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r24011 r24803 7 7 <BODY> 8 8 9 <B><FONT SIZE=2>< P></P>9 <B><FONT SIZE=2></B><P></P> 10 10 <!-- 11 11 <Section> … … 14 14 </Description> 15 15 --> 16 </B> 16 17 17 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P> 18 18 … … 49 49 </Description> 50 50 --> 51 </B> 51 52 52 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P> 53 53 … … 64 64 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P> 65 65 66 <B> 66 <B></B> 67 67 <!-- 68 68 </Section> … … 72 72 </Description> 73 73 --> 74 </B> 74 75 75 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P> 76 76 … … 83 83 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P> 84 84 85 <B> 85 <B></B> 86 86 <!-- 87 87 </Section> … … 91 91 </Description> 92 92 --> 93 </B> 94 <B>< P></P>93 94 <B></B><P></P> 95 95 <!-- 96 96 <Section> … … 99 99 </Description> 100 100 --> 101 </B> 101 102 102 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P> 103 103 … … 108 108 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P> 109 109 110 <B>< P></P>110 <B></B><P></P> 111 111 <!-- 112 112 </Section> … … 116 116 </Description> 117 117 --> 118 </B> 118 119 119 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P> 120 120 … … 135 135 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P> 136 136 137 <B>< P></P>137 <B></B><P></P> 138 138 <!-- 139 139 </Section> … … 143 143 </Description> 144 144 --> 145 </B> 145 146 146 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P> 147 147 … … 152 152 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P> 153 153 154 <B>< P></P>154 <B></B><P></P> 155 155 <!-- 156 156 </Section> … … 160 160 </Description> 161 161 --> 162 </B> 162 163 163 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P> 164 164 … … 177 177 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P> 178 178 179 <B>< P></P>179 <B></B><P></P> 180 180 <!-- 181 181 </Section> … … 185 185 </Description> 186 186 --> 187 </B> 187 188 188 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P> 189 189 … … 210 210 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P> 211 211 212 <B>< P></P>212 <B></B><P></P> 213 213 <!-- 214 214 </Section> … … 218 218 </Description> 219 219 --> 220 </B> 220 221 221 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P> 222 222 … … 234 234 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase internal efficiency</P> 235 235 236 <B> 236 <B></B> 237 237 <!-- 238 238 </Section> … … 243 243 </Description> 244 244 --> 245 </B> 245 246 246 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P> 247 247 248 <B> 248 <B></B> 249 249 <!-- 250 250 </Section> … … 254 254 </Description> 255 255 --> 256 </B> 257 <B>< P></P>256 257 <B></B><P></P> 258 258 <!-- 259 259 <Section> … … 262 262 </Description> 263 263 --> 264 </B> 264 265 265 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P> 266 266 267 <B>< P></P>267 <B></B><P></P> 268 268 <!-- 269 269 </Section> … … 273 273 </Description> 274 274 --> 275 </B> 275 276 276 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P> 277 277 … … 288 288 Expected years of schooling </P> 289 289 290 <B>< P></P>290 <B></B><P></P> 291 291 <!-- 292 292 </Section> … … 296 296 </Description> 297 297 --> 298 </B> 298 299 299 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P> 300 300 … … 318 318 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P> 319 319 320 <B>< P></P>320 <B></B><P></P> 321 321 <!-- 322 322 </Section> … … 326 326 </Description> 327 327 --> 328 </B> 328 329 329 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P> 330 330 … … 519 519 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P> 520 520 521 <B> 521 <B></B> 522 522 <!-- 523 523 </Section> … … 528 528 </Description> 529 529 --> 530 </B> 531 <B>< P></P>530 531 <B></B><P></P> 532 532 <!-- 533 533 <Section> … … 536 536 </Description> 537 537 --> 538 </B> 538 539 539 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P> 540 540 541 541 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality. higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P> 542 542 543 <B>< P></P>543 <B></B><P></P> 544 544 <!-- 545 545 </Section> … … 549 549 </Description> 550 550 --> 551 </B> 551 552 552 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P> 553 553 … … 571 571 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P> 572 572 573 <B>< P></P>573 <B></B><P></P> 574 574 <!-- 575 575 </Section> … … 579 579 </Description> 580 580 --> 581 </B> 581 582 582 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P> 583 583 … … 662 662 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P> 663 663 664 <B>< P></P>664 <B></B><P></P> 665 665 <!-- 666 666 </Section> … … 670 670 </Description> 671 671 --> 672 </B> 672 673 673 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services. transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P> 674 674 … … 681 681 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P> 682 682 683 <B>< P></P>683 <B></B><P></P> 684 684 <!-- 685 685 </Section> … … 689 689 </Description> 690 690 --> 691 </B> 691 692 692 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a womans responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P> 693 693 … … 918 918 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P> 919 919 920 <B>< P></P>920 <B></B><P></P> 921 921 <!-- 922 922 </Section> … … 926 926 </Description> 927 927 --> 928 </B> 928 929 929 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P> 930 930 … … 947 947 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P> 948 948 949 <B>< P></P>949 <B></B><P></P> 950 950 <!-- 951 951 </Section> … … 955 955 </Description> 956 956 --> 957 </B> 957 958 958 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P> 959 959 … … 1025 1025 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P> 1026 1026 1027 <B>< P></P>1027 <B></B><P></P> 1028 1028 <!-- 1029 1029 </Section> … … 1033 1033 </Description> 1034 1034 --> 1035 </B> 1035 1036 1036 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P> 1037 1037 … … 1061 1061 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P> 1062 1062 1063 <B>< P></P>1063 <B></B><P></P> 1064 1064 <!-- 1065 1065 </Section> … … 1069 1069 </Description> 1070 1070 --> 1071 </B> 1071 1072 1072 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P> 1073 1073 … … 1205 1205 1206 1206 <FONT SIZE=2> 1207 <B>< P></P>1207 <B></B><P></P> 1208 1208 <!-- 1209 1209 </Section> … … 1213 1213 </Description> 1214 1214 --> 1215 </B> 1215 1216 1216 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P> 1217 1217 1218 1218 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P> 1219 1219 1220 <B> 1220 <B></B> 1221 1221 <!-- 1222 1222 </Section> … … 1227 1227 </Description> 1228 1228 --> 1229 </B> 1230 <B>< P></P>1229 1230 <B></B><P></P> 1231 1231 <!-- 1232 1232 <Section> … … 1235 1235 </Description> 1236 1236 --> 1237 </B> 1237 1238 1238 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P> 1239 1239 1240 <B>< P></P>1240 <B></B><P></P> 1241 1241 <!-- 1242 1242 </Section> … … 1246 1246 </Description> 1247 1247 --> 1248 </B> 1248 1249 1249 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P> 1250 1250 … … 1253 1253 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P> 1254 1254 1255 <B>< P></P>1255 <B></B><P></P> 1256 1256 <!-- 1257 1257 </Section> … … 1261 1261 </Description> 1262 1262 --> 1263 </B> 1263 1264 1264 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P> 1265 1265 1266 1266 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P> 1267 1267 1268 <B>< P></P>1268 <B></B><P></P> 1269 1269 <!-- 1270 1270 </Section> … … 1274 1274 </Description> 1275 1275 --> 1276 </B> 1276 1277 1277 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P> 1278 1278 … … 1310 1310 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P> 1311 1311 1312 <B>< P></P>1312 <B></B><P></P> 1313 1313 <!-- 1314 1314 </Section> … … 1318 1318 </Description> 1319 1319 --> 1320 </B> 1320 1321 1321 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P> 1322 1322 1323 <B>< P></P>1323 <B></B><P></P> 1324 1324 <!-- 1325 1325 </Section> … … 1329 1329 </Description> 1330 1330 --> 1331 </B> 1331 1332 1332 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P> 1333 1333 </FONT> … … 1347 1347 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P> 1348 1348 1349 <B>< P></P>1349 <B></B><P></P> 1350 1350 <!-- 1351 1351 </Section> … … 1355 1355 </Description> 1356 1356 --> 1357 </B> 1357 1358 1358 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P> 1359 1359 … … 1366 1366 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P> 1367 1367 1368 <B>< P></P>1368 <B></B><P></P> 1369 1369 <!-- 1370 1370 </Section> … … 1374 1374 </Description> 1375 1375 --> 1376 </B> 1376 1377 1377 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P> 1378 1378 1379 1379 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P> 1380 1380 1381 <B>< P></P>1381 <B></B><P></P> 1382 1382 <!-- 1383 1383 </Section> … … 1387 1387 </Description> 1388 1388 --> 1389 </B> 1389 1390 1390 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P> 1391 1391 … … 1438 1438 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P> 1439 1439 1440 <B>< P></P>1440 <B></B><P></P> 1441 1441 <!-- 1442 1442 </Section> … … 1446 1446 </Description> 1447 1447 --> 1448 </B> 1448 1449 1449 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women and children.</P> 1450 1450 … … 1473 1473 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P> 1474 1474 1475 <B>< P></P>1475 <B></B><P></P> 1476 1476 <!-- 1477 1477 </Section> … … 1481 1481 </Description> 1482 1482 --> 1483 </B> 1483 1484 1484 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P> 1485 1485 … … 1525 1525 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P> 1526 1526 1527 <B>< P></P>1527 <B></B><P></P> 1528 1528 <!-- 1529 1529 </Section> … … 1533 1533 </Description> 1534 1534 --> 1535 </B> 1535 1536 1536 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P> 1537 1537 … … 1540 1540 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P> 1541 1541 1542 <B>< P></P>1542 <B></B><P></P> 1543 1543 <!-- 1544 1544 </Section> … … 1548 1548 </Description> 1549 1549 --> 1550 </B> 1550 1551 1551 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P> 1552 1552 … … 1561 1561 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P> 1562 1562 1563 <B>< P></P>1563 <B></B><P></P> 1564 1564 <!-- 1565 1565 </Section> … … 1569 1569 </Description> 1570 1570 --> 1571 </B> 1571 1572 1572 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P> 1573 1573 … … 1584 1584 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P> 1585 1585 1586 <B>< P></P>1586 <B></B><P></P> 1587 1587 <!-- 1588 1588 </Section> … … 1592 1592 </Description> 1593 1593 --> 1594 </B> 1594 1595 1595 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P> 1596 1596 … … 1603 1603 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P> 1604 1604 1605 <B>< P></P>1605 <B></B><P></P> 1606 1606 <!-- 1607 1607 </Section> … … 1611 1611 </Description> 1612 1612 --> 1613 </B> 1613 1614 1614 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P> 1615 1615 … … 1618 1618 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P> 1619 1619 1620 <B> 1620 <B></B> 1621 1621 <!-- 1622 1622 </Section> … … 1627 1627 </Description> 1628 1628 --> 1629 </B> 1629 1630 1630 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P> 1631 1631 … … 1644 1644 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P> 1645 1645 1646 <B> 1646 <B></B> 1647 1647 <!-- 1648 1648 </Section> … … 1652 1652 </Description> 1653 1653 --> 1654 </B> 1654 1655 1655 <P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwal. Bina. 1994. "Gender and Command Over Property: A Critical Gap in Economic Analysis and Policy in South Asia." World/Development 22(10) 22(10): 145578.</P> 1656 1656
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