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+<Archive>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
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+    <Metadata name="Title">Anne Boleyn: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
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+    <Metadata name="URL">http://html_files/boleyn.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="UTF8URL">http://html_files/boleyn.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Identifier">HASH017c9afe86ea1866828ceb1b</Metadata>
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+  <Content>
+&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; height=&quot;667&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
+  &lt;tbody&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;29&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;29&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;'[A] woman who is the scandal of 
+      Christendom.'&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/font&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Katharine of Aragon describes her
+rival, 1531&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; 
+&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; 
+&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleyncardinalbig.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Anne Boleyn&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;90&quot; width=&quot;352&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; &lt;b&gt; 
+      &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleynmainjpg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;the most famous portrait of Anne Boleyn; at the NPG, London&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;357&quot; width=&quot;275&quot;&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; &lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;portrait of Anne Boleyn by an unknown 
+      artist, late 16th century&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;br&gt;Anne Boleyn is one of the most famous queens
+in English history, though she ruled for just three years.&amp;nbsp; The
+daughter of an ambitious knight and niece of the duke of Norfolk, Anne
+spent her adolescence in France.&amp;nbsp; When she returned to England,
+her wit and style were her greatest charms.&amp;nbsp; She had a circle of
+admirers and became secretly engaged to Henry Percy.&amp;nbsp; She also
+entered the service of Katharine of Aragon.&amp;nbsp; But she soon caught
+the eye of Henry VIII.&amp;nbsp; He ordered Percy from court and tried to
+make Anne his mistress.&amp;nbsp; She refused.&amp;nbsp; Her sister, Mary, had
+been the king's mistress and gained little from it but scandal.&amp;nbsp;
+Her hopes with Percy dashed, Anne demanded that the king marry
+her.&amp;nbsp; She waited nearly seven years for Henry to obtain an
+annulment.&amp;nbsp; It finally took an irrevocable breach with the Holy
+See before they wed in 1533.&amp;nbsp; But she was unable to give Henry the
+son he desperately needed and their marriage ended tragically for
+Anne.&amp;nbsp; She was executed on patently false charges of witchcraft,
+incest and adultery on 19 May 1536.&amp;nbsp; Her daughter, Elizabeth,
+would become England's greatest queen.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpsamepagelink_#Biography&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Read the biography of Anne Boleyn&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Primary Sources&lt;/b&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+Read &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletters.html&quot;&gt;letters
+written by Anne&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fab-percy.html&quot;&gt;The
+romance between Anne &amp;amp; Henry Percy,&lt;/a&gt; c1523&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+Eyewitness accounts of &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprianne1.html&quot;&gt;her coronation in
+1533&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprianne2.html&quot;&gt;her
+execution in 1536&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fab-lastdays.html&quot;&gt;An
+account of Anne's last days&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprianne3.html&quot;&gt;Anne's
+last words&lt;/a&gt;, 19 May 1536&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fexanne.html&quot;&gt;Another
+account of her execution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+          &lt;p&gt;
+          &lt;b&gt;Secondary Sources&lt;br&gt;&lt;/b&gt;Read JA Froude's 1891 work &lt;i&gt;
+          &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fsecondary.html&quot;&gt;The Divorce 
+          of Catherine of Aragon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp; &lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Understandably, it also 
+          discusses Anne Boleyn as well as Henry VIII's rumored affair with her 
+          sister Mary.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fannedesc.html&quot;&gt;Contemporary
+descriptions of Anne&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2flovelett.html&quot;&gt;Henry
+VIII's love letters to Anne&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fboleyn-poems.html&quot;&gt;Poetry
+about Anne Boleyn&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;Visit &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html&quot;&gt;Tudor
+England: Images&lt;/a&gt; to view portraits of Anne.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+Visit the &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz.html&quot;&gt;Queen
+Elizabeth I site&lt;/a&gt; to learn more about Anne's daughter.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+Read about Anne's sister, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fboleyn.html&quot;&gt;Mary Boleyn&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2ffiveanne.html&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;The
+Boleyn-Howard connection&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Anne's relationship to Henry VIII's fifth wife&lt;/font&gt;
+        &lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;Test your knowledge of Anne Boleyn's life at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudor1.html&quot;&gt;Tudor Quizzes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;Links&lt;br&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.geocities.com%2fboleynfamily&quot;&gt;The Boleyns&lt;/a&gt;: A 
+        website dedicated to the entire Boleyn family, with particular emphasis 
+        upon Anne.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fjack-of-all-trades.ca%2fmeandmine&quot;&gt;Me and Mine&lt;/a&gt;: 
+        Biography and images of Anne Boleyn.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        Interact&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;/b&gt; Meet other Anne Boleyn enthusiasts at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.fine-eyes.net%2fanneboleyn%2findextwo.html&quot;&gt;Mistress
+Anne: The Official Anne Boleyn Fanlisting&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;
+Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fladiesallfanlist.cjb.net&quot;&gt;Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fgroups.yahoo.com%2fsearch%3fquery%3dAnne%2bBoleyn&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Anne Boleyn at Yahoo! Groups&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp; There are numerous groups
+dedicated to Anne.&amp;nbsp; I think you need a Yahoo! ID to join.&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2ftudorhistory.org%2flists%2flist.html&quot;&gt; Tudor Talk &lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;This
+email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.&amp;nbsp; It does
+not focus exclusively on Anne.&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fgroups.yahoo.com%2fgroup%2fReign%5fof%5fthe%5fTudors%5frpg&quot;&gt;Reign
+of the Tudors&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&amp;nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;b&gt;NEWS&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; September 2004&lt;br&gt;The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn: 
+        The Most Happy&lt;/b&gt; by Eric Ives has just been published
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.amazon.co.uk%2fexec%2fobidos%2fASIN%2f0631234799%2fqid%3d1096393233%2fref%3dsr%5f8%5fxs%5fap%5fi1%5fxgl%2f026-3687195-0558069&quot;&gt;
+        in the UK&lt;/a&gt; and
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.amazon.com%2fexec%2fobidos%2ftg%2fdetail%2f-%2f0631234799%2fqid%3d1096393461%2fsr%3d8-1%2fref%3dsr%5f8%5fxs%5fap%5fi1%5fxgl14%2f002-7093489-7046463%3fv%3dglance%26amp;s%3dbooks%26amp;n%3d507846&quot;&gt;
+        US&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; I will be posting a lengthy review soon.&amp;nbsp;
+        &lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Professor Ives had previously written the definitive 
+        biography of Anne in 1986; this work incorporates new research.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;
+        &lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        Anne
+Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen&lt;/b&gt; by Joanna Denny
+        was published
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.amazon.co.uk%2fexec%2fobidos%2fASIN%2f074995017X%2fqid%3d1076882496%2fsr%3d2-2%2fref%3dsr%5f2%5f11%5f2%2f026-9295844-3953254&quot;&gt;in the UK&lt;/a&gt; 
+        in April 2004.&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;hr&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;The above portrait of Anne Boleyn is a late
+16th copy of a lost original.&amp;nbsp; It can be viewed at the National Portrait
+Gallery, London.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;hr&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+  &lt;/tbody&gt;
+&lt;/table&gt;
+&lt;blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/font&gt;&lt;a name=&quot;Biography&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/a&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'She is of middling stature, with a swarthy
+complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact
+has nothing but the King's great appetite, and her eyes, which are
+black and beautiful - and take great effect on those who served the
+Queen when she was on the throne.&amp;nbsp; She lives like a queen, and the
+King accompanies her to Mass - and everywhere.'&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/font&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;the Venetian ambassador describes Anne, 1532&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Biography&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Anne Boleyn's birthdate is unknown; even the year is widely
+debated.&amp;nbsp; General opinion now favors 1501 or 1502, though some
+historians persuasively argue for 1507.&amp;nbsp; She was probably born at
+Blickling Hall in Norfolk.&amp;nbsp; Her father was Sir Thomas Boleyn, a
+minor courtier with a talent for foreign languages; he was of London
+merchant stock and eager to advance in the world.&amp;nbsp; Like most men,
+he chose to marry well.&amp;nbsp; His bride was Elizabeth Howard, daughter
+of the second duke of Norfolk and sister of the third duke.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne had two surviving siblings, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fboleyn.html&quot;&gt;Mary&lt;/a&gt;
+and George.&amp;nbsp; Their birthdates are also unknown, as is the order of their 
+  births.&amp;nbsp; We only know that all three Boleyn siblings were close in age.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;In 1514, Henry VIII married his youngest sister, Mary, to the aged king of France.&amp;nbsp; Anne
+accompanied the Tudor princess as a very&lt;img alt=&quot;miniature portrait of Anne Boleyn&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleynsmall.jpg&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;232&quot; width=&quot;175&quot;&gt; young lady-in-waiting; she remained in France after the French king died and
+  &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fbrandon.html&quot;&gt;Mary Tudor&lt;/a&gt;
+returned home.&amp;nbsp; Anne gained the subsequent honor of being educated
+under the watchful eye of the new French queen Claude.&amp;nbsp; This
+education had a uniquely French emphasis upon fashion and flirtation,
+though more intellectual skills were not neglected.&amp;nbsp; Anne became
+an accomplished musician, singer and dancer.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;In 1521 or early 1522, with war between England and France
+imminent, Anne returned home.&amp;nbsp; When she first caught Henry VIII's
+eye is unknown.&amp;nbsp; He was originally attracted to her sister, Mary
+who came to court before Anne.&amp;nbsp; She was the king's mistress in the
+early 1520s and, as a mark of favor, her father was elevated to the
+peerage as viscount Rochfort/Rochford in 1525.&amp;nbsp; Mary herself would leave 
+  court with only a dull marriage, and possibly the king's illegitimate son, as 
+  her reward.&amp;nbsp; Anne learned much from her sister's example.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Her first years at court were spent in service to Henry VIII's
+first wife, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fhtml%5ffiles%2faragon.html&quot;&gt;Katharine of Aragon&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; She became quite popular among
+the younger men.&amp;nbsp; She was not considered a great beauty; her
+sister occupied that position in the family, but even Mary was merely
+deemed 'pretty'.&amp;nbsp; Hostile chroniclers &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fannedesc.html&quot;&gt;described Anne&lt;/a&gt;
+as plain, sallow, and possessing two distinct flaws - a large mole on
+the side of her neck and an extra finger on her left hand.&amp;nbsp; Such
+praise as she received focused on her style, her wit and charm; she was
+quick-tempered and spirited.&amp;nbsp; Her most remarkable physical
+attributes were her large dark eyes and long black hair.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The king's attraction was focused upon her sharp and teasing
+manner, and her oft-stated unavailability.&amp;nbsp; What he couldn't have,
+he pined for all the more.&amp;nbsp; This was especially difficult for a
+king used to having his own way in everything.&amp;nbsp; Anne was also
+seriously involved with &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fab-percy.html&quot;&gt;Henry Percy&lt;/a&gt;,
+the son and heir of the earl of Northumberland; there were rumors of an
+engagement and declarations of true love.&amp;nbsp; The king ordered his
+great minister, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fwolsey.html&quot;&gt;Cardinal
+Thomas Wolsey&lt;/a&gt;, to end the match.&amp;nbsp; Wolsey did so, thus ensuring
+Percy's unhappy marriage to the earl of Shrewsbury's daughter and
+Anne's great enmity.&amp;nbsp; It was safer to blame the Cardinal than his
+king.&amp;nbsp; Also, Henry's jealousy revealed the depth of his feelings,
+and Anne quite naturally thought - if she could not be an earl's wife,
+why not try for the crown of England? &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;When Anne avoided Henry's company, was sullen and evasive to him,
+he sent her from court; he hoped that a few months in the country would
+persuade her of his charms.&amp;nbsp; It did not work.&amp;nbsp; Anne was
+already playing a far more serious game than the king.&amp;nbsp; Later,
+after she had been arrested, Henry would claim he had been 'bewitched'
+and the term wasn't used lightly in the 16th century.&amp;nbsp; But perhaps
+it was simply the contrast between her vivacity and Katharine's
+solemnity; or perhaps the king mistook the inexplicable ardor of true
+love for something more ominous, long after that love had faded.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It is impossible to fully explain the mystery of attraction
+between two people.&amp;nbsp; How Anne was able to capture and maintain the
+king's attention for such a long while, despite great obstacles and the
+constant presence of malicious gossip, cannot be explained.&amp;nbsp; Henry
+was headstrong and querulous.&amp;nbsp; But for several years, he remained
+faithful to his feelings for Anne - and his attendant desire for a
+legitimate male heir.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragon-min.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;168&quot; width=&quot;166&quot;&gt;One cannot separate the king's desire for a
+son, indeed its very necessity, from his personal desire for
+Anne.&amp;nbsp; The two interests merged perfectly in 1527.&amp;nbsp; Henry had
+discovered the &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fhtml%5ffiles%2faragon.html&quot;&gt;invalidity
+of his marriage&lt;/a&gt; to Katharine.&amp;nbsp; Now it was possible to annul
+his marriage and secure his two fondest hopes - Anne's hand in marriage
+and the long-desired heir.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; Cardinal Wolsey had long advocated an Anglo-French
+alliance.&amp;nbsp; For that reason, he disliked the Spanish
+  &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fhtml%5ffiles%2faragon.html&quot;&gt;Katharine
+of Aragon&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; He now set about securing his monarch's annulment
+with the intention of marrying Henry to a French princess.&amp;nbsp; And if
+not a French princess, perhaps a great lady of the English court.&amp;nbsp;
+Wolsey did not like Anne, and she despised him.&amp;nbsp; It was Wolsey who
+had delivered the king's orders to Henry Percy, driving her suitor from
+court.&amp;nbsp; She never forgot that injury to her heart.&amp;nbsp; And while
+she could not revenge herself upon the king, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletter8.html&quot;&gt;she could work
+against&lt;/a&gt; his Lord Chancellor.&amp;nbsp; His protÃ©gÃ© and successor &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fcromwell.html&quot;&gt;Thomas
+Cromwell&lt;/a&gt; became a close ally. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;But Anne alone did not cause Wolsey's fall from grace, though she
+took the blame for it.&amp;nbsp; Indeed, 'Nan Bullen', as the common people
+derisively called her, became the scapegoat for all the king's
+unpopular decisions.&amp;nbsp; But it is important to remember that no one
+- not Wolsey, not Cromwell, and certainly not Anne Boleyn - ever
+controlled Henry VIII, or made him do other than exactly what he
+wanted.&amp;nbsp; He was a king who thoroughly knew and enjoyed his
+position.&amp;nbsp; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fmore.html&quot;&gt;Sir Thomas
+More&lt;/a&gt; would aptly point this out to his son-in-law, William Roper -
+'If a lion knew his strength, it were hard for any man to hold
+him.'&amp;nbsp; And later, when Roper commented upon the king's affection
+for More, the philosopher replied that if his head would win the king a
+castle in France, then Henry would not hesitate to chop it off.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;But most people found it easier to hate Anne than to hate their
+monarch.&amp;nbsp; As the king's desire for an annulment became the gossip
+of all Europe, she was roundly criticized and condemned.&amp;nbsp; And she
+was not popular at the English court either.&amp;nbsp; Both her unique
+situation and her oft times abrasive personality offended many.&amp;nbsp;
+And Katharine's solemn piety had impressed the English court for three
+decades; her supporters were numerous, though not inclined to face the
+king's formidable wrath.&amp;nbsp; In truth, Anne was sustained only by the
+king's affection and she knew his mercurial temper.&amp;nbsp; It is
+possible that she was as surprised by his faithfulness as everyone
+else.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;As the struggle for an annulment proceeded and the pope
+prevaricated between Henry and Katharine's nephew, the Holy Roman
+Emperor Charles V, Anne's position at the English court became steadily
+more prominent.&amp;nbsp; There were at first little signs.&amp;nbsp; The king
+would eat alone with her; she received expensive gifts; she began to
+dress in the most fashionable and expensive gowns; the king paid her
+gambling debts since Anne, like most courtiers, enjoyed cards and dice.
+  &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The king was not too outlandish at first; he had no desire to
+prejudice the pope against his case by flaunting a new love.&amp;nbsp; But
+as the delays mounted, and rumors of his new love spread, Henry
+realized there was no purpose in hiding the truth.&amp;nbsp; By 1530, Anne
+was openly honored by the king at court.&amp;nbsp; She was accorded
+precedence over all other ladies, and she sat with the king at
+banquets and hunts while Katharine was virtually ignored.&amp;nbsp; The
+pretense of his first marriage was allowed to continue; Katharine
+continued to personally mend his shirts and send him gifts and
+notes.&amp;nbsp; But it was an untenable situation.&amp;nbsp; It grated on both
+women.&amp;nbsp; Anne perhaps taxed the king with it.&amp;nbsp; To placate her,
+she was titled marquess of Pembroke on 4 September 1532 at Windsor
+Castle; she wore a beautiful crimson gown and her hair hung
+loose.&amp;nbsp; Now elevated to the peerage in her own right, she had
+wealth and lands of her own.&amp;nbsp; But when she accompanied him to
+France on a state visit a short while later, the ladies of the French
+court refused to meet with her.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It is believed that her elevation to the peerage marked the
+physical consummation of Anne and Henry's relationship.&amp;nbsp; She would
+give birth to &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz.html&quot;&gt;Elizabeth&lt;/a&gt;
+just a year later, and there were rumors of a secret marriage in late
+1532.&amp;nbsp; It is possible that she became pregnant after just a few
+months and a second, legitimate wedding became a necessity.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; 
+  &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleyn3sepiatinged.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;sepia-tinged sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;344&quot; width=&quot;216&quot;&gt;The king had his fondest wish within his
+grasp.&amp;nbsp; Anne was pregnant with his long-awaited son, or so he
+thought, and this son must be legitimate.&amp;nbsp; He could no longer wait
+upon the pope.&amp;nbsp; Henry rejected the authority of the Holy See and
+Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, annulled his marriage to
+Katharine.&amp;nbsp; Henry and Anne married again in January 1533 in a
+small ceremony.&amp;nbsp; But though they were now husband and wife, few
+recognized the fact.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprianne1.html&quot;&gt;Her
+coronation&lt;/a&gt; was a lavish affair; the king spared no expense.&amp;nbsp;
+But the people of London were noticeably unimpressed.&amp;nbsp; They cried
+out 'HA! HA!' mockingly as tapestries decorated with Henry and Anne's
+entwined initials passed by.&amp;nbsp; Henry asked, 'How liked you the look
+of the City?'&amp;nbsp; Anne replied, 'Sir, I liked the City well enough -
+but I saw a great many caps on heads, and heard but few tongues.'&amp;nbsp;
+  &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;And so her coronation was yet another reminder of her complete
+dependency upon the king.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne enjoyed her triumph as much as she could.&amp;nbsp; She ordered
+new blue and purple livery for her servants and set about replacing
+Katharine's badge of pomegranates with her own falcon symbol.&amp;nbsp; She
+chose as her motto, 'The Most Happy', in stark contrast to her
+predecessor.&amp;nbsp; Katharine had been 'Humble and Loyal'; Henry's
+mother, Elizabeth of York had chosen 'Humble and Reverent'.&amp;nbsp; But
+humility was not a marked characteristic of Anne Boleyn.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;She was pious, though not as rigid and inflexible as Katharine of
+Aragon.&amp;nbsp; Anne's sympathies naturally lay with the progressive
+thought now challenging Catholic orthodoxy; with Henry's rejection of the papacy and his
+creation of a new Church of England, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ffaq.html#Eleven-b&quot;&gt;the
+Reformation&lt;/a&gt; had come to England.&amp;nbsp; It was not as revolutionary
+as Luther's movement in Germany.&amp;nbsp; Henry actually remained a devout
+Catholic, only denying what he now regarded as the illegitimate
+authority of the papacy.&amp;nbsp; Anne knew that her marriage and future
+children would never be recognized as legitimate by Catholic
+Europe.&amp;nbsp; She had to support the new church, otherwise she was no more than 
+  the king's mistress.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;And this new emphasis upon debating even the most esoteric bits of
+theology appealed to her nature.&amp;nbsp; She was always curious and open
+to new ideas; she never blindly accepted&lt;img alt=&quot;The above portrait is of Anne Boleyn, painted by Lucas Horenbout; dated 1525-27.  Sir Roy Strong identified the portrait.  Anne wears a necklace with her falcon badge.&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleynstrong.jpg&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; height=&quot;175&quot; width=&quot;175&quot;&gt; anything.&amp;nbsp; But this is not to deny her
+deep faith.&amp;nbsp; As queen, she was close friends with Thomas Cranmer
+and she also sponsored various religious books.&amp;nbsp; She had none of
+the hard-fought pragmatism of her daughter, 
+  &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz.html&quot;&gt;Elizabeth&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; Religious faith was a
+vital part of Anne's life, as it was for every person in the 16th
+century.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;She entered confinement for the birth of her first child on 26
+August 1533.&amp;nbsp; The child was born on 7 September 1533.&amp;nbsp; The
+physicians and astrologers had been mistaken; it was not a
+prince.&amp;nbsp; But the healthy baby girl called Elizabeth was not the
+disappointment most assumed, nor did she immediately cause her mother's
+downfall.&amp;nbsp; The birth had been very easy and quick.&amp;nbsp; 'There
+was good speed in the deliverance and bringing forth,' Anne wrote to
+Lord Cobham that very day.&amp;nbsp; The queen recovered quickly.&amp;nbsp;
+Henry had every reason to believe that strong princes would
+follow.&amp;nbsp; It was only when Anne miscarried two sons that he began
+to question the validity of his second marriage.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Elizabeth's christening was a grand affair, though the king did
+not attend.&amp;nbsp; This fact was much remarked-upon, but Henry
+confounded all by his continuing affection for Anne.&amp;nbsp; He also
+promptly declared Elizabeth his heir, thus according her precedence
+over her 17 year old half-sister, 
+  &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fmary1.html&quot;&gt;Princess Mary&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; Anne could
+breathe a sigh of relief, recover, and become pregnant again.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Immediately after Elizabeth's christening, Henry wrote to Mary and
+demanded that she relinquish her title of Princess of Wales.&amp;nbsp; The
+title belonged to his heiress.&amp;nbsp; He also demanded that she
+acknowledge the validity of his new marriage and legitimacy of her
+half-sister.&amp;nbsp; But Mary could be as obstinate as her mother; she refused.&amp;nbsp; Enraged, Henry evicted Mary from her
+home, the manor Beaulieu, so he could give it to Anne's brother, George.&amp;nbsp; In December, 
+  she was moved into Elizabeth's household
+under the care of Lady Anne Shelton, a sister of Anne's father.&amp;nbsp;
+It was an understandably miserable time for Mary.&amp;nbsp; When told to pay her
+respects to the baby Princess, she said that she knew of no Princess of
+England but herself and burst into tears.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Henry was infuriated and Anne encouraged the estrangement.&amp;nbsp;
+Her daughter's status depended upon Mary remaining out of favor.&amp;nbsp;
+In the two and a half years she lived after Elizabeth's birth, Anne
+proved herself a devoted mother.&amp;nbsp; Soon after the birth, Elizabeth
+had to be moved from London, for purposes of health; London was rife
+with a variety of illnesses - sweating sickness, smallpox, and
+plague.&amp;nbsp; Elizabeth and Mary were sent to Hatfield.&amp;nbsp; Both
+Henry and Anne visited their daughter often, occasionally taking her
+back with them to Greenwich or the palace at Eltham.&amp;nbsp; During these
+visits, Mary was kept alone in her room.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; &lt;img alt=&quot;portrait of Henry VIII&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/henry8boleyn.jpg&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;186&quot; width=&quot;150&quot;&gt;There are account books and
+letters which reveal certain facts about Elizabeth's early
+childhood:&amp;nbsp; bills for an orange satin gown and russet velvet
+kirtle, for the king's heir had to be fashionably dressed; a letter in
+late 1535, after her second birthday, from the wet nurse asking
+permission to wean her; a plan of study in classical languages, for
+Anne was determined her daughter would be as educated as Mary.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The conflict with Mary dominated a great deal of Henry and Anne's
+thoughts.&amp;nbsp; In January 1534, the king's new chief minister, Thomas
+Cromwell, went to visit Mary at Hatfield.&amp;nbsp; He urged her to
+renounce her title and warned her that her behavior would lead to her
+ruin.&amp;nbsp; Mary replied that she simply wanted her father's blessing
+and the honor of kissing his hand.&amp;nbsp; When Cromwell chastised her,
+she left the room.&amp;nbsp; Mary, and indeed most of England, believed
+Anne to be the cause of Henry's disgust with his eldest child.&amp;nbsp; In
+truth, Henry had far more to do with it than Anne; this was proven
+after Anne's execution.&amp;nbsp; Mary believed that she would regain her
+favor with the wicked stepmother out of the way but she was proven
+terribly wrong.&amp;nbsp; Eventually, under threat of her life, she &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;wrote the letter&lt;/a&gt;
+her father had long desired.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;He and Anne also tried a gentler course with Mary; their goal was
+to show that she had brought Henry's displeasure upon herself and that
+he and Anne were quite willing - under reasonable conditions - to
+receive her.&amp;nbsp; At their next visit to Hatfield, Anne arranged to
+see her stepdaughter.&amp;nbsp; She invited Mary to come to court and
+'visit me as Queen.'&amp;nbsp; Mary responded with a cruel insult - 'I know
+no Queen in England but my mother.&amp;nbsp; But if you, Madam, as my
+father's mistress, will intercede for me with him, I should be
+grateful.'&amp;nbsp; Anne did not lose her temper; she pointed out the
+absurdity of the request and repeated her offer.&amp;nbsp; Mary then
+refused to answer and Anne left in a rage.&amp;nbsp; From then on, she made
+no attempts to gain Mary's friendship.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The problem with Mary highlights the untenable positions Anne and
+Elizabeth occupied in English politics.&amp;nbsp; Many of Henry's subjects
+did not know who to call Princess, who was the rightful heir, and who
+was the true wife.&amp;nbsp; Katharine of Aragon lived on, still calling
+herself Queen, and Mary, encouraged by the spiteful Imperial ambassador
+Eustace Chapuys, still called herself Princess.&amp;nbsp; Furthermore,
+Chapuys, who openly despised Anne, told Mary that Anne was planning to
+have her murdered.&amp;nbsp; It was a terrible lie but one that Mary, in
+her hysterical state, was inclined to believe.&amp;nbsp; When word came
+that she and Elizabeth's household was moving from Hatfield to The
+More, she refused to go.&amp;nbsp; She believed she would be moved and
+quietly murdered.&amp;nbsp; Guards had to actually seize her and throw her
+into her litter.&amp;nbsp; Her distress naturally made her ill.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Elizabeth, meanwhile, was too young to notice any of this.&amp;nbsp;
+But such events helped cement the lifelong hatred Mary would have for
+her half-sister.&amp;nbsp; Her Spanish friends continued to spread rumors
+about Anne and Elizabeth, saying the infant princess was physically
+deformed and monstrous in appearance.&amp;nbsp; To dispel this, in April
+1534, Henry showed the naked infant to several continental
+ambassadors.&amp;nbsp; In that same month, Anne announced she was once
+again pregnant.&amp;nbsp; Nothing could have pleased Henry more.&amp;nbsp; She
+may have had a miscarriage in February for there were rumors she was
+pregnant in January but nothing came of it; given the heightened
+circumstances, it is unlikely she could have hidden her
+condition.&amp;nbsp; Even a suspicion of pregnancy was sure to become
+gossip.&amp;nbsp; But the main source of this miscarriage is Chapuys,
+hardly an impartial observer.&amp;nbsp; At any rate, she was definitely
+pregnant again in April 1534.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The elated king took his wife to the medieval palace at Eltham;
+there, they sent for the princess Elizabeth.&amp;nbsp; Henry was often seen
+carrying her about and playing with her.&amp;nbsp; The king&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/boleynsketch2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;sketch of Anne Boleyn by Hans Holbein the Younger&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;206&quot; width=&quot;165&quot;&gt; and queen soon returned to Greenwich and
+then Henry left on a progress, leaving Anne at the palace.&amp;nbsp; This
+was probably out of concern for her health and lends some credence to
+the belief she miscarried in February.&amp;nbsp; If she had, Henry would
+show special concern for her health, and this he did.&amp;nbsp; He was
+supposed to meet Francis I of France in June at Calais to sign a treaty
+but decided not to, writing that Katharine and Mary, 'bearing no small
+grudge against his most entirely beloved Queen Anne, might perchance in
+his absence take occasion to practice matters of no small peril to his
+royal person, realm, and subjects.'&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;His extra attention to Anne did not help her health.&amp;nbsp; In
+September 1534, she miscarried a six-month-old fetus; it was old enough
+for features to be discerned - it was a boy.&amp;nbsp; Henry was bitterly
+disappointed.&amp;nbsp; Anne was likewise.&amp;nbsp; She was also angry for
+Henry had begun a casual affair that summer.&amp;nbsp; She reproached him
+and Henry replied, 'You have good reason to be content with what I have
+done for you - and I would not do it again, if the thing were to
+begin.&amp;nbsp; Consider from what you have come.'&amp;nbsp; The scene was
+furious and overheard by her attendants.&amp;nbsp; But it was a passing
+storm.&amp;nbsp; Henry was already tired of his new mistress and, within
+days, Chapuys was sadly writing to Charles V of Henry's continued
+affection.&amp;nbsp; But there were signs that things were not progressing
+smoothly.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;For example, Henry had hoped to cement his relationship with
+Francis I by betrothing Elizabeth to Francis's son, the Duc
+d'Angouleme.&amp;nbsp; After Anne suffered two miscarriages, as the French
+ambassador reported to Francis, the French king grew wary of such a
+betrothal.&amp;nbsp; To him, it must have seemed that Anne's position was
+weakening; after all, Henry had dismissed one wife because she had no
+sons - would he do the same to Anne?&amp;nbsp; And, if he did, then what
+good was a marriage to Elizabeth?&amp;nbsp; Of course, it was in France's
+interests to promote Anne for Katharine of Aragon and her daughter were
+Charles V's pawns.&amp;nbsp; But his doubts highlight the
+instability of Anne's position.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;This undoubtedly affected her mental and physical health.&amp;nbsp;
+Henry was never the mercenary adulterer of legend.&amp;nbsp; In fact, he
+was remarkably conventional in his sexual appetites, unlike his French
+rival.&amp;nbsp; Any affairs would have been widely reported and yet,
+during his long marriage to Katharine of Aragon, there were just a
+handful of mistresses.&amp;nbsp; He enjoyed being around attractive
+women.&amp;nbsp; He was flirtatious and would joke with them, compliment
+them, but only rarely did he enter into a physical relationship.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;But for Anne, any occasional fling was devastating, especially if
+it followed upon her miscarriage.&amp;nbsp; Such behavior was said to
+indicate his displeasure with her; this she could not afford.&amp;nbsp;
+They were occasionally estranged and the effect was to increase her
+already-noticeable anxiety.&amp;nbsp; In late 1534 Anne, accompanied by the
+duke of Suffolk, her uncle Norfolk, and other courtiers, visited
+Richmond Palace, where both Elizabeth and Mary resided.&amp;nbsp; Anne
+entered her daughter's rooms only to realize that the two dukes had
+left her.&amp;nbsp; They were paying court to Mary and remained with her
+until Anne had left.&amp;nbsp; Still, this slight could be forgotten when
+the Treason Act was passed in November.&amp;nbsp; It was now a capital
+crime to deny the legitimacy of her marriage or children.&amp;nbsp; By
+December, she and Henry had made up yet again.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;A scandal occurred shortly thereafter which added further damage to Anne's 
+  reputation.&amp;nbsp; Her sister, Mary, who had been Henry's mistress years 
+  before, married Sir William Stafford without her family or the king's 
+  permission.&amp;nbsp; Because Stafford was poor, Mary's father was angry and cut 
+  off her allowance.&amp;nbsp; She appealed to the king and Anne but they would not 
+  help.&amp;nbsp; (Mary did not attend court during Anne's reign, since her presence 
+  would have been an embarrassment for the king and queen.)&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt; &lt;img alt=&quot;portrait of Anne Boleyn&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/anne2.jpg&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;194&quot; width=&quot;139&quot;&gt;Always fascinated with rumors surrounding his
+English 'brother', Francis I decided to hedge his bets in the mercurial
+Tudor court.&amp;nbsp; In other words, he would remain friendly with Anne
+and also with Mary Tudor.&amp;nbsp; And so he instructed his new
+ambassador, Admiral Chabot, to ignore Anne when he arrived at
+court.&amp;nbsp; Chabot was received by Henry and two days passed without
+any mention of the queen.&amp;nbsp; Henry asked if Chabot wanted to visit
+her.&amp;nbsp; The ambassador replied, 'As it pleases Your Highness' and
+then asked permission to visit Mary.&amp;nbsp; Henry refused, but Chabot
+made certain everyone knew of his request.&amp;nbsp; He also told courtiers
+that Francis wanted to marry the Dauphin to Mary; when Henry reminded
+him of the union with Elizabeth, the ambassador said nothing.&amp;nbsp;
+Still, Francis did enrage Charles V by acknowledging Elizabeth's
+legitimacy.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It was a tedious and frightening dance for Anne.&amp;nbsp; During the
+two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth, she was rarely secure,
+certain of her position and the king's affections.&amp;nbsp; Her little
+daughter received every favor she could bestow; Anne insisted Henry
+favor Elizabeth because it strengthened her position.&amp;nbsp; But she was
+surrounded by fair-weather friends who, at the slightest sign of
+Henry's disfavor, ignored her.&amp;nbsp; She only trusted her brother,
+George, whose wife, Jane Rochford, was a viper in their nest.&amp;nbsp;
+Meanwhile, Henry was again flirting openly with another woman.&amp;nbsp;
+This time it was Anne's cousin and lady-in-waiting, Madge
+Shelton.&amp;nbsp; Anne still had influence over her husband, but knew only
+one way to make his favor permanent.&amp;nbsp; She must bear a son.&amp;nbsp;
+Henry would never dismiss the mother of his long-awaited heir.&amp;nbsp;
+Her enemies would at last be silenced.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, Henry's health had begun to worsen.&amp;nbsp; The first
+signs of the illness which would kill him appeared (occluded sinus on
+his leg).&amp;nbsp; Headaches became frequent and severe.&amp;nbsp; The king
+was a hypochondriac.&amp;nbsp; Now unable to indulge his love of sports, he
+instead indulged his fear of pain and illness.&amp;nbsp; And he was
+frequently impotent.&amp;nbsp; He was in his mid-forties and increasingly
+obese; this, combined with his other ailments, made his continued
+virility questionable.&amp;nbsp; Certainly his 'mistresses' did not
+conceive.&amp;nbsp; But the continued lack of an heir and Anne's
+miscarriages must have reminded him of Katharine.&amp;nbsp; How could it
+not?&amp;nbsp; Like most of his contemporaries, the king blamed his wife
+when she did not conceive or carry to term.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;And, like Francis I, Thomas Cromwell - that influential and
+brilliant man - was keeping his options open as well.&amp;nbsp; He visited
+Mary and was rumored to promise support for her reinstatement.&amp;nbsp;
+Anne was terrified at this loss of her one-time supporter who was also
+the king's most trusted advisor.&amp;nbsp; But Anne had one last chance,
+and in June 1535, became pregnant again.&amp;nbsp; She lost that child as
+well, in January 1536; she was reported to have said, 'I have
+miscarried of my savior.'&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;When her destruction came, it was rapid and unbelievable.&amp;nbsp;
+Henry had always been one to plot against people while he pretended
+affection.&amp;nbsp; Anne suffered the same fate as Katharine.&amp;nbsp; She
+knew he was dissatisfied with her but he maintained their lifestyle
+together.&amp;nbsp; And all the while, he was seeking the best way to
+destroy her.&amp;nbsp; Katharine of Aragon died in January as well, just a
+few days before Anne's miscarriage.&amp;nbsp; These events, taken together,
+pushed Henry into action.&amp;nbsp; While Katharine had lived, most of
+Europe, and many Englishmen, had regarded her as his rightful wife, not
+Anne.&amp;nbsp; Now he was rid of Katharine; if he were to rid himself of
+Anne, he could marry again - and this third marriage would never be
+tainted by the specter of bigamy.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Henry's &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprianne2.html&quot;&gt;decision
+to thoroughly destroy Anne&lt;/a&gt; baffled even her enemies.&amp;nbsp; There
+was a possible way out which would spare Anne's life.&amp;nbsp; Henry had
+admitted an affair with her sister,&lt;img alt=&quot;an 18th century portrait of Anne Boleyn&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/anne3.jpg&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;194&quot; width=&quot;144&quot;&gt; Mary.&amp;nbsp; He could have argued that was as
+damning as Katharine's marriage to his brother.&amp;nbsp; But he chose a
+more direct route.&amp;nbsp; He had her arrested, charged with adultery,
+witchcraft, and incest; the charges were ludicrous even to her
+enemies.&amp;nbsp; Her brother George was arrested as well.&amp;nbsp; His
+despised wife, Jane Rochford, testified about an incestuous love
+affair.&amp;nbsp; Whether anyone believed her was irrelevant.&amp;nbsp; Henry
+VIII wanted Anne convicted and killed.&amp;nbsp; George would also lose his
+life, as did three of their friends.&amp;nbsp; Only one had confessed to
+the charge, and that was under torture; it was still enough to convict
+them all.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;As queen of England, Anne was tried by her peers; the main charge
+was adultery, and this was an act of treason for a queen.&amp;nbsp; No
+member of the nobility would help her; her craven uncle Norfolk
+pronounced the death sentence.&amp;nbsp; Poor Henry Percy, her first love,
+swooned during the trial and had to be carried from the room.&amp;nbsp; As
+a concession to her former position, she was not beheaded by a clumsy
+axe.&amp;nbsp; A skilled swordsman was brought over from France.&amp;nbsp; She
+was assured that there would be little pain; she replied, with typical
+spirit, 'I have heard that the executioner is very good.&amp;nbsp; And I
+have a little neck.'&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'You have chosen me from low estate to be your
+queen and companion, far beyond my desert or desire; if, then, you
+found me worthy of such honor, good your grace, let not any light fancy
+or bad counsel of my enemies withdraw your princely favor from me;
+neither let that stain - that unworthy stain - of a disloyal heart
+towards your good grace ever cast so foul a blot on me, and on the
+infant princess your daughter.' &lt;/font&gt;&lt;b&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/b&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;from Anne Boleyn's &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletter10.html&quot;&gt;last letter&lt;/a&gt;
+to King Henry VIII, 1536&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletter10.html&quot;&gt;its authenticity
+is debated&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;She had prayed for exile, to end her days in a nunnery, but now
+faced a more tragic fate.&amp;nbsp; She met it with bravery and wit.&amp;nbsp;
+She was brought to the scaffold at 8 o'clock in the morning on 19 May
+1536.&amp;nbsp; It was a heretofore unknown spectacle, the first public
+execution of an English queen.&amp;nbsp; Anne, who had defended herself so
+ably at her trial, chose her last words carefully:&amp;nbsp; 'Good
+Christian people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law,
+and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing
+against it.&amp;nbsp; I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak
+anything of that, whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray
+God save the king and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler
+nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a
+good, a gentle and sovereign lord.&amp;nbsp; And if any person will meddle
+of my cause, I require them to judge the best.&amp;nbsp; And thus I take my
+leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to
+pray for me.&amp;nbsp; O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my
+soul.'&amp;nbsp; She was then blindfolded and knelt at the block.&amp;nbsp; She
+repeated several times, 'To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord Jesu
+receive my soul.'&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It was a sardonic message to the king.&amp;nbsp; Even now he waited
+impatiently to hear the Tower cannon mark Anne's death.&amp;nbsp; He wished
+to marry Anne's lady-in-waiting, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fseymour.html&quot;&gt;Jane
+Seymour&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp; They wed ten days after the execution.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Elizabeth was just three and a half when her mother died.&amp;nbsp;
+She was a precocious child, though; when her governess visited her just
+days after the execution, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2feliz.html&quot;&gt;Elizabeth&lt;/a&gt;
+asked, 'Why, Governor, how hap it yesterday Lady Princess, and today
+but Lady Elizabeth?'&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne was buried in an old arrow box since no coffin was
+provided.&amp;nbsp; But the box was too short; her head was tucked beside
+her.&amp;nbsp; The remains were taken to St Peter ad Vincula, the church of
+the Tower of London.&amp;nbsp; It was later rumored that her few remaining
+friends smuggled her body to a more suitable grave and she is buried
+under a plain slab in a Norfolk church.&amp;nbsp; The church is said to be
+haunted.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'And if any person will meddle of my
+cause, I require them to judge the best.'&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+  &lt;/font&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;from Anne Boleyn's speech at her execution&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;
+  &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;center&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fwives.html&quot;&gt;to the Six
+Wives main page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+    &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor.html&quot;&gt;to
+Tudor England&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;to Primary Sources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;/center&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+&lt;/blockquote&gt;
+&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;This page receives 15,000+ unique visitors per 
+month.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --&gt;&lt;!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;JavaScript&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/geov2.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;geovisit();&lt;/script&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/visit.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
+&lt;noscript&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;el=direct&amp;amp;href=http://visit.webhosting.yahoo.com/visit.gif?us1180480885&quot; alt=&quot;setstats&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;1&quot; height=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/noscript&gt;
+</Content>
+</Section>
+</Archive>
Index: other-projects/nightly-tasks/diffcol/trunk/model-collect/METS/archives/HASH01c1.dir/doc.xml
===================================================================
--- other-projects/nightly-tasks/diffcol/trunk/model-collect/METS/archives/HASH01c1.dir/doc.xml	(revision 28650)
+++ other-projects/nightly-tasks/diffcol/trunk/model-collect/METS/archives/HASH01c1.dir/doc.xml	(revision 28650)
@@ -0,0 +1,491 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Archive SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/Archive/1.0/Archive.dtd">
+<Archive>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlsourcefilename">import/html_files/cleves.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdldoctype">indexed_doc</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Plugin">HTMLPlugin</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="FileSize">29443</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Source">cleves.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="SourceFile">cleves.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Language">en</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Encoding">windows_1252</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Anne of Cleves: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="FileFormat">HTML</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="URL">http://html_files/cleves.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="UTF8URL">http://html_files/cleves.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Identifier">HASH01c1e7e6aeea41090cb38bab</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="lastmodified">1384905101</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="lastmodifieddate">20131120</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="oailastmodified">1384905102</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="oailastmodifieddate">20131120</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="assocfilepath">HASH01c1.dir</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">clevescardinal.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">clevesholbein2.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">cleves-bio1.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">cleves-bio2.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">visit.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+  <Content>
+&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; height=&quot;634&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
+  &lt;tbody&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'My Lord, if it were not to
+satisfy the world, and My Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
+for none earthly thing.' &lt;/font&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Henry VIII to Cromwell on his wedding day to
+Anne of Cleves&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/clevescardinal.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;95&quot; width=&quot;352&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/clevesholbein2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;325&quot; width=&quot;331&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;miniature portrait of Anne of Cleves 
+      by Hans Holbein the Younger&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of King
+Henry VIII; it was a very brief marriage, to the astonishment of all
+observers but the relief of both spouses.&amp;nbsp; Henry infamously
+referred to his bride as a 'Flanders mare' and told courtiers and
+ambassadors that he could not perform his husbandly duties because of
+Anne's appearance.&amp;nbsp; Anne's reaction to Henry's physical charms was
+not recorded, but she agreed to an annulment very quickly and remained
+in England for the rest of her life.&amp;nbsp; Henry was grateful for her
+cooperation and granted her a generous income and several homes,
+including Hever Castle.&amp;nbsp; Anne enjoyed an independent lifestyle
+denied most women, often visiting Henry's court as an honored
+guest.&amp;nbsp; Her fondness for English ale and gambling were her only
+vices.&amp;nbsp; Along with her successor as Henry's wife, Catherine
+Howard, Anne remains a mysterious figure about whom too little is
+known.&amp;nbsp; Had she and Henry remained married and had children, the
+course of English history might have changed dramatically.&amp;nbsp; But
+the mysteries of physical attraction denied Anne her place on the
+throne, ended the brilliant career of Thomas Cromwell, and thrust the
+king into the arms of his ill-fated fifth queen, Catherine Howard.&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fcleves.html#Biography&quot;&gt;
+        &lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Read the biography of Anne of Cleves.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Primary Sources&lt;/b&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+Read &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletters.html&quot;&gt;letters
+written by Anne&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fpricleve.html&quot;&gt;Anne of
+Cleves meets Henry VIII for the first time&lt;/a&gt;, 1540&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;Visit &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html&quot;&gt;Tudor
+England: Images&lt;/a&gt; to view portraits of Anne. &lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;Test your knowledge of Anne's life at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2ftudor1.html&quot;&gt;Tudor Quizzes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Interact&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;/b&gt;Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fladiesallfanlist.cjb.net&quot;&gt;Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2ftudorhistory.org%2flists%2flist.html&quot;&gt; Tudor Talk &lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;This
+email discussion list is sponsored by Tudorhistory.org.&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fgroups.yahoo.com%2fgroup%2fReign%5fof%5fthe%5fTudors%5frpg&quot;&gt;Reign
+of the Tudors&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&amp;nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+  &lt;/tbody&gt;
+&lt;/table&gt;
+&lt;blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p&gt;&lt;a name=&quot;Biography&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'So she came to
+Greenwich that night, and was received as queen.&amp;nbsp; And the next
+day, being Sunday, the king's grace kept a great court at Greenwich,
+where his grace with the queen offered at mass, richly dressed.&amp;nbsp;
+And on Twelfth Night, which was Tuesday, the king's majesty was married
+to the said queen Anne solemnly, in her closet at Greenwich, and his
+grace and she went publicly in procession that day, she having a rich
+coronet of stone and pearls set with rosemary on her hair, and a gown
+of rich cloth of silver, richly hung with stones and pearls, with all
+her ladies and gentlewomen following her, which was a goodly sight to
+behold.' &lt;/font&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt; Anne of Cleves marries King
+Henry VIII, 1540&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;Biography&lt;/b&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+Anne of Cleves was Henry VIII's fourth wife, though not his first
+choice for the role by far.&amp;nbsp; His ambassadors searched out all the
+eligible heiresses of Europe and discovered their king had a very nasty
+marital reputation.&amp;nbsp; The beautiful Christina of Milan was told of
+the king's interest and wittily replied that if she had two heads she
+would risk it, but she had only one; Marie de Guise, who would later
+wed his nephew the King of Scots, replied much the same.&amp;nbsp; The
+tragic tale of his second queen, Anne Boleyn, had kept European gossips
+busy for three years now.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The king's poor and disrespectful treatment of his first wife (he
+was rumored to have bullied Katharine of Aragon to an unhappy death)
+and the quick end of his third (in his desperation for a healthy male
+heir, the king was rumored to have ordered Jane Seymour cut open,
+mangled and killed) only contributed to his low reputation. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;One wouldn't think a king would have too difficult a time finding
+a wife, but Henry VIII - who defied his contemporaries in so many other
+ways - did so in this respect as well. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;In the end, it was religion which brought Anne of Cleves to
+England.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Henry had sought out Catholic princesses like Marie de Guise and
+his fifth wife would be a Catholic as well.&amp;nbsp; Despite the Henrician
+'reformation', England and its monarch remained a Catholic nation,
+albeit one in which supreme authority resided within the king rather
+than the pope.&amp;nbsp; But Henry's influential advisor, Thomas Cromwell,
+wanted England to ally herself with a Protestant nation that also
+rejected papal authority.&amp;nbsp; Cromwell recognized the inexorable
+Catholic decline which was only just beginning to occur; the king's
+assumption of supreme authority had merely been the first and most
+spectacular opening shot in a new religious war.&amp;nbsp; Raised to be a
+churchman until his brother's untimely death and deeply interested in
+theological debate, Henry VIII didn't appreciate the Pandora's Box of
+change he had opened.&amp;nbsp; Cromwell, younger and more philosophically
+attuned to the attitudes of the rising middle class, did appreciate
+it.&amp;nbsp; And he approved of it.&amp;nbsp; The marriage to Anne of Cleves
+would openly ally England with a Protestant duchy, thus making the
+'reformation' even more settled. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Henry VIII's previous two marriages had been love matches; he had
+been quite independent in choosing women of his own court to
+marry.&amp;nbsp; But this fourth marriage was necessarily a more diplomatic
+endeavor.&amp;nbsp; In this, the king returned to the traditional role of
+kings searching for brides; he also understood that, since the Act of
+Supremacy in 1534, England stood dangerously isolated amongst the
+Catholic powers of Spain and France. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;There was a gap of over two years between Jane Seymour's death in
+October 1537 and Anne of Cleves's arrival in England in late December
+1539.&amp;nbsp; Romantics believe the king waited such a long while to
+marry again because he loved Jane so much.&amp;nbsp; Whether he loved her
+or not is beside the point, though there is ample evidence that he
+did.&amp;nbsp; Henry actually waited so long (and he did so quite
+impatiently) because marriage negotiations took an unexpectedly long
+time.&amp;nbsp; He actually sent out instructions regarding the search for
+a new wife barely a month after Jane's death. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;But the French princesses would not assemble for his perusal; they
+also made it clear they preferred other suitors.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Likewise,
+other heiresses of Europe, some of which (like Christina of Milan) were
+related through tangled Hapsburg bloodlines to the king's first wife,
+Katharine of Aragon, avoided the English ambassadors.&amp;nbsp; And always,
+busy with his paperwork and contacts throughout Europe, Cromwell sought
+to arrange a Protestant alliance. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;During all of these negotiations, one must not forget the king's
+own views regarding his future wife.&amp;nbsp; Henry was used to making his
+own decisions about the women in his life; he had high standards for
+female beauty and insisted his next wife be physically
+attractive.&amp;nbsp; To that end, he told his ambassadors that no official
+overtures be made to certain ladies until he had approved of their
+looks.&amp;nbsp; 'The thing touches me too near,' said the king, which was
+true enough but not the sort of thing kings were supposed to say.&amp;nbsp;
+After all, he was not merely a man but a monarch; he was not supposed
+to marry for himself alone. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The ambassadors were often placed in embarrassing positions,
+commissioning portraits and sending back detailed descriptions of pock
+marks and hairstyles.&amp;nbsp; Finally, the choices were narrowed down to
+four serious contenders - Marie de Guise, the widow of the duc de
+Longueville, was tall, beautiful and already proven in
+childbirth.&amp;nbsp; As mentioned earlier, she chose the Scottish king
+James V.&amp;nbsp; Henry then looked to her younger sister, but she also
+became otherwise engaged.&amp;nbsp; Then there was the beautiful and
+intelligent Christina of Milan, just sixteen and one of the most
+sought-after heiresses of her generation.&amp;nbsp; But the king of England
+was three times her age, fat and with a cruel reputation; she allowed
+herself to be painted by Holbein but did nothing to solve the problem
+of her being a great-niece of Katharine of Aragon.&amp;nbsp; This
+impediment of affinity was a nice way to avoid the king of England. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The year of 1538 passed with no alliance.&amp;nbsp; Henry had intended
+to use his fourth marriage as a balance between France and the Hapsburg
+empire.&amp;nbsp; But it now seemed as if those two enemies might join
+forces against him in defense of the papal supremacy. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Suddenly Cromwell's moment had arrived.&amp;nbsp; The fourth serious
+contender was the sister of the duke of Cleves.&amp;nbsp; The duke was not
+a Protestant himself but was allied through marriage with Saxony and
+the league of Lutheran princes; he was also at odds with the Hapsburg
+emperor Charles V over the duchy of Gelderland.&amp;nbsp; The duchy of
+Cleves might one day rival the Netherlands in terms of trade and
+strategic advantage.&amp;nbsp; The king was persuaded to send his favorite
+court painter, Hans Holbein the Younger, to the German duchy.&amp;nbsp;
+There he painted both Anne and her sister Amelia.&amp;nbsp; Henry, who by
+this time was wearying of the endless rounds of negotiations (and whom
+Cromwell feared would soon turn to another English noblewoman), was
+interested in Anne.&amp;nbsp; Negotiations began in earnest. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne was 24 years old, and had spent most of her life at the ducal
+court of Dusseldorf.&amp;nbsp; She was well-educated in domestic skills but
+she was neither intellectual or flirtatious, both qualities the king
+admired.&amp;nbsp; She had no musical skills, and music was one of Henry's
+passions, and no interest in books.&amp;nbsp; On the trip to England, her
+escort (perhaps sensing disaster ahead) tried to teach her the king's
+favorite card games but Anne found them hopeless.&amp;nbsp; It was not her
+fault, nor that of Henry VIII, but she was raised in a different
+country and, as things turned out, was not given time to acclimatize
+herself before the king rejected her.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;
+  &lt;img alt=&quot;Holbein's betrothal portrait of Anne of Cleves&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/cleves-bio1.jpg&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;280&quot; width=&quot;190&quot;&gt;The issue of the betrothal portrait is the most fascinating part
+of this story.&amp;nbsp; Holbein was a man of vast talent; his best
+portraits are simply astounding, beautifully composed and possessing
+great psychological insight.&amp;nbsp; Look at the infamous portrait of
+Anne of Cleves to the left; it is clear that Holbein was more
+fascinated with the embroidery of her gown than with Anne's
+personality.&amp;nbsp; Her eyes are downcast and her features lost beneath the ornate
+trappings of her dress and hood. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;There has long been a rumor that Henry was so enraged with the
+work, believing that Holbein had deliberately duped him with a false
+portrait, that he fired the painter.&amp;nbsp; But that is not true.&amp;nbsp;
+At the time, there were a few remarks that she did not look as well as
+the portrait asserted, but this was not unlikely - she had arrived in
+England after a long journey, perhaps the sea air did not agree with
+her skin?&amp;nbsp; Or perhaps nervousness over the impending marriage
+caused a change in her complexion.&amp;nbsp; We cannot know.&amp;nbsp; But we
+do know that Henry's ambassadors, only too aware of their master's
+wishes, allowed the portrait to be sent as a fair likeness of
+Anne.&amp;nbsp; Would they have dared to mislead their monarch in such a
+way?&amp;nbsp; It's not likely.&amp;nbsp; Even Henry himself did not make much
+of the supposed difference between the painted and real Anne, aside
+from a comment to Cromwell that she was 'nothing so fair as she had
+been reported.'&amp;nbsp; Often expectations can be idealistic, and that
+was possibly the case with Henry.&amp;nbsp; Holbein continued to receive
+commissions from the English aristocracy before dying of plague in
+London in 1543. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;What actually happened to drive Anne and Henry apart was a simple
+matter of attraction.&amp;nbsp; Almost five hundred years later, we still
+don't understand why certain people are physically attracted to each
+other; it simply happens.&amp;nbsp; And it didn't happen with Anne and
+Henry; in fact, quite the opposite occurred and the king was repulsed
+by her.&amp;nbsp; Anne's feelings on the matter are not known but Henry was
+no longer the strong, athletic king of years past; various injuries had
+reduced his exercise but not his appetite.&amp;nbsp; He was increasingly
+obese and subject to its attendant problems. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;There were other reasons for the king to look askance at this new
+bride.&amp;nbsp; The foreign crisis which had caused Cromwell to seek an
+alliance with the Protestant duchy had passed; France and Spain had
+returned to their old enmity.&amp;nbsp; England was no longer threatened by
+the Catholic powers.&amp;nbsp; Also, the dispute over Gelderland had become
+more serious and Henry was not eager to fight the suddenly genial
+Spanish in defense of Anne's brother.&amp;nbsp; These issues were clear in
+mid-autumn 1539 but the marriage negotiations continued.&amp;nbsp; By that
+point, they had a momentum of their own.&amp;nbsp; A proxy marriage
+occurred and Anne left her home in late November.&amp;nbsp; She reached
+Calais on 11 December; during the journey, she was addressed as Queen
+of England and treated accordingly.&amp;nbsp; For a fortnight she waited at
+Calais until the weather settled.&amp;nbsp; On 27 December she set out for
+Deal; it was a stormy crossing.&amp;nbsp; It was on the first day of 1540
+that the king, so impatient to see his new bride, entered her rooms in
+disguise.&amp;nbsp; The scene was recorded by the Imperial ambassador,
+Eustace Chapuys: &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;And on New Years Day in the afternoon the king's grace with five
+of his privy chamber, being disguised with mottled cloaks with hoods so
+that they should not be recognized, came secretly to Rochester, and so
+went up into the chamber where the said Lady Anne was looking out of a
+window to see the bull-baiting which was going on in the courtyard, and
+suddenly he embraced and kissed her, and showed here a token which the
+king had sent her for New Year's gift, and she being abashed and not
+knowing who it was thanked him, and so he spoke with her.&amp;nbsp; But she
+regarded him little, but always looked out the window.... and when the
+king saw that she took so little notice of his coming he went into
+another chamber and took off his cloak and came in again in a coat of
+purple velvet.&amp;nbsp; And when the lords and knights saw his grace they
+did him reverence.... and then her grace humbled herself lowly to the
+king's majesty, and his grace saluted her again, and they talked
+together lovingly, and afterwards he took her by the hand and led her
+to another chamber where their graces amused themselves that night and
+on Friday until the afternoon.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;You can read the entire account at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fpricleve.html&quot;&gt;Primary Sources&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/font&gt;
+  &lt;br&gt;
+  &lt;br&gt;
+Henry had so far managed to conceal his dislike of Anne.&amp;nbsp; There is
+reason to believe it was not an immediate revulsion; it was only after
+their wedding night, which the king declared he could not consummate,
+that word spread of his physical distaste.&amp;nbsp; When Cromwell asked
+him the next morning, 'How liked you the Queen?', Henry replied, 'I
+liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse.' &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;On Twelfth Night (6 January), they were married in the 'Queen's
+Closet' at Greenwich Palace, where Henry had also married his last
+bride.&amp;nbsp; But the king was already looking for ways out.&amp;nbsp; The
+very day of the ceremony, he told Cromwell, 'My Lord, if it were not to
+satisfy the world, and my Realm, I would not do that I must do this day
+for none earthly thing.'&amp;nbsp; These were ominous words. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It is also possible that around this time, the king met &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fhoward.html&quot;&gt;Catherine
+Howard&lt;/a&gt;, cousin of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, and now destined to
+be lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves when her Flemish attendants were
+dismissed.&amp;nbsp; There is no doubt he felt an instant attraction to the
+lively, curvaceous Catherine.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Henry's nobility, which had long chafed against the power and
+influence of &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fcromwell.html&quot;&gt;Cromwell&lt;/a&gt;
+(much as they had against Wolsey), welcomed this opportunity to
+discredit him.&amp;nbsp; The minister had pushed the king into the Cleves
+marriage, they reminded Henry gleefully.&amp;nbsp; The king's wrath turned
+against his former friend and Cromwell was executed on 28 July 1540, a
+decision Henry almost instantly regretted.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;And so four things pushed Henry towards an annulment - his dislike
+of Anne, foreign policy changes, his attraction to Catherine Howard,
+and his courtiers' hatred of Cromwell. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;In the few days between the first meeting and the wedding,
+Cromwell and the king had found a potential way out, though the
+ceremony continued as planned.&amp;nbsp; In the mid-1530s, Anne had briefly
+been engaged to Francis, duke of Lorraine.&amp;nbsp; The English had not
+explored the issue too much, merely asking the government of Cleves if
+negotiations had ended.&amp;nbsp; Now they looked more closely, with the
+king waiting impatiently for the right response.&amp;nbsp; They suddenly
+discovered there was no dispensation from the precontract; Anne was
+still officially betrothed to Francis.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The ambassadors from Cleves were not unaware of Henry's
+intent.&amp;nbsp; They struggled to find the right documents but, on 26
+February 1540, all they could produce was a report in their archives
+which stated that negotiations with Lorraine 'were not going to take
+their natural course.'&amp;nbsp; No actual papers of dispensation could be
+produced since they did not exist.&amp;nbsp; Thus Henry's marriage to Anne
+of Cleves was legally invalid from the start.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;This is one of the more ironic moments in Henry's checkered
+marital career.&amp;nbsp; For once, his decision to end a marriage was
+legally valid and acceptable to all. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, the king made certain comments regarding Anne's body
+and virtue which reveal him in a less than gentlemanly light.&amp;nbsp; He
+told Anthony Denny, a member of the Privy Chamber, that she had
+'breasts so slack and other parts of body in such sort that [he]
+somewhat suspected her virginity.'&amp;nbsp; He further told his court
+physicians of the 'hanging of her breasts and looseness of her
+flesh.'&amp;nbsp; Clearly, consummation of the marriage would not
+occur.&amp;nbsp; The king bravely slept in the same bed at least every
+other night, yet he reported a month later that Anne 'was still as good
+a Maid.... as ever her Mother bare her.'&amp;nbsp; This contradiction - she
+was not a virgin, yet was - was never mentioned. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;What did Anne think of all this controversy?&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Luckily for her, she had only a small knowledge of English and
+even less knowledge of the physical relationship between a man and
+wife.&amp;nbsp; Her English ladies were astounded by her innocence.&amp;nbsp;
+'When he [Henry] comes to bed, he kisses me and taketh me by the hand,
+and biddeth me 'Goodnight, sweetheart,' and in the morning, kisses me,
+and biddeth me, 'Farewell, darling.'&amp;nbsp; Is this not enough?' asked
+Anne.&amp;nbsp; No, she was told emphatically, it most certainly was not. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne's ignorance casts a bad light on her mother, Duchess Maria,
+but it served to protect her feelings in England.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;In the end, she ruled as queen for just four months; her last
+official appearance as the royal consort was during the May Day
+celebrations.&amp;nbsp; She was never crowned, though even if the king had
+wished it, he could not have afforded such a ceremony.&amp;nbsp; During
+those months, the Catholic nobility pushed their advantage against the
+Protestant Cromwell.&amp;nbsp; The minister was too Lutheran for the king's
+taste.&amp;nbsp; Likewise, the Catholics encouraged the flirtations of
+young Catherine Howard, also a Catholic and the duke of Norfolk's
+niece.&amp;nbsp; Too young and ill-educated to be aware of how others used
+her as a pawn, she happily danced before the king and accepted his
+gifts.&amp;nbsp; She was granted lands in April and the next month received
+rich gifts of fabric and jewelry.&amp;nbsp; There is every possibility
+Catherine consummated her relationship with the king in May.&amp;nbsp; How
+else can we explain the sudden race to rid himself of Anne? &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The investigation into her precontract with Lorraine had been
+hastily done in January and February but for two months afterwards, the
+king merely lamented his fate.&amp;nbsp; Parliament even confirmed Anne's
+dowry in April.&amp;nbsp; But suddenly in May there was a fierce new
+determination to annul the marriage; the king was no longer content to
+complain.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;It is possible, and was rumored, that Henry had slept with
+Catherine and consequently there was a chance she was pregnant.&amp;nbsp;
+Another male heir was never far from Henry's mind.&amp;nbsp; He was also
+deeply in love with his 'Rose without a Thorn', a somewhat pathetic
+attraction between an elderly (the king was almost 49 years old) man
+and a very young woman.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;And so Anne had to go.&amp;nbsp; She succumbed to the inevitable with
+surprising grace.&amp;nbsp; Perhaps she was leery of the royal temper, or&lt;img alt=&quot;engraving of Anne of Cleves, after Holbein&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/cleves-bio2.jpg&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;218&quot; width=&quot;154&quot;&gt; remembered the king's marital
+history, or she simply didn't care.&amp;nbsp; Henry was very
+grateful.&amp;nbsp; If she had not cooperated....&amp;nbsp; He knew, from the
+example of Katharine of Aragon, what could happen if a queen fought an
+annulment.&amp;nbsp; He had no desire to alienate Cleves or engage in
+another lengthy legal and theological dispute.&amp;nbsp; The king declared
+the marriage had not been consummated and, in any case, it was invalid
+from the start.&amp;nbsp; Would Anne agree? &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;She did agree, most readily.&amp;nbsp; She was shocked at first by the
+news; the king's representatives visited her at Richmond Palace, where
+she had gone to escape the threat of plague.&amp;nbsp; They brought an
+interpreter so there would be no misunderstanding.&amp;nbsp; For her part,
+Anne quickly grasped the situation.&amp;nbsp; She had no advisers and the
+king had already executed one wife and harassed another to death.&amp;nbsp;
+Certainly she enjoyed the role of queen, was more fluent in English and
+had taken a liking to her new country; even the people cheered her on
+the occasional public ride between palaces.&amp;nbsp; But did she dare
+fight Henry?&amp;nbsp; Of course not. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;The king's servants wrote that she was 'content always with your
+Majesty', thus accepting Henry's judgment, and in her &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletter12.html&quot;&gt;letter of&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletter12.html&quot;&gt; submission&lt;/a&gt;
+she signed herself 'daughter of Cleves', not 'queen of England'.&amp;nbsp;
+She agreed the marriage had never been consummated and signed all
+necessary documents.&amp;nbsp; For his part, Henry was now prepared to be
+generous.&amp;nbsp; Anne was to enjoy precedence over all the ladies in
+England, except the Queen and the king's daughters.&amp;nbsp; She was to be
+known as the king's 'good sister' and received a very nice settlement
+of manors and estates, some of which belonged to Cromwell.&amp;nbsp; This
+guaranteed her an income of 3000 pds a year, making her one of the
+wealthiest women in England.&amp;nbsp; All this depended upon her remaining
+in England, and this Anne was more than willing to do.&amp;nbsp; 'The
+King's highness whom I cannot have as a husband is nevertheless a most
+kind, loving and friendly father and brother,' she wrote to her
+brother.&amp;nbsp; Why should she return home in ignominy, dependent upon
+her brother's generosity, when she could remain in England and live a
+comfortable, independent life? &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne was perhaps as content with the arrangement as Henry.&amp;nbsp;
+She grew to enjoy English ale and gambling; she spent large sums on
+gowns; she visited with the king's children and occasionally the king
+himself.&amp;nbsp; She was heard to remark that she was more attractive
+than Katharine Parr, to whom the king's attention turned in 1543.&amp;nbsp;
+In fact, upon Catherine Howard's execution in 1542, rumors circulated
+that perhaps the king would take back his former bride.&amp;nbsp; The
+French ambassador was suitably impressed with Anne's handling of a
+delicate situation, observing that 'all her affairs could never make
+her utter a word by which one might suppose that she was
+discontented.'&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;These rumors were understandable enough; Anne occupied a nebulous
+place in English society, unmarried but wealthy and independent.&amp;nbsp;
+She was not an heiress but still honored as a royal.&amp;nbsp; She answered
+to no male authority but that of the king, and he did not choose to
+trouble her.&amp;nbsp; For the rest of her life, rumors spread about her
+lifestyle.&amp;nbsp; For Anne's part, she was content and happy and had
+little reason to be otherwise. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;She made her last public appearance at Mary Tudor's coronation in
+1553, riding alongside the Princess Elizabeth.&amp;nbsp; She died in 1557
+of a 'declining illness' and was buried with appropriate honor at
+Westminster Abbey.&amp;nbsp; Her will is perhaps most representative of her
+kindly character.&amp;nbsp; In it, she remembered gifts to everyone who had
+ever served her, no matter how humble or long ago. &lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;Anne had chosen as her motto 'God send me well to keep' and it
+proved apt, though in a way few could have predicted.&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;center&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fwives.html&quot;&gt;to the Six
+Wives main page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+  &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor.html&quot;&gt;to
+Tudor England&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt;to Primary Sources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;/center&gt;
+&lt;/blockquote&gt;
+&lt;!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --&gt;&lt;!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;JavaScript&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/geov2.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;geovisit();&lt;/script&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/visit.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
+&lt;noscript&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;el=direct&amp;amp;href=http://visit.webhosting.yahoo.com/visit.gif?us1183331390&quot; alt=&quot;setstats&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;1&quot; height=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/noscript&gt;
+</Content>
+</Section>
+</Archive>
Index: other-projects/nightly-tasks/diffcol/trunk/model-collect/METS/archives/HASHea92.dir/doc.xml
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Archive SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/Archive/1.0/Archive.dtd">
+<Archive>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlsourcefilename">import/html_files/aragon.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdldoctype">indexed_doc</Metadata>
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+    <Metadata name="SourceFile">aragon.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Language">en</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Encoding">windows_1252</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Katharine / Katherine / Catherine of Aragon: Biography, Portraits, Primary Sources</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="FileFormat">HTML</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="URL">http://html_files/aragon.html</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="UTF8URL">http://html_files/aragon.html</Metadata>
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+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">aragoncardinal.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">aragonsittow1.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">aragonhorenbout1.jpg:image/jpeg:</Metadata>
+    <Metadata name="gsdlassocfile">visit.gif:image/gif:</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+  <Content>
+&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; height=&quot;674&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
+  &lt;tbody&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;39&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;39&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;'In this world I will confess
+myself to be the king's true wife, and in the next they will know how
+unreasonably I am afflicted.'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt; &lt;/font&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/b&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Katharine of Aragon, 1532&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;39&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+    &lt;tr&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragoncardinal.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Katharine of Aragon&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;114&quot; width=&quot;443&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; 
+      &lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragonsittow1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Michael Sittow, c1502&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; height=&quot;541&quot; width=&quot;351&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt; &lt;i&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;portrait of Katharine of Aragon by 
+      Michael Sittow, c1502&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;The youngest surviving child of
+the 'Catholic Kings' of Spain, Katharine was born on 16 December 1485,
+the same year that Henry VII established the Tudor dynasty.&amp;nbsp; At
+the age of three, she was betrothed to his infant son, Prince
+Arthur.&amp;nbsp; In 1501, shortly before her sixteenth birthday, Katharine
+sailed to England.&amp;nbsp; But her marriage to Arthur lasted less than
+six months and was supposedly never consummated.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was
+then betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, Prince Henry.&amp;nbsp; When he
+became king in 1509, at the age of eighteen, he promptly married
+Katharine and they lived together happily for many years.&amp;nbsp; But
+their marriage produced just one living child, a daughter called Mary,
+and Henry was desperate for a male heir.&amp;nbsp; He also fell deeply in
+love with another woman.&amp;nbsp; Cast aside, Katharine fought against
+great odds to deny Henry an annulment.&amp;nbsp; But the king would not be
+denied and when the Catholic church would not grant the annulment, he
+declared himself head of a new English church.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was
+banished from court and died on 7 January 1536, broken-hearted but
+still defiant.&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;blockquote&gt;
+          &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpsamepagelink_#Biography&quot;&gt;
+          &lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Read the biography of Katharine of Aragon.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;blockquote&gt;
+          &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Primary Sources&lt;/b&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+Read &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletters.html&quot;&gt;letters
+written by Katharine&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fh8crown.html&quot;&gt;an account of her
+coronation&lt;/a&gt; at Westminster Abbey.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+          &lt;br&gt;
+          &lt;b&gt;Secondary Sources&lt;br&gt;&lt;/b&gt;Read JA Froude's 1891 work &lt;i&gt;
+          &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fsecondary.html&quot;&gt;The Divorce 
+          of Catherine of Aragon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
+          &lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;Visit &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fwww.marileecody.com%2fimages.html&quot;&gt;Tudor England:
+Images&lt;/a&gt; to view portraits of Katharine.&lt;br&gt;
+Visit the &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fmary1.html&quot;&gt;Queen
+Mary I site&lt;/a&gt; to learn more about Katharine's daughter.&lt;/p&gt;
+          &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+Interact&lt;br&gt;
+          &lt;/b&gt;Meet other Six Wives enthusiasts at &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fladiesallfanlist.cjb.net&quot;&gt;Ladies All: A Fanlisting for
+the Six Wives of Henry VIII&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;
+          &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2ftudorhistory.org%2flists%2flist.html&quot;&gt; Tudor Talk
+          &lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;This email discussion list is sponsored by
+Tudorhistory.org.&lt;br&gt;
+          &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fgroups.yahoo.com%2fgroup%2fReign%5fof%5fthe%5fTudors%5frpg&quot;&gt;Reign of
+the Tudors&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp; This is a role-playing game set in 16th century
+England.&amp;nbsp; If you would like to 'play' Jane Grey or Anne Boleyn or
+other Tudors, click the link to join.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+      &lt;td height=&quot;610&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+      &lt;/td&gt;
+    &lt;/tr&gt;
+  &lt;/tbody&gt;
+&lt;/table&gt;
+&lt;blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;blockquote&gt;
+      &lt;blockquote&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&lt;a name=&quot;Biography&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;
+        &lt;/a&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;'My tribulations are so great, my life so
+disturbed by the plans daily invented to further the king's wicked
+intention, the surprises which the king gives me, with certain persons
+of his council, are so mortal, and my treatment is what God knows, that
+it is enough to shorten ten lives, much more mine.'&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/font&gt;&lt;i&gt;
+        &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Katharine of Aragon to Charles V, November 1531&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+        &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;Biography&lt;/b&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+Katharine was born on 16 December 1485 at Alcala de Henares, in the
+archbishop of Toledo's palace.&amp;nbsp; Her early life promised a future
+of splendor and success, if not personal happiness.&amp;nbsp; Her parents,
+Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, were legends throughout
+Europe.&amp;nbsp; Their marriage had united the kingdom of Spain and
+together they had driven the Moors from Granada.&amp;nbsp; Katharine's
+mother was deeply pious and very intelligent.&amp;nbsp; Her children, even
+the daughters, received excellent educations.&amp;nbsp; Katharine's brother
+Juan and sister Joanna were married off into the powerful Hapsburg
+family and two other sisters, Isabella and Maria, would each marry the
+king of Portugal.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was promised to England; the
+betrothal contract was finalized before her fourth birthday.&amp;nbsp; The
+island nation, so long torn between Plantagenet cousins vying for the
+throne, was now ruled by Henry Tudor.&amp;nbsp; He had married the daughter
+of the former Plantagenet king, Edward IV, and in 1486 had a male heir
+and a desire to establish the stability and validity of his new
+dynasty.&amp;nbsp; A match with a Spanish princess would give him
+both.&amp;nbsp; And so Katharine, proud and solemn and accompanied by a
+vast dowry, came to England in 1501.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt; She
+wed Prince Arthur within a few weeks of her arrival.&amp;nbsp; It was a
+grand celebration; all of London rejoiced and there was every
+expectation of a glorious future for both husband and wife.&amp;nbsp; They
+left for Ludlow Castle, the government seat of the Prince of Wales, and
+within six months Arthur was dead.&amp;nbsp; It was the dreaded sweating
+sickness.&amp;nbsp; The news devastated his parents.&amp;nbsp; Katharine
+returned to London but was not sent home.&amp;nbsp; Henry VII was already
+writing to her parents about another marriage.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Katharine was now promised to Arthur's younger brother,
+Henry.&amp;nbsp; Born 28 June 1491, he was almost six years younger than
+Katharine.&amp;nbsp; But he was robust and healthy, and already regarded as
+a precocious intellect.&amp;nbsp; Before his brother's death, he had been
+destined for the church and educated accordingly.&amp;nbsp; But now he was
+the future king and as such he needed a future wife.&amp;nbsp; Henry VII
+betrothed young Henry to his brother's widow, a plan which required a
+papal dispensation.&amp;nbsp; Ferdinand, at odds with France, was anxious
+to please his English ally; Isabella's piety may have ruined the plan
+but she was dying and did not protest.&amp;nbsp; Katharine and her duenna,
+Dona Elvira, both wrote that her marriage to Arthur had never been
+consummated.&amp;nbsp; Pope Julius II granted the dispensation.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;The new betrothal may have been spurred by Henry VII's legendary
+avarice.&amp;nbsp; Katharine had brought half of her dowry with her upon
+marriage to Arthur; if she returned home, her marriage contract
+required that the dowry be returned.&amp;nbsp; Also, her inheritance as
+dowager Princess of Wales was substantial.&amp;nbsp; If she left England,
+so would that steady income.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Katharine herself &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletters.html&quot;&gt;wrote to her father&lt;/a&gt;
+that she had no wish to remain in England but she would obey his
+decision.&amp;nbsp; Perhaps she had already learned enough of Henry VII's
+character to know she would be shabbily treated.&amp;nbsp; Despite her
+royal position, she lived in poverty.&amp;nbsp; The Spanish ambassador was
+forced to buy her necessities and she was unable to pay her
+attendants.&amp;nbsp; And soon enough Henry VII was implying that he would
+break the Spanish betrothal.&amp;nbsp; Katharine spent the next seven years
+in a state of political limbo.&amp;nbsp; And when he turned fourteen, Henry
+VII had his son publicly repudiate the betrothal, claiming that the
+marriage contract was made without his knowledge or consent.&amp;nbsp; Yet
+Katharine remained in England.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;In 1509, the situation was resolved with startling speed.&amp;nbsp;
+Henry VII died and his eighteen year old son became king.&amp;nbsp;
+Handsome, proud, and imbued with the romantic spirit of chivalry, he
+promptly married Katharine.&amp;nbsp; Did he marry her out of a sense of
+obligation?&amp;nbsp; Was it because, as he later claimed, he wished to
+respect his father's last wish?&amp;nbsp; Were political councilors
+encouraging the Spanish alliance?&amp;nbsp; Or did he love the dignified
+and lovely young princess?&amp;nbsp; It is impossible to know.&amp;nbsp; But
+they certainly acted like a loving and affectionate couple, far beyond
+typical royal marriages.&amp;nbsp; There were public displays of affection,
+declarations of love and respect, and for a long while she was also a
+close political adviser.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Henry VIII's court was full of gaiety and celebration.&amp;nbsp; It
+was a welcome change from the austerity of his father's rule.&amp;nbsp;
+Katharine proved herself to be the perfect consort, even when politics
+led her father to humiliate and betray Henry.&amp;nbsp; Katharine
+recognized that she must choose between unwavering support of her
+father and loyalty to her husband.&amp;nbsp; She chose Henry, though his
+Lord Chancellor, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fcitizens%2fwolsey.html&quot;&gt;Cardinal
+Wolsey&lt;/a&gt;, never trusted her and instead favored an Anglo-French
+alliance.&amp;nbsp; His influence, and Henry's own suspicions, led the king
+to disregard her political advice.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Katharine's primary duty was both personal and political - to
+bear children, as many as possible and preferably sons.&amp;nbsp; This was
+especially important in England since Henry VIII was the sole surviving
+son of his father.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was far from barren and did her
+best; in the first nine years of their marriage, she conceived at least
+six times.&amp;nbsp; She miscarried twice, once delivered a stillborn
+daughter, and two sons died within weeks.&amp;nbsp; The only surviving
+child was a daughter, Princess Mary, born in 1516.&amp;nbsp; Katharine's
+last recorded pregnancy was in 1518, when she was thirty-three years
+old.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Henry was not unhappy with the birth of Mary; he assured
+ambassadors that if it were a daughter this time, a son would surely
+follow.&amp;nbsp; But it was soon clear there would be no sons.&amp;nbsp; The
+age difference between he and Katharine was now more noticeable.&amp;nbsp;
+The queen, struggling with frequent pregnancies and constant stress,
+looked older than her years.&amp;nbsp; Henry was a far more prudent king
+than most; he had just two serious affairs during his marriage to
+Katharine.&amp;nbsp; But one of his mistresses, Elizabeth Blount, bore him
+a son.&amp;nbsp; It was clear he could have sons, but the queen could
+not.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;By 1527, the question of the succession was the most pressing
+issue facing the king.&amp;nbsp; Two years before, he had titled his
+illegitimate son the duke of Richmond and granted him vast estates.&amp;nbsp;
+Many, Katharine included, believed this was a preliminary step to
+naming him heir to the throne.&amp;nbsp; This never occurred and Richmond
+would die in 1536, but - until then - it was a possibility.&amp;nbsp; Henry
+sent Princess Mary to Ludlow Castle as Princess of Wales and his
+official heir, but even that did not stop the rumors or her mother's
+concerns.&amp;nbsp; Katharine confronted Henry; he responded angrily and
+dismissed several of her beloved Spanish attendants.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;The king by now had hopes of a legitimate heir.&amp;nbsp; He had
+fallen in love the year previously with a young Englishwoman, &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=1&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fhtml%5ffiles%2fboleyn.html&quot;&gt;Anne Boleyn&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp;
+She was the sister of a former mistress and refused to take that
+position herself.&amp;nbsp; Henry, who was also deeply pious and a student
+of theology, now took a closer look at his marriage to Katharine.&amp;nbsp;
+In particular, he looked at the text in Leviticus which seemed to
+directly reference his own life - 'If a man shall take his brother's
+wife it is an unclean thing..... they shall be childless.'(Leviticus,
+XX, 21)&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Of course, they were not childless but a daughter was not the
+heir he needed.&amp;nbsp; No woman had attempted to rule England since the
+disastrous Matilda centuries&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/aragonhorenbout1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;miniature portrait of Katharine of Aragon by Lucas Horenbout&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;324&quot; width=&quot;329&quot;&gt; before.&amp;nbsp; Henry now firmly believed
+that his incestuous marriage had been doomed from the start.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;But how could he annul the marriage?&amp;nbsp; He needed to convince
+the current pope, Clement VII, that the dispensation of his predecessor
+was inadequate.&amp;nbsp; It directly contradicted the Bible and had no
+merit.&amp;nbsp; This should have been a simple enough matter.&amp;nbsp; Royal
+marriages had been annulled for far less.&amp;nbsp; But Katharine's nephew,
+Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor and he had no intention of
+allowing his aunt to be cast off.&amp;nbsp; This was not out of personal
+love or loyalty, but a purely political stance.&amp;nbsp; And after the
+1527 'sack of Rome', Charles controlled the pope.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Henry was soon thwarted, despite extensive work by Wolsey and
+other advisers.&amp;nbsp; For her part, Katharine was kept in the dark for
+as long as the king could manage it.&amp;nbsp; But she was no fool.&amp;nbsp;
+She knew of the romance between her husband and Mistress Boleyn; she
+knew Henry avoided her company, though he was scrupulous about
+attending official functions with her.&amp;nbsp; He had always respected
+her unassailable dignity and eloquence.&amp;nbsp; He did not wish to fight
+Katharine; he wanted an amicable end to their union and he was prepared
+to be generous.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;When news of his intentions became official, she was given
+counsel but only that chosen by the king.&amp;nbsp; She turned to the
+Spanish ambassador and close friends at court for support.&amp;nbsp; Anne
+Boleyn was not popular and Katharine was a respected and beloved
+queen.&amp;nbsp; The king soon came under popular scorn for his
+plans.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;But Henry was as firmly convinced of the righteousness of his
+cause as Katharine was of hers.&amp;nbsp; He had read the Bible; he had
+debated the issue with prominent theologians; he even sponsored
+hearings of the case at European universities.&amp;nbsp; Both king and pope
+knew there was a valid basis for the annulment, and a pressing national
+need for it.&amp;nbsp; Clement could have granted it without troubling his
+conscience.&amp;nbsp; And with the spread of Lutheranism in the German
+states, Clement had no wish to antagonize the loyal and devoted king of
+England.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;But the English king could not be helped at the Holy Roman Emperor's 
+    expense.&amp;nbsp; This was soon made abundantly clear.&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;The pope prevaricated; he could do little else.&amp;nbsp; And for
+several years, the 'King's Great Matter' consumed England and
+fascinated Europe.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Henry inevitably tired of the endless parade of papal legates
+and repetitious hearings.&amp;nbsp; He was growing older and Anne was
+growing impatient.&amp;nbsp; Her youth was being wasted to no purpose, she
+told the king.&amp;nbsp; Meanwhile, Katharine encouraged Mary to be
+obstinate in protecting her rights as princess.&amp;nbsp; Mary lost her
+father's favor and was forbidden to visit her mother.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Finally, in 1533, Henry did the only thing he could to end the
+marriage - he rejected the authority of the Holy See and declared
+himself Supreme Head of a new Church of England.&amp;nbsp; His archbishop
+of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, issued the long-awaited decree of
+nullity.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was no longer queen of England but 'Princess
+dowager of Wales'.&amp;nbsp; Princess Mary was now illegitimate, and rumors
+spread that Anne Boleyn had finally succumbed to the king and was
+pregnant.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt; Katharine was exiled from court and to a
+succession of damp and unpleasant castles.&amp;nbsp; She had but a handful
+of servants for few would call her queen and she refused to be called
+princess.&amp;nbsp; It was a mark of her early education that she was meek,
+deeply pious and believed in obedience to her husband - but she was
+also a proud and intelligent princess of Spain.&amp;nbsp; She would never
+allow her dignity, or that of her daughter, to be destroyed.&amp;nbsp; In
+the end, this stubborn spirit did both her and Mary far more harm than
+good.&amp;nbsp; Katharine was undoubtedly truthful when she declared her
+marriage to Arthur unconsummated but the truth was cold comfort in the
+last years of her life.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;Her final years were lonely and sad; the Spanish ambassador kept
+her informed of outside events and smuggled letters to her daughter,
+but she was often ill and at prayer.&amp;nbsp; The wrongs she had suffered
+from Henry filled her with sadness rather than anger.&amp;nbsp; Perhaps she
+was inspired by her motto, Humble and Loyal, for that is how she
+remained.&lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;She died at Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536, three weeks
+after her fiftieth birthday.&amp;nbsp; There were rumors that she had been
+poisoned.&amp;nbsp; But if Henry had been so inclined, he would have
+attempted it years before and spared himself much trouble.&amp;nbsp; A
+lingering illness and the psychological effects of her exile were the
+obvious causes.&amp;nbsp; She was buried at Peterborough Abbey with all the
+ceremony befitting the widow of the prince of Wales.&amp;nbsp; Henry did
+not attend the funeral; we do not know if he read Katharine's &lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fletters.html&quot;&gt;last letter&lt;/a&gt; to
+him.&amp;nbsp; It was a love letter and she signed it 'Katherine the
+Queen'.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;
+    &lt;p&gt;The tragedy of their annulment was that both he and Katharine
+were equally convinced of their causes.&amp;nbsp; For the modern reader,
+both arguments are persuasive.&amp;nbsp; It is an ironic footnote to her
+life story that Katharine, such a devoted and pious Catholic,
+unintentionally brought the Reformation to England.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br&gt;
+&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;/blockquote&gt;
+  &lt;center&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fmonarchs%2fwives.html&quot;&gt;to the Six
+Wives main page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;br&gt;
+  &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor.html&quot;&gt;to
+Tudor England&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;p&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;_httpextlink_&amp;amp;rl=0&amp;amp;href=http:%2f%2fenglishhistory.net%2ftudor%2fprimary.html&quot;&gt; to Primary Sources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
+  &lt;/center&gt;
+&lt;/blockquote&gt;
+&lt;!-- text below generated by server. PLEASE REMOVE --&gt;&lt;!-- Counter/Statistics data collection code --&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;JavaScript&quot; src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/geov2.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;script language=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;geovisit();&lt;/script&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;_httpdocimg_/visit.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
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+</Content>
+</Section>
+</Archive>
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