994).  benefits of growth by large segments of the population. The short-term costs can include increases in food prices as subsidies are removed temporary restrictions on credit to control monetary expansion, and cuts in public spending as governments attempt to control budget deficits and reorient spending toward the most important public services. Moreover, inequalities in access to and control over resources and in entry into markets hamper some groups in taking advantage of the opportunities created by economic reform For example, people who are unable to acquire new skills may remain for some thee. Gender inequalities in access to and control over land in rural areas can keep women farmers from taking advantage of changes in the relative prices of tradable and non tradable crops.</P>
    1445 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1409</FONT>
    14461410<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    14471411<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    14481412<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.5 macroeconomic reform and improved living standards in Peru</P>
    1449 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1413</B>
    14501414<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 1985 and 1990 Peru's economic regime was marked by expansionary monetary and fiscal policies and high levels of government intervention in most areas of the economy. Although these policies led to an initial period of growth, the approach proved unsustainable: by late 1987 growth had given way to hyperinflation and deep recession. During 1988-90 real GDP dropped by an average of 8 percent a year. Real wages and consumption expenditure also fell sharply as inflation soared to 7,600 percent a year in 1990.</P>
    1451 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1415
    14521416<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990 the new government of President Alberto Fujimori introduced macroeconomic reform measures designed to stabilize the economy, reduce fiscal deficits and inflation, increase market efficiency, and improve the country's competitiveness. Under this reform program inflation declined dramatically, falling to 57 percent in 1992 and to 17 percent in 1994. Real GDP grew by about 20 percent between 1991 and 1994, while real per capita consumption expenditure grew by more than 18.5 percent. LSMS data show that poverty declined by 11 percent-from 55 percent of the population in 1991 to 49 percent in 1994. Although the country experienced a brief contractionary period following the introduction of reform measures, household data from Lima for 1990, 1991, and 1994 indicate that in 1994 per capita expenditure was well above, and the incidence of poverty well below, 1990 levels. </FONT></TD>
    14531417</TR>
    14541418</TABLE>
    14551419
    1456 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1420<FONT SIZE=2>
    14571421<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvements in living standards have been widespread, and the largest gains have been made in some of the country's poorest regions, such as the urban and rural sierra (mountain areas). In most parts of the country, increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by women have been above the national average. In the urban and rural sierra, for example. consumption expenditure by these households increased by 47.7 and 44.8 percent. respectively-figures that compare favorably with increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by men (35 and 28 percent for the same regions).</P>
    1458 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1422
    14591423<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although both women and men are expected to gain from economic reform in the long run. gender inequalities at the household and market levels can mean that the benefits of reform reach women, especially poor women. only slowly. Reforms must incorporate measures aimed at counter acting shot-term transitional costs. Among the most important are safety nets specifically targeted to vulnerable groups. For example, in fiscal 1994 seventeen of the twenty-three reform programs supported by the World Bank included components aimed specifically at reducing poverty: fourteen of them targeted programs or safety net measures such as labor-intensive public works projects. targeted and social assistance programs, and unemployment and social security schemes (see box 3.6).</P>
    1460 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1424</FONT>
    14611425<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
    14621426<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
    14631427<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.6 food coupons improve nutrition in Honduras</P>
    1464 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1428</B>
    14651429<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food coupon program in Honduras, part of a social safety net supported by the World Bank and financed by IDA and other donors, was put in place in 1990 to protect the country's most vulnerable people during economic reforms. Starting with about 182,000 participants, by 1994 the program had expanded its coverage to 345.000 of the estimated 430,000 children at risk of malnutrition. The effort also supports nutrition education for health workers, community groups, and mothers. Because coupons are used instead of food. the government saves some 30 percent over traditional food distribution costs, and the beneficiaries are able to choose the food  they will consume. Beginning in 1995, an adjustment for inflation will maintain the value of the coupons, enabling participants to satisfy a constant proportion of their food needs.</P>
    1466 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1430
    14671431<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also supports the development and implementation of a long-term nutrition assistance strategy for Honduras. Although attempting to measure changes in malnutrition is difficult in the short term, there have already been noticeable benefits. Between 1990 and 1993 the number of first-graders with severe or moderate malnutrition dropped by 4 percent. Organizers are now trying to graduate women participants from the program by offering training in basic skills such as food processing and helping them find assembly work in local factories (World Bank 1995b). </FONT></TD>
    14681432</TR>
    14691433</TABLE>
    14701434
    1471 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1435<FONT SIZE=2>
    14721436<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, safety nets are not a substitute for a mote integrated approach to economic and social policy that includes appropriate levels of harvest in social services and infrastructure. Recognizing this fact, governments and donors are increasingly incorporating into their reform packages antipoverty initiatives and measures to reduce gender inequality. In Pakistan, for example, the FIDA-financed Public Sector Adjustment. Program provides much needed the financial support for the balance of payments account and reinforces the emphasis on government investment in the social sectors. The program promotes increased access to and improvements in basic education. health. and water supply services that benefit girls and rural areas. It also supports a shift it government education and health spending toward the primary level.</P>
    1473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1474 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1437
    14751438<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P>
    1476 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1477 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1439
    14781440<B><P></P>
    14791441<!--
    … …  
    14841446  </Description>
    14851447-->
    1486 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1448</B>
    14871449<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women  and children.</P>
    1488 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1450
    14891451<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDUCATION. Estimations of the private returns to education for a number of countries (Psachatopoulos 1994) show that returns are at least equal for girls anti boys and are often higher for girls. Moreover, these rates do not capture the externalities generated by providing education to girls. The combination of private and social returns provides a clear signal for restructuring the allocations of public resources so as to support female education. Yet incidence analysis for a number of countries for which the necessary data are available reveals that educational subsidies per capita are higher for males than for females This difference is partly a result of the bias in allocation of subsidies toward higher levels of education, where female enrolled is lowest. Distortions in the allocation of public resources, such as the provision of mote money foe male-dominated tertiary institutions than for education that benefits girls, should be corrected by reallocating spending toward basic (primary and lower-secondary) schooling. Targeting these educational levels will have the maximum effect on girls' education and will yield higher social returns for society as a whole. In countries where universal basic education has been achieved and capital markets are unable to help households finance higher education, continuing subsidize higher education may be warranted. The rationale for the subsidy would be the productivity gains associated with a better-trained labor force.</P>
    1490 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1452
    14911453<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To correct the bias against enrollment of girls more targeted interventions are need to influence household (see decisionmaking)</P>
    1492 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1454
    14931455<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However reallocating public spending toward primary education and later toward higher levels is not sufficient to erase the gender gap in education The bias against enrolling girls in school is evident in both poor and no poor households and applies even at the primary level. To correct this bias, more targeted interventions are needed to influence household decision making</P>
    1494 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1456
    14951457<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEALTH. Correcting the gender bias in the public financing of health care IS a more complex process than correcting the bias in education. for two main reasons: the marked differences between the health needs of men and women, and the unreliability of household data on demand for health services in comparison with the data on demand tot education). However it is cleat that targeting health services to women implies provision of adequate funding for prenatal care. infant immunization, and mother and child health services. Because of the significant social benefits of providing women with appropriate health care, governments should make basic services ices that benefit women a top priority among, public health care expenditures.</P>
    1496 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1458
    14971459<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a critical link between the public provision of health care and women's access to educational opportunities. A mother educated to seek preventive care and early treatment of illness for herself and her children (particularly girls) will reduce the cost of health care and in many cases. prevent premature death. Most of these highly cost-effective services can be supplied in rural clinics and health centers. Public spending should be so allocated as to ensure sufficient funding for these primary health facilities.</P>
    1498 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1460
    14991461<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES. Agricultural extension and research services are widely considered vital to increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. Many of these services are being provided by the private sector. but in some countries private services need public support, either because certain markets have not yet been developed or because the infrastructure is poorly developed. However. women farmers and small holders are often not served as effectively by public agricultural extension systems as ate and male farmers (FAO 1993). This disparity stems paltry from expend priorities within agricultural extension services. which concentrate resources on the crops and the technology controlled primarily by male commercial farmers. Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension and research services toward crops and technology raised by or used by small holders and women farmers could yield high social returns to public investment and could increase private returns by improving the skills and productivity of small agricultural producers.</P>
    1500 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1462
    15011463<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension  and research services toward crops and technology </P>
    1502 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1464
    15031465<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques for small holders and women farmers should take into account the need for quality and cost-effectiveness in public services, Economies of scale can be achieved if extension agents deal with groups of farmers instead of with individuals. This approach also provides a valuable forum for exchanging information. fostering peer learning. sharing expensive equipment. and pooling resources for- credit. Mobile trailing units and flexible hours that fit the crowded schedules of women farmers should also be considered. and more female extension agents should be trained to deal directly with female farmers. Such measures can be introduced without large additional resources if existing expenditures are carefully reallocated.</P>
    1504 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1466
    15051467<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFRASTRUCTURE, Public investment in economic and social infrastructure is vital in facilitated individual and household investment in physical and human capital. However, public expenditures on roads, water supply, and sanitation infrastructure frequently do not meet the needs of those who use the services most heavily. Women are the main users of water services, and it is essential to involve them in designing and implementing water projects. For example. in areas where transport is inadequate and water collection is a daily burden for women and children, the population tends to use the closest available facility rather than the safest one. In such cases. projects that ensure a safe water supply and take into account the specific needs and constraints of the users often have a significant effect on users' health. In two villages in Zaire where a piped water network was installed to provide safe drinking water, the median incidence of diarrhea was halved among children in households located less than a five-minute walk from a public standpipe. Spending allocations that favor public water supply and sanitation improve the general health of the population, save time for women and children. and increase school attendance. A study from Morocco chows that access to tap and well water instead of pond or river water raised school enrollment for both boys and girls (Khandker, Lavy, and Filer 1994).</P>
    1506 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1468
    15071469<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are the main users of water services and it is essential  to involve them in designing and implementing water projects.</P>
    1508 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1470
    15091471<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on roads and energy-related facilities (for instance electrification or energy conservation) or other infrastructure is usually assumed to be gander neutral. Yet women and men use these facilities differently The Morocco study cited above found that the availability of electricity increased the rate for girls substantially more than for boys. The study also showed that the presence of a paved road increased by 40 percent the probability that girls would attend school and reduced by 5 percent their probability of dropping out. Overall, improved road conditions increased the probability of school attendance for girls by 32 percent and for boys by 20 percent.</P>
    1510 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1472
    15111473<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P>
    1512 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1513 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1474
    15141475<B><P></P>
    15151476<!--
    … …  
    15201481  </Description>
    15211482-->
    1522 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1483</B>
    15231484<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P>
    1524 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1485
    15251486<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women directly is justifiable on two grounds. First, to the extent that gender inequalities prevent an economy from realizing its full potential. targeting to women can be an effective strategy for increasing productivity and output Second, where gender differences are wide, targeting may be needed to capture social gains and to increase internal efficiency.</P>
    1526 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1487</FONT>
    15271488<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
    15281489<TR><TD></TD>
    … …  
    15321493<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women is especially when doing so contributes directly to reducing poverty; or when women have particular needs-for example. when maternal mortality is very high. The exceptionally high gender gap in educational enrollments in some countries can be reduced only by policies (including subsidies) that target girls. An obvious example would be policies that affect the private costs of schooling. </P>
    15331494<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female household members tend to allocate resources more  directly to children it while men</P>
    1534 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1495
    15351496<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reducing these direct costs to households Will mean setting new public spending priorities. For example. education institutions for girls especially at the primary level, might be exempted from cost recovery measures. thus increasing the implied public spending subsidy to girls. Similarly. a far; number of publicly funded scholarships can be provided for girls' as has been done in and Guatemala.</P>
    1536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1497
    15371498<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opportunity and travel costs can discourage parents from enrolling especially daughters in school. Some counties have tried to overcome the constraints imposed by opportunity costs by introducing flexible school hours and calendar years and providing child care for younger siblings (box 3.7). In some cases girls who are responsible for looking after their younger brothels and sisters ate allowed to bring them to school.</P>
    1538 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1499
    15391500<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where cultural values may prevent girls from traveling alone to school. measures are needed that will increase access to safe transport.</P>
    1540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
     1501</FONT>
    15411502<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
    15421503<TR><TD>
    15431504<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.8 economic reforms and gender targeting in Mongolia</P>
    1544 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1505</B>
    15451506<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since Mongolia began its transition to a market economy in 1990, the living conditions of the population have deteriorated dramatically. According to the government's estimates, a quarter of all Mongolians are now living below the poverty line. Single women with young children are among the "new" vulnerable groups that have emerged in the wake of the transition. As of December 1993 nearly 72 percent of households headed by single persons, usually women, were estimated to have incomes below the poverty line. (About 28 percent of all households in Mongolia are headed by women). The Mongolian Women's Federation reports that the divorce rate is rising among jobless low-income couples, increasing the number of single-parent households. </FONT></TD>
    15461507</TR>
    15471508</TABLE>
    15481509
    1549 <FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1510<FONT SIZE=2>
    15501511<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along with job loss women are affected by the decline in services such as day care and maternity homes.</P>
    1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1512
    15521513<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers now have to look after their children at home, which restricts their ability to participate in the labor market and, ironically, increases their dependence on welfare. When herds were privatized, priority was given to people who, according to the government, could take better care of the animals. Unfortunately, this policy adversely affected female-headed households.</P>
    1553 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1514
    15541515<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The maternal mortality rate has doubled over the past three years. in part because many more babies are being delivered at home. Other factors that have contributed to the rising maternal mortality rate include a decrease in the number of ambulances and the need for patients to pay for the food they consume while they are hospitalized.</P>
    1555 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1516
    15561517<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mongolia, targeting female-headed households, pregnant women, and children is essential for reducing poverty. Social assistance, health care. education, and help in finding employment are particularly important (Subbarao and Ezemenari forthcoming).  change the geographic distribution of primary schools, of provide more boarding facilities. Projects in Pakistan are using school mapping techniques to establish criteria for placing new schools in currently underserved areas. Such programs benefit both girls and boys.</P>
    1557 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1518
    15581519<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be necessary to target women when economic reforms of systemic transitions are occurring. For example, in Mongolia, as well as in other countries making the transition from a socialist to a market economy, women are disproportionately represented among the unemployed and otherwise disadvantaged (box 3.8). Thus, in designing safety nets to mitigate the short negative effects or economic transitions. policymakers need to recognize and evaluate the specific adverse effects on women</P>
    1559 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1520
    15601521<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not always necessary to restrict a particular program of benefit exclusively to women: the objective can sometimes be achieved indirectly.</P>
    1561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1522
    15621523<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques based on self-selection appear to be particularly efficient. In Zambia. where men have a strong preference for cash wages, offering wages in kind (food) attracted more women workers than men to public works programs.</P>
    1563 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1524
    15641525<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P>
    1565 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1566 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1526
    15671527<B><P></P>
    15681528<!--
    … …  
    15731533  </Description>
    15741534-->
    1575 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1535</B>
    15761536<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P>
    1577 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1537
    15781538<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three broad approaches can be used to guarantee that the views of women and other intended beneficiaries are adequately reflected in policy and project formulation. First. surveys and other methods of collecting statistical data can be designed to ensure that gender-desegregated data are properly collected and analyzed. Second, beneficiary assessments, which use a range of qualitative research methods such as direct observation. selected individual of group interviews. and case studies. can be used to ensure that the views of all groups are adequately represented.</P>
    1579 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1539
    15801540<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P>
    1581 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1541
    15831542<B><P></P>
    15841543<!--
    … …  
    15891548  </Description>
    15901549-->
    1591 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1550</B>
    15921551<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P>
    1593 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1552
    15941553<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several important steps in collecting useful and accurate data. First. in places where gender -desegregated household data have not yet been collected. special efforts should be made to obtain them. At a minimum data on how individuals use health and educational services should be collected routinely as part of national consumption and expenditure surveys. If household consumption. income or production surveys have already been carried out but little or no gender--desegregated data have been collected, the marginal cost of collection is likely to be quite modest-perhaps on the order of 10 percent of total costs.</P>
    1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1554
    15961555<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participatory methods help establish rational criteria  for making public investment choose that incorporate  both social and efficiency objectives. </P>
    1597 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1556
    15981557<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second. in places where basic gender-desegregated data have already been collected, it is important to gather more data from individuals on consumption and. as much as possible. on income and the ownership of assets. Such data ate vital for developing a deeper understanding of how access to and allocation and control of resources are determined within households. More data on men's and women's access to credit and information services, such as agricultural extension programs, are needed for an understanding of women's limited access to important production inputs. The data also indicate the effectiveness of projects and programs in providing such services to women.</P>
    1599 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1558
    16001559<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, there should be an increased emphasis on collecting panel data (thee series) to facilitate snore detailed analyses of changes in household behavior over time. Because full panel surveys are costly, it may be necessary to adopt less-expensive panel methods and combine them with flexible data collection. Anthropological and participatory research methods can be used to enhance the quality and relevance of formal survey questions, as well as to provide a "reality check" on formal survey responses.</P>
    1601 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1560
    16021561<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P>
    1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1604 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1562
    16051563<B><P></P>
    16061564<!--
    … …  
    16111569  </Description>
    16121570-->
    1613 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1571</B>
    16141572<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P>
    1615 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1573
    16161574<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past several decades NGOs have become major players in international development. NGOs are by no means homogenous. In the field of development, they range from large volunteer and charity organizations, many of them based in industrial countries, to community-based self-help groups. They also include research institutes, volunteer-sending agencies, religious organizations, professional associations, and lobbying groups.</P>
    1617 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1575
    16181576<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs concerned with gender issues have had a particularly important role in designing and implementing gender programs, especially at the grassroots level, and in advocating policy change at the national level NGOs have been effective in providing information and education to women and in helping community-based women's organizations lobby for change. In many countries collaboration between NGOs and governments is still relatively new. Nonetheless, it is growing rapidly-most visibly in the delivery of social and financial services.</P>
    1619 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1577
    16201578<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Peru a proposed basic health and nutrition project aims to improve the quality and accessibility of health and nutritional services, with an emphasis on poor women and children. NGOs are expected to play a major role in implementing the project and will be responsible for 75 percent of training and research, 40 percent of education, and 20 percent of service delivery (World Bank 1994g). In Africa many HIV/AIDS support programs are managed by NGOs with assistance from governments and funds from international donors.</P>
    1621 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1579
    16221580<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the long run choices made by private sector agents are profoundly important for the persistence  or reduction of gender inequalities </P>
    1623 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1581
    16241582<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial services sector NGOs have found innovative ways of overcoming barriers that women face in access to credit and savings facilities. Among the better-know programs are the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ACCION International in Latin America, and the NGO consortium ACCORD in Africa. NGOs have been very successful in organizing village banks and mobile banking systems to reach the rural poor. These credit programs provide women not only with the funds to finance income-generating activities but also with opportunities to acquire basic business skills and to assume leadership positions within their peer groups.</P>
    1625 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1583
    16261584<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P>
    1627 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1628 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1585
    16291586<B><P></P>
    16301587<!--
    … …  
    16351592  </Description>
    16361593-->
    1637 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1594</B>
    16381595<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P>
    1639 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1596
    16401597<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and  children (estimated at 4 million) </P>
    1641 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1598
    16421599<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The constraints that refugee and displaced women lace are similar to those faced by other women, only magnified many times. They lack access to health services, even though their health risks are high. Girls often have less access to basic education than in their home countries. With little access to family planning, women s fertility rates may be extraordinarily high at a time when the burden of additional children hinders the chances of survival for both mothers and infants. In the absence of professional abortion services, women may rely on self-induced and unsafe abortions. The proportion of female-headed households is highest in refugee situations, yet the women's income-generating activities and skills are minimal</P>
    1643 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1600
    16441601<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international response to this type of crisis is usually limited to emergency relief measures. Although vital, these measures often fail to recognize the long-term economic and social costs involved in restructuring the lives of displaced women when they return to their home countries. International public policy has an important role in preparing refugee and displaced women for their future role in rebuilding their societies. Long-term repatriation and development on a regional basis along the lines of the International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA) in Central America is one approach to involving governments, NGOs and development agencies in a coordinated response to refugee problems. Governments and agencies must make every effort to collaborate in making repatriation viable by establishing development programs that explicitly take account of refugees' needs. Otherwise, chances are high that people will once again be forced to leave their countries. putting at risk national reconciliation efforts.</P>
    1645 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1602
    16461603<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P>
    1647 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1648 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
     1604
    16491605<B><P></P>
    16501606<!--
    … …  
    16551611  </Description>
    16561612-->
    1657 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1613</B>
    16581614<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P>
    1659 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1615
    16601616<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY directing  public resource toward policies and projects  that reduce gender inequality policy markers are promoting  not only equality today but also higher labor productivity </P>
    1661 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1617
    16621618<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women  themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
    1663 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1664 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1665 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1666 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1619
     1620<B>
    16671621<!--
    16681622</Section>
    … …  
    16731627  </Description>
    16741628-->
    1675 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1629</B>
    16761630<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P>
    1677 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1631
    16781632<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subbarao and Raney (1993) estimate that a doubling of family planning services in 1982 would have reduced the fertility rate from 5.5 to 5 0 and the number of births by 3.5 percent</P>
    1679 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1633
    16801634<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) is a series of multitopic surveys designed to study multiple aspects of household welfare</P>
    1681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1635
    16821636<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Deforestation is represented by the time required to collect a standard load of fuelwood</P>
    1683 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1637
    16841638<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. It would be more illuminating to compare wage differences across three categories of women workers: women without children: women with children but with no interruption in employment except for statutory maternity leave: and women with children and with interrupted employment</P>
    1685 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1639
    16861640<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Among women workers. 53 percent are in commerce. compared with 33 percent of men. In manufacturing. 16 percent of the workers are men. compared with 14 percent for women. In services, 37 percent are men anti 33 percent are women (World Bank 1995c)</P>
    1687 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1641
    16881642<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In Bolivia informal moneylenders require borrowers to write postdated checks. If borrowers tail to make timely repayments, these checks are deposited and, as the lender knows will bounce for lack of funds A bounced check is a criminal offense in Bolivia. and the lender can have the borrower arrested The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of all Bolivian prison inmates-and 40 percent of female inmates imprisoned for 'bouncing' checks and for other collateral-related crimes. In many cases children must live in prison with their mothers (winkler and Guedes, 1995)</P>
    1689 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1643
    16901644<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P>
    1691 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
    1692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1693 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
    1694 <B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
     1645
     1646<B>
    16951647<!--
    16961648</Section>
    … …  
    17001652  </Description>
    17011653-->
    1702 </B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1654</B>
    17031655<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwal. Bina. 1994. "Gender and Command Over Property: A Critical Gap in Economic Analysis and Policy in South Asia." World/Development 22(10) 22(10): 145578.</P>
    1704 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1656
    17051657<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baden. Sally. 1993. "The Impact of Recession and Structural Adjustment on Women's Work in Developing and Developed Countries." Working paper. International Labour Office. Geneva</P>
    1706 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1658
    17071659<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bardhan, Kalpana 1993. "Women and Rural Poverty: Some Asian Cases" In M G Quibria, ea., Rural Poverty in Asia Priority Issues and Policy Options. New York: Oxford University Press.</P>
    1708 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1660
    17091661<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bardhan, Pranab. 1988. "Sex Disparity in Child Survival in Rural India In T. Srinivasan and Pranab Bardhan. eds., Rural Poverty in South Asia. New York: Columbia University Press.</P>
    1710 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1662
    17111663<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barro. Robert 1991 "Economic Growth in a Cross-section of Countries' Journal of Economics 106 (May):407 43.</P>
    1712 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1664
    17131665<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beneria. Lourdes. 1992. 'Accounting for Women's Work: The Progress of Two Decades.'' World Id Development 20(11): 1547-60.</P>
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    17151667<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bindlish. Vishva. and Robert Evenson. 1993. Evaluation of the Performance of T and V Extension it? Kenya. World Bank Technical Paper 208. Washington. D.C.</P>
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    17171669<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Binswanger. Hans, and Mark R. Rosenzweig, eds. 1984 Contractual Arrangements Employment and Wages in Rural Labor Markets m Asia. New Haven. Conn.: Yale University Press.</P>
    1718 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    17191671<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birdsall, Nancy, and Richard Sabot 1994 ''Inequality as a Constraint on Growth Working Paper. Manila: Asian Development Bank.</P>
    1720 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    17211673<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blau. Francine. and Lawrence N. Kahn. 1992 " The Gender Earnings Gap: Learning from International Comparisons" America Economic Review 82 (2):533-38.</P>
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    17231675<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bouis Howarth E., and Eileen T. Kennedy. 1989. "Traditional Cash Crop Schemes' Effects on Production, Consumption and Nutrition: Sugarcane in the Philippines and Kenya." Prepared for IFPRI-INCAP Policy Workshop. Antigua. Guatemala</P>
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    17251677<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chatterjee. Meera 1991. Indication Women Their Health and Productivity World Bank Discussion Paper 109. Washington. D.C.</P>
    1726 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1678
    17271679<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David, Rosalind 1992 The Effects of Male Out-migration on Women's Management of the Natural Resource Base of the Sahel. SOs International, London.</P>
    1728 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    17291681<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors to African Education. 1994. A Statistical Profile of Education in Sub Saharan Africa in the 1980s. Paris.</P>
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    17311683<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duraiswamy. P. 1992. "Child Survival. Preventive Health Care and Schooling in Rural Households of Tamil Nadu: India." Yale University, New Haven, Conn.</P>
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    17331685<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Edgerton, V. R. G. W Gardner, Y Ohira. K. A Gunarwardena, and B. Senewiratne 1979 'lron Deficiency Anaemia and Its Effects on Worker Productivity and Activity Patterns' British Medical Journal 2:1546-49.</P>
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     1686
    17351687<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Einhorn. Barbara. 1993 Citizenship. Gender and Women's Movements in East Cent/al Europe London: Verso</P>
    1736 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1688
    17371689<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) 1993 Rural Poverty Alleviation Polices and Trends Economic and Social Development Paper 113 Rome</P>
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    17391691<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fields, Gary S. 1992 ''Changing Poverty and Inequality in Latin America" Public Finance 47 (Supplement): 59-76.</P>
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    17411693<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folbre. Nancy. 1994. Who Pays for the Kids:' Gender and the Structures of Constraint. London: Routledge</P>
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     1694
    17431695<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fong, Monica 1993. The Role of Women in Rebuilding the Russian Economy. Studies of Economics in Transformation 10 Washington, D.C.: World Bank.</P>
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    17471699<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hart, Gillian 1986 Power Labor and Livelihood: Processes of Change in Rural Java San Francisco: University of Berkeley Press.</P>
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    17491701<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heise, Lori. 1993 ''Violence Against Women: The Missing Agenda." In Marge Koblinsky. Judith Timyan. and Jill Gay. eds.. The Health of Women A Global</P>
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    1756 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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    17571709<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herz Barbara, K Subbarao, Masooma Habib. and Laura Raney 1991 Letting Girls Lea/n. Promising Education. World Bank Discussion Paper 1. Washington, D C</P>
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    17591711<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoddinot, John, and Lawrence Haddad 1992. Does Female Income Insentience Household Expenditures  Evidence from C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire Trinity College. Oxford University, Oxford. U K</P>
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    17611713<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holt, Sharon. 1995 Gender and Property Rights: Women and Agrarian Reform in Russia and Moldova.' World Bank, Europe and Central Asia Region, Washington, D C.</P>
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    17641715<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horton, Susan 1994. "Women and Industrialization in Asia" University of Toronto. Institute for Policy Analysis</P>
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    17661717<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hosken, Fran P., ed 1992. Women's International Network News 18(4).</P>
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    17681719<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILO/INSTRAW. 1985. Women in Economic Activity: A Global Statistical Survey 1950-2000 Geneva</P>
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    17701721<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson. Cecile 1993 "Doing What Comes Naturally? Women and Environment in Development." World Development 21 (12): 1947-63.</P>
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    1873 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1824
    18741825<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Recent Development in Practice Books</P>
    1875 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1826
    18761827<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
    1877 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1828
    18781829<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
    1879 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1830
    18801831<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening the Effectiveness of Aid: Lessons for Donors</P>
    1881 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1832
    18821833<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching Lives: Overcoming Vitamin and Mineral Malnutrition in Developing Countries (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
    1883 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1834
    18841835<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Agenda for Women's Health and Nutrition (also available in French)</P>
    18851836<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank</P>
    1886 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1837
    18871838<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia's Trade and Investment: Regional and Global Gains from Liberalization</P>
    1888 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1839
    18891840<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governance: The World Bank's Experience</P>
    1890 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1841
    18911842<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
    1892 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1843
    18931844<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Health in Africa: Experience and Lessons Learned (also available in French)</P>
    1894 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1845
    18951846<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Argentina's Privatization Program: Experience, Issues, and Lessons Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific</P>
    1896 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1847
    18971848<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WORLD BANK A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest</P>
    1898 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1849
    18991850<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also good economics. It is of foremost importance to women's wellbeing and development. Discrimination means losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families, and society at large.</P>
    1900 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1851
    19011852<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gender gap is narrowing in education, health, and many other areas, women are still less educated than men, work more hours, and are paid less. The reasons why gender disparities persist are complex, having to do with social and institutional norms, relationships within households, and even lack of information about the benefits of educating and employing women. Despite the weight of social and cultural factors, public policy can influence women's status and well-being. Governments have a leading role in widening the opportunities available to women and extending the services that are vitally important to them.</P>
    1902 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
     1853
    19031854<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report outlines what governments and development agencies can do to work toward greater gender equality- one of the best investments a society can make. Public policy can affect investments in health, education, and infrastructure through laws and regulations. It can also affect land ownership, financial services, and access to employment. Not least important, public  policies can affect macroeconomic performance and create a favorable climate for economic development.</P>
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